Jump to content

Solar power in the United States

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Solar America Initiative)

Solar panels on a rooftop in New York City
Community solar farm in the town of Wheatland, Wisconsin[1]

Solar power includes solar farms as well as local distributed generation, mostly on rooftops and increasingly from community solar arrays. In 2023, utility-scale solar power generated 164.5 terawatt-hours (TWh), or 3.9% of electricity in the United States. Total solar generation that year, including estimated small-scale photovoltaic generation, was 238 TWh.[2]

As of the end of 2023, the United States had 179 gigawatts (GW) of installed photovoltaic (utility and small scale) and concentrated solar power capacity combined.[3] This capacity is exceeded only by China and the European Union.[4] In 2021, 36% of all new electricity generation capacity in the country came from solar, surpassed only by wind with 41%.[5] By 2015, solar employment had overtaken oil and gas as well as coal employment in the United States.[6] As of 2023, more than 280,000 Americans were employed in the solar industry.[3]

The United States conducted much early research in photovoltaics and concentrated solar power. It is among the top countries in the world in electricity generated by the sun and several of the world's largest utility-scale installations are located in the desert Southwest. The oldest solar power plant in the world is the 354-megawatt (MW) Solar Energy Generating Systems thermal power plant in California.[7] The Ivanpah Solar Electric Generating System is a solar thermal power project in the Mojave Desert, 40 miles (64 km) southwest of Las Vegas, with a gross capacity of 392 MW.[8] The 280 MW Solana Generating Station is a solar power plant near Gila Bend, Arizona, about 70 miles (110 km) southwest of Phoenix, completed in 2013. When commissioned it was the largest parabolic trough plant in the world and the first U.S. solar plant with molten salt thermal energy storage.[9]

There are plans to build many other large solar plants in the United States. Many states have set individual renewable energy goals with solar power being included in various proportions. Hawaii plans 100% renewable-sourced electricity by 2045.[10] Governor Jerry Brown has signed legislation requiring California's utilities to obtain 100 percent of their electricity from zero-carbon sources by the end of 2045 (including 60% renewable energy sources by 2030).[11][12]

Solar potential

[edit]
An insolation map of the United States with installed PV capacity, 2019

A 2012 report from the National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) described technically available renewable energy resources for each state and estimated that urban utility-scale photovoltaics could supply 2,232 TWh/year, rural utility-scale PV 280,613 TWh/year, rooftop PV 818 TWh/year, and CSP 116,146 TWh/year, for a total of almost 400,000 TWh/year, 100 times the consumption of 3,856 TWh in 2011.[13][14] For comparison, onshore wind potential is estimated at 32,784 TWh/year, and offshore wind at 16,976 TWh/year, while the total available from all renewable resources is estimated at 481,963 TWh/year.[15]

Renewable energy is the least expensive source of power generation as of 2023,[16] even considering the upfront cost of installation. Therefore, the economics of the renewable energy transition are highly favorable unlike in prior decades. Solar is second only to onshore wind turbines in levelized cost of electricity competitiveness.[17] Replacing historical sources of fossil energy (coal, oil, and natural gas) with solar and wind results in lower operating costs for utility providers and lower energy costs for consumers.[18] This does not include the significant additional health and mortality burden to society from fossil fuel use that makes it even more expensive than it appears.[19]

History

[edit]
New installation of wind and solar capacity surged in 2020, but was then affected by sourcing problems for solar panels, supply chain constraints, interconnection issues, and policy uncertainty.[20][21]
Utility-scale solar (yellow) and small-scale solar (orange) have shown the largest percentage growth since 2010 in renewable-source electricity generation.[22]

The Carter administration provided major subsidies for research into photovoltaic technology and sought to increase commercialization in the industry.[23]: 143 

In the early 1980s, the US accounted for more than 85% of the solar market.[23]: 143 

During the Reagan administration, oil prices decreased and the US removed most of its policies that supported its solar industry.[23]: 143  Government subsidies were higher in Germany and Japan, which prompted the industrial supply chain to begin moving from the US to those countries.[23]: 143 

Solar energy deployment increased at a record pace in the United States and throughout the world in 2008, according to industry reports. The Solar Energy Industries Association's "2008 U.S. Solar Industry Year in Review" found that U.S. solar energy capacity increased by 17% in 2007, reaching the total equivalent of 8,775 megawatts (MW). The SEIA report tallies all types of solar energy, and in 2007 the United States installed 342 MW of solar photovoltaic (PV) electric power, 139 thermal megawatts (MWth) of solar water heating, 762 MWth of pool heating, and 21 MWth of solar space heating and cooling.[24]

Solar power generation in the United States

Another report in 2008 by research and publishing firm Clean Edge and the nonprofit Co-op America found that solar power's contribution could grow to 10% of the nation's power needs by 2025, with nearly 2% of the nation's electricity coming from concentrating solar power systems, while solar photovoltaic systems would provide more than 8% of the nation's electricity. Those figures correlate to nearly 50,000 megawatts of solar photovoltaic systems and more than 6,600 megawatts of concentrating solar power.[25]

The report noted that the cost per kilowatt-hour of solar photovoltaic systems had been dropping, while electricity generated from fossil fuels was becoming more expensive. As a result, the report projects that solar power was expected to reach cost parity with conventional power sources in many U.S. markets by 2015. To reach the 10% goal, solar photovoltaic companies would need to make solar power a "plug-and-play technology", or simplify the deployment of solar systems.[25] The report also underlines the importance of future "smart grid" technologies.[25]

Solar Energy Industries Association and GTM Research found that the amount of new solar electric capacity increased in 2012 by 76 percent from 2011, raising the United States’ market share of the world's installations above 10 percent, up from roughly 5 to 7 percent in the past seven years.[26] According to the U.S. Energy Information Administration, as of September 2014 utility-scale solar had sent 12,303 gigawatt-hours of electricity to the U.S. grid. This was an increase of over 100% versus the same period in 2013 (6,048 GWh).[27] The number of homes with solar systems installed had been increasing rapidly, from 30,000 in 2006 to 1.3 million in 2016.[28] A 2014 study by the U.S. Department of Energy predicted the figure could reach 3.8 million homes by 2020.[29]

In 2015 an article reported that utilities in the United States have led a largely unsuccessful campaign to slow the growth of solar.[30][clarification needed]

Solar photovoltaic power

[edit]
Locations of ground-mount solar photovoltaic facilities having a power capacity of 1 megawatt or more (December 2021)[31]

Solar PV installed capacity

[edit]
Solar PV capacity in the United States by year[3]
Year Total (MWp) YOY growth Installed capacity (MWp)
2010 2,094 849
2011 4,039 93% 1,941
2012 7,416 84% 3,374
2013 12,220 64% 4,766
2014 18,464 51% 6,245
2015 25,944 41% 7,509
2016 41,176 58% 15,104
2017 52,284 27% 11,080
2018 63,015 21% 10,733
2019 76,552 21% 13,512
2020 96,458 26% 19,849
2021 120,503 24% 23,565
2022 140,005 16% 19,502
2023 179,000 28% 38,995
Average monthly capacity factors for electricity generation by utility-scale solar plants, 2011–2014. Data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration

In the United States, 14,626 MW of PV was installed in 2016, a 95% increase over 2015 (7,493 MW). During 2016, 22 states added at least 100 MW of capacity.[40] Just 4,751 MW of PV installations were completed in 2013. The U.S. had approximately 440 MW of off-grid photovoltaics as of the end of 2010. Through the end of 2005, a majority of photovoltaics in the United States was off-grid.[41]: p.6 [42]

Solar is expected to account for 51 GW (or 48%) of the new installed generating capacity in the United States from 2022 to 2023.[43]

Solar PV generation

[edit]

The amount of electricity a unit is capable of producing over an extended period of time is determined by multiplying the capacity by the capacity factor. The capacity factor for solar photovoltaic units is largely a function of climate and latitude and so varies significantly from state to state. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has calculated that the highest statewide average solar voltaic capacity factors are in Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada (each 26.3 percent), and the lowest is Alaska (10.5 percent). The lowest statewide average capacity factor in the contiguous 48 states is in West Virginia (17.2 percent).[48]

Solar power by type

[edit]
Solar generation (utility-scale and estimated small-scale PV + thermal) in the United States in 2021[44]
Summer capacity
(GW)[page needed] 		Electricity generation
(GWh)[page needed] 		Yearly growth of
produced energy 		Capacity factor
PV (utility-scale) 59,535 111,755 29.85% 24.6%
PV (small-scale) 32,972 49,025 18.07% 17%
Thermal 1,631 2,924 -6.67% 20.5%

The table above gives an indication of the spread of solar power between the different types at the end of 2021. Capacity figures may seem smaller than those quoted by other sources and it is likely that the capacities are measured in MW AC rather than MW DC, the former of which gives a lower reading due to conversion losses during the process by which power is transformed by inverters from direct current to alternating current.

Large-scale PV facilities

[edit]
Main article: List of photovoltaic power stations
A solar array at Nellis Air Force Base. These panels track the sun in one axis.

Large-scale photovoltaic power plants in the United States often consist of two or more units which correspond to construction stages and/or technology-improvement phases of a particular development project. Typically these units are co-located in the vicinity of the same high-capacity transmission substation, and may also feed that substation with other large PV plants which are adjacently sited but separately developed.

An objector at non-profit “Basin and Range Watch” to the Riverside East Solar Energy Zone in the California desert said in 2023 that ‘solar plants create myriad environmental problems, including habitat destruction and “lethal death traps” for birds, which dive at the panels, mistaking them for water ... one project bulldozed 600 acres of designated critical habitat for the endangered desert tortoise, while populations of Mojave fringe-toed lizards and bighorn sheep have also been afflicted.’ The same article included many other examples of how the same solar project had hurt the desert flora and fauna, according to environmentalists.[49]

Largest solar plants in the US
Name State Location Capacity

(MWdc unless stated)

Owner Year Notes
Copper Mountain Solar Facility Nevada 802 (ac) Sempra Generation Solar Five phases
Gemini Solar Project Nevada 966 2024 690 MWAC, with 380 MW of batteries[50][51][52]
Edwards Sanborn Solar and Energy Storage Project California 864 2023 3,320 MWh battery storage[53][54]
Lumina I and II Solar Project Texas 828 2024 640 MWac[55]
Mount Signal Solar California 794 2020 Phase 1 of 206 MWAC in May 2014. Phase 3 of 254 MWAC in July 2018. Phase 2 of 154 MWAC completed in January 2020. Total 614 MWAC[56][57][58][59]
Solar star I & II California 34°48′58.9″N 118°24′08.2″W / 34.816361°N 118.402278°W / 34.816361; -118.402278 (Solar star I)

34°50′56.0″N 118°21′10.6″W / 34.848889°N 118.352944°W / 34.848889; -118.352944 (Solar star II)

747 2015 579 MWAC, was world's largest when completed.[60][61][62]
Prospero Solar I and II Texas 710 2021 550 MWAC[63]
Westlands Solar Park California 672 (ac) 2023 Solar park, up to 2000 MWAC when completed[64]
Frye Solar Power Plant Texas 637 2024 500 MWac[65]
Roseland Solar Texas 640 2023 500 MWac[66]
Atkina Solar Power Plant Texas 631 2024 500 MWac[67]
Spotsylvania Solar Energy Project Virginia 617 2021 [68]
Taygete Solar Texas 602 2023 459 MWac, built in two phases - Taygete I of 255 MWac and Taygete II of 204 MWac
Desert Sunlight Solar Farm California 33°49′33″N 115°24′08″W / 33.82583°N 115.40222°W / 33.82583; -115.40222 (Desert Sunlight Solar Farm) 550 (ac) 2015 Phase I of 300 MWAC completed 2013. Phase II to final capacity completed January 2015.[69][70][71][72]
Topaz California 35°23′00″N 120°04′00″W / 35.38333°N 120.06667°W / 35.38333; -120.06667 (Topaz) 585.9 2014 550 MWac[73][74][75][76]
Mesquite Solar project Arizona 33°20′N 112°55′W / 33.333°N 112.917°W / 33.333; -112.917 (Mesquite) 513 (ac) 2016 Up to 700 MWAC when complete. Fifth phase completed in January 2024[77]
Oberon Solar Project California 500 2023 250 MW battery storage[78]
Roadrunner Solar Project Texas 497 2019 [79]
Daggett Solar California 482 2023 280 MW of energy storage[80]
McCoy/Blythe Mesa Solar Power Project California 33°43′00″N 114°45′00″W / 33.71667°N 114.75000°W / 33.71667; -114.75000 (McCoy) 485[81] NextEra Energy [82]
Mammoth Solar Indiana 480 2024 First of three phases to total 1,600 MW.[83][84]
Permian Energy Center Texas 460 (ac) 2019 [85]
Red-Tailed Hawk Texas 458 2024 [86]
Texas Solar Nova Texas 452 2024 [87]

Distributed generation

[edit]

Within the cumulative PV capacity in the United States, there has been growth in the distributed generation segment, which are all grid-connected PV installations in the residential and non-residential markets. Non-residential market includes installations on commercial, government, school and non-profit organization properties.

Between 2000 and 2013 there was 2,261 MW of residential solar and 4,051 MW non-residential solar installed.[88] After years of cost reduction, the average US price per watt was between $2.51 to $3.31 in 2020 for 10 kW systems,[89] and $1.05/W for utility systems.[90]

Another type of distributed generation implemented by a utility company was the world's first grid-connected pole-attached solar panels of Public Service Enterprise Group in New Jersey. More than 174,000 PV panels are mounted on utility poles along streets of New Jersey with aggregated capacity of 40 MW.[91][92]

As of November 2017, there were nearly 5,500 schools in the United States that had solar installations with the total capacity of approximately 910 MW. The top five states were Nevada, California, Hawaii, Arizona, and New Jersey with 23.10%, 14.50%, 14.50%, 14.10% and 13.00% of the schools in the respective states that had installations.[93] As of April 2018, there were total capacity of 2,562 MW of commercial solar installations from more than 4,000 companies in 7,400 locations. Top five corporations were Target, Walmart, Prologis, Apple, and Kohl's.[94]

In the United States 18% solar adopters in 2018 earned below the national median household income,[95] while 30% were below the median for owner-occupied households.[96] However, as prices have rapidly dropped over the last 10 years, and business models have evolved to avoid upfront costs or high credit scores, rooftop solar is trending towards reaching more and more families of all incomes.

For households that cannot access solar on their own roofs, community solar is an option. Community solar allows customers to sign up for access to a shared solar array and receive bill credits on their monthly utility bill.[97] Community solar is available in about one third of the states, including MN, NJ, CA, NY, MA and CO.[98]

  • Photovoltaic panels on the roof of a house in Boston
    Photovoltaic panels on the roof of a house in Boston
  • Photovoltaic panels on a town hall
    Photovoltaic panels on a town hall
  • Photovoltaic panels on a school building
    Photovoltaic panels on a school building
  • Pole-attached solar panels in New Jersey
    Pole-attached solar panels in New Jersey

Solar cell manufacturing

[edit]
SolarWorld plant in Hillsboro, Oregon
US solar photovoltaic shipments, 2010–2021

The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 created a large investment into clean energy with the purpose of developing an increase of green jobs.[99] Thin-film photovoltaics (CdTe and CIGS) were chosen because they can be less expensive to manufacture than crystalline silicon-based solar cells.[99]

In late September 2008, Sanyo Electric Company, Ltd. announced its decision to build a manufacturing plant for solar ingots and wafers (the building blocks for silicon solar cells) in Salem, Oregon. The plant was scheduled to begin operating in October 2009 and scheduled to reach its full production capacity of 70 megawatts (MW) of solar wafers per year by April 2010. In April 2013 the plant closed its wafer slicing operation. In February 2016 the parent company, Panasonic, announced it would lay off 37% of the remaining workforce.[100]

In early October 2008, First Solar, Inc. broke ground on an expansion of its Perrysburg, Ohio, planned to add enough capacity to produce another 57 MW per year of solar modules at the facility, bringing its total capacity to roughly 192 MW per year. In November 2016 the company reduced the workforce in the Perrysburg plant by 20% as part of a worldwide restructuring.[101] In mid-October 2008, SolarWorld AG opened a manufacturing plant in Hillsboro, Oregon. In 2016 the Hillsboro plant was the largest photovoltaic technology manufacturing plant in the Western Hemisphere. It maintains 500 megawatts of cell-manufacturing capacity and 350 MW of module-assembly capacity annually.[102]

Rapidly decreasing photovoltaic prices put General Electric's planned factory in Colorado on hold,[103] and led to the bankruptcy of Konarka Technologies, which had expected to produce 1,000 MW of solar modules per year by 2011, and Solyndra, which defaulted on a $535 million loan guarantee, prompting Republican members of the Energy and Commerce committee to vote to cease accepting new applications to the loan program.

In September 2014, SolarCity broke ground on a solar panel manufacturing plant in Buffalo, New York. Upon its completion in 2016, it was projected to be the largest solar manufacturing facility in the Western hemisphere, with an annual manufacturing capacity of 1 gigawatt.[104] However, as of 2019 the facility has not met the projections on production or job creation.[105]

Disposal

[edit]

As cadmium, indium, selenium, nanoparticles, and other harmful elements are used in PV solar technology the disposal is similar to the outcomes of electronic waste.[106][107] This can present possible risks for the workers disposing the product.[106][107]

A 2021 study by Harvard Business Review indicates that, unless reused, by 2035 the discarded panels would outweigh new units by a factor of 2.56. They forecast the cost of recycling a single PV panel by then would reach $20–30, which would increase the LCOE of PV by a factor 4. Analyzing the US market, where no EU-like legislation exists as of 2021, HBR noted that without mandatory recycling legislation and with the cost of sending it to a landfill being just $1–2 there was a significant financial incentive to discard the decommissioned panels. The study assumed that consumers would replace panels halfway through a 30-year lifetime to make a profit.[108] However prices of new panels increased in the year after the study.[109] A 2022 study found that modules were lasting longer than previously estimated, and said that might result in less PV waste than had been thought.[110] In 2023 the EPA considered regulations.[111]

Concentrated solar power (CSP)

[edit]
Nevada Solar One, with the Las Vegas Valley beyond the mountains behind it

History

[edit]

One of the first applications of concentrated solar was the 6 horsepower (4.5 kW) solar powered motor made by H.E. Willsie and John Boyle in 1904.[112]

An early solar pioneer of the 19th and 20th century, Frank Shuman, built a demonstration plant that used solar power to pump water using an array of mirrors in a trough to generate steam. Located in Philadelphia, the solar water pump station was capable of pumping 3,000 US gallons (11,000 L) an hour at that latitude, corresponding to 25 horsepower (19 kW).[113] After seven weeks of testing the plant was disassembled and shipped to Egypt for testing as an irrigation plant.[114]

In 1973, Karl Böer of the University of Delaware built an experimental house called the Solar One, the first house to convert sunlight into energy.[115]

Solar One, the first pilot solar power tower design was completed in 1981. The parabolic trough Solar Energy Generating Systems opened its first unit in 1984, the first major solar thermal plant in the world.

Selected list of plants

[edit]
Main article: List of solar thermal power stations
Looking north towards the Ivanpah Solar Power Facility's eastern boiler tower from Interstate 15 in California
Mojave Solar Project near Harper Lake in California with parabolic troughs in their stow position

The United States pioneered solar tower and trough technologies. A number of different solar thermal technologies are in use in the U.S.:

The rapidly falling price of PV solar had led to several projects being abandoned or converted to PV technology.[122] Blythe Solar Power Project converted to a PV project, Rice Solar Energy Project was put on indefinite hold, Palen Solar Project tried to convert to PV but its permits were denied,[needs update] Hidden Hills Solar Project was suspended in 2013 and later canceled.[123][124] No major CSP plants remain under construction in the United States.

Name State Location Capacity

(MW)

Annual

Generation

(GWh)

Owner Type Notes
Solana  Arizona 32°55′N 112°58′W / 32.917°N 112.967°W / 32.917; -112.967 (Solana) 280 792 (2019) Arizona Solar Solar Thermal

(Parabolic Trough)

Largest solar thermal plant in the US and largest with molten salt energy storage[125]

CSP capacity and generation

[edit]

In 2013, Abengoa's 280 MWac of CSP project was brought online in the 3rd quarter. Genesis Solar's first phase of 125 MWac was brought online in the 4th quarter of 2013, bringing the total to 410 MWac for the year and 918 MWac total. Ivanpah was completed during the first quarter of 2014. The world's largest CSP power plant is 392 MWac, and brings the total to 1,310 MWac. The 110 MWac Crescent Dunes project started commissioning during February. The 250 MWac Mojave solar, second phase 125 MWac Genesis Solar, and Tooele Army Depot Solar's 1.5 MWac power plant are all expected to come online in 2014.[126] A total of around 9.5 GW of solar PV and CSP capacity is expected to come online in 2016, more than any other source.[127]

  • U.S. total numbers from 2016 onwards include utility-scale capacity only.
Solar thermal electricity generation in the United States[44][45][46][47][135]
Year Summer capacity
(GW) 		Electricity generation
(GWh) 		Capacity factor Yearly growth of
generating capacity 		Yearly growth of
produced energy 		Portion of
renewable electricity 		Portion of
total electricity
2004 569 0.16% 0.014%
2005 535 -6% 0.15% 0.013%
2006 493 -7.9% 0.13% 0.012%
2007 464.8 596 20.9% 0.17% 0.014%
2008 464.8 788 0% 32.2% 0.21% 0.019%
2009 473.0 735 1.7% -6.7% 0.18% 0.019%
2010 473.0 789 0% 7.3% 0.18% 0.019%
2011 471.5 806 -0.2% 2.2% 0.16% 0.02%
2012 476.0 876 23.6% 0.8% 8.7% 0.18% 0.022%
2013 1,286.4 915 17.4% 170.2% 4.5% 0.18% 0.023%
2014 1,666.7 2,441 18.3% 29.6% 166.8% 0.45% 0.06%
2015 1,757.9 3,227 21.7% 5.5% 32.2% 0.59% 0.079%
2016 1,757.9 3,384 22.1% 3.6% 4.9% 0.56% 0.083%
2017 1,757.9 3,269 21.8% 0% -3.4% 0.48% 0.081%
2018 1,757.9 3,592 23.6% 0% 9.9% 0.51% 0.086%
2019 1,758.1 3,218 21.2% 0% -10.4% 0.44% 0.078%
2020 1,747.9 3,133 20.6% -0.6% -2.6% 0.4% 0.078%
2021 1,747.9 2,924 20.5% 0% -6.7% 0.35% 0.071%

Government support

[edit]

A complete list of incentives is maintained at the Database of State Incentives for Renewable Energy (DSIRE).[136] Most solar power systems are grid connected and use net metering laws to receive compensation for electricity that is not consumed on site and exported to the grid. New Jersey leads the nation with the least restrictive net metering law, and California leads in total number of homes which have solar panels installed. Many were installed because of the million solar roof initiative.[137] In some states, such as Florida, solar power is subject to legal restrictions that discourage its use.[138]

Federal

[edit]

The federal tax credit for solar was extended for eight years as part of the financial bail out bill, H.R. 1424, until the end of 2016. It was estimated this would create 440,000 jobs, 28 gigawatts of solar power, and lead to a $300 billion market for solar panels. This estimate did not take into account the removal of the $2,000 cap on residential tax credits at the end of 2008.[139][needs update] A 30% tax credit is available for residential and commercial installations.[140][141] For 2009 through 2011 this was a 30% grant, not a tax credit, known as the 1603 grant program.[142]

The federal Residential Energy Efficient Property Credit (income tax credit on IRS Form 5695) for residential PV and solar thermal was extended in December 2015 to remain at 30% of system cost (parts and installation) for systems put into service by the end of 2019, then 26% until the end of 2020, and 22% until the end of 2021. It applies to a taxpayer's principal and/or second residences, but not to a property that is rented out. There is no maximum cap on the credit, and the credit can be applied toward the Alternative Minimum Tax, and any excess credit (greater than that year's tax liability) could be rolled into the following year.[143][144] The solar industry and utilities clashed extensively on renewal, but the solar industry prevailed.[145][unreliable source?] The renewal wasexpected to add $38 billion of investment for 20 GigaWatts of solar.[146]

Section 1603 grants

[edit]

President Obama's stimulus bill in 2009 created a program known as Section 1603 grants. The program was designed to give federal grants to solar companies for 30 percent of investments into solar energy. Since 2009, the federal government has given solar companies $25 billion in grant money through this program. The Section 1603 grant program expired in 2011.[147]

On June 9, 2016, Senator Orrin Hatch requested from Department of Treasury, the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) and the Treasury Inspector General for Tax Administration (TIGTA) details about how companies use Section 1603 grants and tax credits. In March 2016, Hatch asked the IRS and Treasury Department to demonstrate that the agencies use safeguards and coordinate with each other when reviewing applications for Section 1603 grants.[148]

Solar America Initiative

[edit]
Barack Obama looking at solar panels at the Denver Museum of Nature and Science, Feb 17, 2009

The United States Department of Energy (DOE) announced on September 29, 2008 that it would invest $17.6 million, subject to annual appropriations, in six company-led, early-stage photovoltaic (PV) projects under the Solar America Initiative's "PV Incubator" funding opportunity, designed to fund prototype PV components and systems with the goal of moving them through the commercialization process by 2010 and make it cost-competitive with conventional forms of electricity by 2015 (grid parity).[149][150]

SunShot Initiative

[edit]

The SunShot Initiative aimed to reduce the cost of solar power by 75% from 2010 to 2020. The name was based on "Moon shot", John F. Kennedy's 1961 target of reaching the Moon within the decade.[151]

Goals:

  • Residential system prices reduced from $6/W to $1.50/W
  • Commercial system prices reduced from $5/W to $1.25/W
  • Utility-scale system prices reduced from $4/W to $1.00/W (CSP, CPV and PV)

Trump administration

[edit]

In 2018, as part of a trade war between the U.S. and China, US President Trump imposed tariffs on imported solar cells.[152] The push for tariffs to protect American manufacturing and jobs in the solar power industry began in April 2017, when a bankrupt Georgia-based solar cell maker filed a trade complaint that a flood of cheap imports put them at a severe disadvantage. In response, the President imposed 30% tariffs of solar imports in January 2018.[153] The solar industry was one of the fastest growing in the United States, employing more than 250,000 people as of 2018.[152]

On one hand, these tariffs forced the cancellation or scaling down of many projects and restricted the ability of companies to recruit more workers.[152] On the other hand, they had the intended effect of incentivizing domestic manufacturing. Many solar power companies increased automation, to become less dependent on imports, especially from China.[152] Some analysts believed Trump's tariffs had a clear impact. Without them, the manufacturing capacity for solar cells in the United States would likely not have increased significantly, from 1.8 gigawatts in 2017 to at least 3.4 gigawatts in 2018, they argued. However, because of the increasing reliance on automation, not that many new jobs were created, while profits flowed to other countries, as many firms are foreign.[153]

By 2019, the solar power industry had recovered from the initial setbacks due to Trump's tariffs, thanks to initiatives from various states, such as California.[154] It received considerable support from the Department of Energy. The National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) launched the "American-made Solar Prize" competition in June 2018 and handed out tens to hundreds of thousand of dollars in cash prizes for the most promising solar cell designs.[155] Prices of solar cells continue to decline.[153]

Biden administration

[edit]

In 2022, President Biden extended the decreased 15% tariff on solar panels another four years.[156] The Inflation Reduction Act increased tax credits available to solar projects and provided funding to states and organizations for solar installations.

State and local

[edit]

State initiatives

[edit]
The 104kW solar highway along the interchange of Interstate 5 and Interstate 205 near Tualatin, Oregon in December 2008
  • Governor Jerry Brown signed legislation requiring California's utilities to get 50 percent of their electricity from renewable energy sources by the end of 2030.[12]
  • The San Francisco Board of Supervisors passed solar incentives of up to $6,000 for homeowners and up to $10,000 for businesses.[157] Applications for the program began on July 1, 2008.[158] in April 2016, they passed a law requiring all new buildings under 10 stories to have rooftop solar panels, making it the first major U.S. city to do so[159]
  • In 2008, Berkeley initiated a revolutionary pilot program for homeowners to add the cost of solar panels to their property tax assessment, and pay for them out of their electricity cost savings.[160] In 2009, more than a dozen states passed legislation allowing property tax financing. In all, 27 states then offered loans for solar projects[161] (though after the conclusion of the pilot program, due to issues with Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, Berkeley no longer offers this financing mechanism[162]).
  • The California Solar Initiative set a goal to create 3,000 megawatts of new, solar-produced electricity by 2016.
  • New Hampshire had a $3,750 residential rebate program for up to 50% of system cost for systems less than 5 kWp ($6,000 from July 1, 2008 until 2010).[163]
  • Louisiana had a 50 percent tax credit up to $12,500 for the installation of a wind or solar system.[164][165]
  • New Jersey law provides new solar power installations with Solar Renewable Energy Certificates and exemptions from the 7% state sales tax and any increase in property assessment (local property tax increases), subject to certain registration requirements.[166][167]
  • Massachusetts has multiple incentives to encourage solar power. New MA residential solar arrays are eligible for a 15% State tax credit up to $1000, a solar Sales Tax exemption, and a solar Property Tax exemption.[168] The Solar Massachusetts Renewable Target (SMART) Plan was also available to solar installations until 2022 based on the customer's utility.[169]

Feed-in tariffs

[edit]

Experience has demonstrated that a feed-in tariff is both the least expensive and the most effective means of developing solar power. Investors need certainty, which they receive from a feed-in tariff.[170] California enacted a feed-in tariff which began on February 14, 2008.[171][172] Washington state has a feed-in tariff of 15 ¢/kWh which increases to 54 ¢/kWh if components are manufactured in the state.[173] Hawaii,[174] Michigan,[175] and Vermont[176] also have feed in tariffs.[177] In 2010, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) ruled that states were able to implement above-market feed-in tariffs for specific technologies.[178][179]

In 2012 the U.S. Department of Commerce placed a 31% tariff on solar cells made in China.[180] In 2018, the Trump administration placed a 30% tariff on all imported solar equipment.[181]

Solar renewable energy certificates

[edit]

In recent years, states that have passed Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) or Renewable Electricity Standard (RES) laws have relied on the use of solar renewable energy certificates (SRECs) to meet state requirements. This is done by adding a specific solar carve-out to the state Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS). The first SREC program was implemented in 2005 by the state of New Jersey and has since expanded to several other states, including Maryland, Delaware, Ohio, Massachusetts, North Carolina and Pennsylvania.[182]

An SREC program is an alternative to the feed-in tariff model popular in Europe. The key difference between the two models is the market-based mechanism that drives the value of the SRECs, and therefore the value of the subsidy for solar. In a feed-in tariff model, the government sets the value for the electricity produced by a solar facility. If the level is higher, more solar power is built and the program is more costly. If the feed-in tariff is set lower, less solar power is built and the program is ineffective. The problem with SRECs is a lack of certainty for investors. A feed-in tariff provides a known return on investment, while an SREC program provides a possible return on investment.

Power purchase agreements

[edit]

In 2006 investors began offering free solar panel installation in return for a 25-year contract, or power purchase agreement, to purchase electricity at a fixed price, normally set at or below existing electric rates.[183][184] By 2009 over 90% of commercial photovoltaics installed in the United States were installed using a power purchase agreement.[185] Approximately 90% of the photovoltaics installed in the United States is in states that specifically address power purchase agreements.[186]

New construction mandates

[edit]

In March 2013, Lancaster, California became the first U.S. city to mandate the inclusion of solar panels on new homes, requiring that "every new housing development must average 1 kilowatt per house."[187]

Generation (PV and CSP)

[edit]
Utility-scale solar generation in the United States (GWh)
Year NREL
total 		EIA util
total 		EIA util
% of total 		Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1996 521 0.02%
1997 511 0.01%
1998 502 0.01%
1999 495 0.01%
2000 804 493 0.01%
2001 822 543 0.01% 7 13 31 39 81 91 92 85 65 21 14 4
2002 857 555 0.01% 11 24 44 46 58 96 86 75 53 31 28 4
2003 929 534 0.01% 13 18 50 60 68 91 62 62 56 36 14 4
2004 1,020 575 0.01% 13 11 53 57 82 88 82 73 61 34 15 8
2005 1,145 550 0.01% 8 13 37 57 81 87 71 75 60 37 12 2
2006 1,312 508 0.01% 13 20 33 52 71 70 62 83 54 32 16 3
2007 1,718 612 0.01% 13 19 48 54 84 84 86 75 68 48 23 3
2008 2,208 864 0.02% 16 36 75 94 99 128 111 105 93 60 29 19
2009 2,922 891 0.02% 7 30 78 99 110 103 121 116 95 68 40 21
2010 4,505 1,212 0.03% 10 33 76 112 153 176 161 156 138 75 77 44
2011 7,454 1,818 0.04% 40 85 122 164 191 223 191 229 186 159 107 121
2012 12,692 4,327 0.11% 95 135 231 319 462 527 509 462 458 431 347 349
2013 21,074 9,036 0.22% 310 433 619 667 753 871 829 944 949 988 824 850
2014 32,553 17,691 0.43% 751 835 1,317 1,487 1,750 1,923 1,788 1,879 1,832 1,717 1,380 1,032
2015 44,296 24,893 0.61% 1,155 1,484 2,072 2,379 2,504 2,558 2,627 2,788 2,217 1,910 1,730 1,570
2016 52,833 36,054 0.88% 1,486 2,242 2,617 2,880 3,425 3,473 3,945 3,969 3,635 3,191 2,767 2,424
2017 77,097 53,287 1.32% 2,324 2,751 4,514 4,907 5,785 6,115 5,569 5,369 5,059 4,650 3,209 3,035
2018 96,147 63,825 1.53% 3,319 3,896 5,056 6,057 6,849 7,415 6,755 6,695 5,961 4,970 3,743 3,110
2019 107,275 71,937 1.74% 3,580 3,836 5,899 6,752 7,162 7,971 8,133 7,877 6,817 6,093 4,364 3,453
2020 132,631 89,199 2.23% 4,459 5,561 6,350 7,921 9,653 9,654 10,610 9,315 7,732 7,085 5,767 5,091
2021 164,422 115,258 2.8% 5,559 6,330 9,296 10,892 12,457 12,197 12,192 11,967 11,214 9,268 7,795 6,091
2022 205,079 143,797 3.4% 7,822 9,027 11,695 13,402 15,121 16,053 15,766 14,503 13,287 11,942 8,403 6,777
2023 238,120 164,502 3.94% 7,982 9,251 12,144 14,755 16,927 17,631 18,880 17,816 15,563 14,082 10,271 9,200
2024 145,063 126,505 4.69% 9,651 12,389 15,668 18,938 22,050 23,918 23,891
Last entry, % of total 2.54% 3.87% 4.84% 6.11% 6.38% 6.14% 5.55% 3.48% 3.82% 3.88% 2.62% 1.93%

Source: NREL,[188][189] EIA;[190][191][47][192][193] [194] NREL includes distributed generation, EIA, including the monthly data above, includes only utility-scale generation. "EIA util % of total" is the percentage of all electricity produced at utility-scale facilities that is generated by utility-scale solar.

See also

[edit]

US renewables:

General:

International:

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Partnership brings benefits of community solar to Vernon County". October 25, 2023.
  2. ^ "Table 1.1. Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors)". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved August 11, 2023.
  3. ^ a b c d "Solar Industry Research Data". Solar Energy Industries Association. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  4. ^ "Renewable Capacity Statistics 2022" (PDF). irena.org. p. 32. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  5. ^ Dlin, Susan (February 7, 2022). "Nearly 28 GW of new US generating capacity added in 2021, led by wind". S&P Global. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  6. ^ "Clean-Energy Jobs Surpass Oil Drilling for First Time in U.S." Bloomberg.com. May 25, 2016. Retrieved October 12, 2016.
  7. ^ "Segs Iii, Iv, V, Vi, Vii, Viii & Ix". Fplenergy.com. Archived from the original on August 5, 2014. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  8. ^ "Brightsource Ivanpah". Archived from the original on January 11, 2013. Retrieved March 17, 2014.
  9. ^ a b Mearian, Lucas. U.S. flips switch on massive solar power array that also stores electricity: The array is first large U.S. solar plant with a thermal energy storage system, October 10, 2013. Retrieved October 18, 2013.
  10. ^ PRESS RELEASE: Governor Ige signs bill setting 100 percent renewable energy goal in power sector, Government of Hawaii, June 8, 2015
  11. ^ California Sets Goal Of 100 Percent Clean Electric Power By 2045, NPR, September 10, 2018
  12. ^ a b David R. Baker (October 7, 2015). "Brown signs climate law mandating 50% renewable power by 2030". San Francisco Chronicle.
  13. ^ "National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Solar Has The Most Potential Of Any Renewable Energy Source". ThinkProgress.
  14. ^ "Electricity – U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA)". eia.gov.
  15. ^ "Renewable Energy Technical Potential – Geospatial Data Science – NREL". nrel.gov.
  16. ^ "Solar and Wind Cheapest Sources of Power in Most of the World". Bloomberg.com. April 28, 2020. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
  17. ^ "2023 Levelized Cost Of Energy+". Lazard. April 12, 2023. p. 9. Archived from the original on August 27, 2023. (Download link labeled "Lazard's LCOE+ (April 2023) (1) PDF—1MB")
  18. ^ Marcacci, Silvio. "Renewable Energy Prices Hit Record Lows: How Can Utilities Benefit From Unstoppable Solar And Wind?". Forbes. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
  19. ^ "The Hidden Costs of Fossil Fuels". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved January 1, 2024.
  20. ^ "Chapter 1 / Clean Power at a Glance / Annual Installations (from 2022 Annual Market Report)". CleanPower.org. American Clean Power. May 2023. Archived from the original on May 24, 2023. — From page 10 of the Clean Power Annual Market Report 2022 (archive)
  21. ^ "Clean Power Annual Market Report 2023" (PDF). American Clean Power. March 2024. p. 9. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 20, 2024. Actual data listing: "Explore the data" in "Clean Energy Powers America"
  22. ^ Gearino, Dan (March 10, 2022). "Inside Clean Energy: Three Charts to Help Make Sense of 2021, a Year Coal Was Up and Solar Was Way Up". Inside Climate News. Archived from the original on March 13, 2022. Credited data source: Energy Information Administration.
  23. ^ a b c d Lan, Xiaohuan (2024). How China Works: An Introduction to China's State-led Economic Development. Translated by Topp, Gary. Palgrave Macmillan. doi:10.1007/978-981-97-0080-6. ISBN 978-981-97-0079-0.
  24. ^ "Solar Energy Grew at a Record Pace in 2008". Apps1.eere.energy.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  25. ^ a b c Study: Solar Power Could Provide 10% of U.S. Electricity by 2025 June 25, 2008. Retrieved June 25, 2009
  26. ^ Cardwell, Diane (March 13, 2013). "Solar Group Reports Surge in U.S. Installations". The New York Times.
  27. ^ "Solar power's stunning growth: US generation up 100 percent this year". CNBC. December 2, 2014. Retrieved December 5, 2014.
  28. ^ "Solar Industry Growing at a Record Pace". SEIA. Retrieved June 11, 2017.
  29. ^ Laura Wisland (September 4, 2014). "How Many Homes Have Rooftop Solar? The Number is Growing…". Union of Concerned Scientists. Retrieved December 10, 2014.
  30. ^ Warrick, Joby (March 7, 2015). "Utilities wage campaign against rooftop solar". The Washington Post.
  31. ^ "U.S. Solar Photovoltaic Database". eerscmap.usgs.gov. United States Geological Survey (USGS). November 2023.
  32. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2014). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2013" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved July 16, 2014.
  33. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2013). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2012" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 12, 2019. Retrieved July 31, 2013.
  34. ^ Sherwood, Larry (August 2012). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2011" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 6, 2012. Retrieved August 22, 2012.
  35. ^ Sherwood, Larry (June 2011). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2010" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Archived from the original (PDF) on December 17, 2019. Retrieved June 29, 2011.
  36. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2010). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2009" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 25, 2010. Retrieved July 28, 2010.
  37. ^ Sherwood, Larry (July 2009). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2008" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 23, 2009. Retrieved July 24, 2010.
  38. ^ Sherwood, Larry (August 2008). "U.S. Solar Market Trends 2007" (PDF). Interstate Renewable Energy Council (IREC). Retrieved July 24, 2010.[permanent dead link]
  39. ^ "State-By-State Map". SEIA.
  40. ^ "U.S. Solar Market Grows 95% in 2016, Smashes Records | SEIA". Solar Energy Industries Association. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
  41. ^ a b Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (November 2011). "2010 Solar Technologies Market Report" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. p. 10. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
  42. ^ "2008 Solar Technologies Market Report" (PDF). NREL. January 2010. Retrieved September 9, 2012.
  43. ^ Ray, Suparna (March 7, 2022). "Solar power and batteries account for 60% of planned new U.S. electric generation capacity". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  44. ^ a b c "Electric Power Monthly". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  45. ^ a b "Table 3.1.B. Net Generation from Renewable Sources: Total (All Sectors), 2004 – 2014". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
  46. ^ a b "Table 4.2.B. Existing Net Summer Capacity of Other Renewable Sources by Producer Type, 2005 through 2015 (Megawatts)". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
  47. ^ a b c "Table 3.1.A. Net Generation by Energy Source: Total (All Sectors), 2001 – 2011". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
  48. ^ Anthony Lopez, Billy Roberts, Donna Heimiller, Nate Blair, and Gian Porro, U.S. Renewable Energy Technical Potentials: A GIS-Based Analysis Archived September 15, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, National Renewable Energy Laboratory, Technical Report NREL/TP-6A20-51946, July 2012
  49. ^ How solar farms took over the California desert: ‘An oasis has become a dead sea’, Guardian, May 21, 2023, Archive
  50. ^ Installer contracted for solar project that could power all of Las Vegas, Solar Power World, Billy Ludt, March 3, 2022
  51. ^ "Table 6.3. New Utility Scale Generating Units by Operating Company, Plant, and Month, 2016, Electric Power Monthly, U.S. Energy Information Administration, October 25, 2016". Archived from the original on November 23, 2016. Retrieved November 18, 2016.
  52. ^ "Largest solar-plus-storage project in U.S. now operational in Nevada". pv magazine USA. July 19, 2024. Retrieved July 19, 2024.
  53. ^ "Edwards & Sanborn Solar and Energy Storage". www.mortenson.com. Retrieved March 23, 2023.
  54. ^ Cox, John (February 8, 2023). "Solar energy project extending onto Edwards Air Force Base becomes Kern's largest". The Bakersfield Californian. Retrieved March 23, 2023.
  55. ^ Intersect Power’s Lumina Solar Project Begins Commercial Operation, January 12, 2024
  56. ^ "List of Power Plants - Silver Ridge Power". Archived from the original on January 1, 2015. Retrieved January 1, 2015.
  57. ^ "Abengoa :: Press Room :: News :: News Archive :: 2014 :: May". Archived from the original on November 29, 2014. Retrieved May 23, 2014.
  58. ^ 8minutenergy Turns On Phases 1 & 2 Of 328 Megawatt Mount Signal 3 Solar Farm Archived 2018-07-12 at the Wayback Machine, CleanTechnica, Joshua S Hill, July 12, 2018
  59. ^ 8minutenergy and Capital Dynamics complete 328-MW Mount Signal 3 Solar Farm Archived 2018-12-10 at the Wayback Machine, Solar Power World, Kelsey Misbrener | December 7, 2018
  60. ^ "Solar Star, Largest PV Power Plant in the World, Now Operational". GreenTechMedia.com. June 24, 2015. Archived from the original on June 25, 2015. Retrieved June 25, 2015.
  61. ^ Solar Star Project, Japan DG Demand Drive SunPower's Q3 Archived 2018-04-15 at the Wayback Machine, Forbes, 10/31/2014
  62. ^ "Solar". Archived from the original on December 14, 2014. Retrieved October 31, 2014.
  63. ^ "SOLV Energy | Prospero 1". SOLV Energy. Retrieved April 18, 2024.
  64. ^ Lindt, John (September 14, 2017). "Westlands Solar Park files notice it will downsize plan". The Hanford Sentinel.
  65. ^ Repsol unveils 637-MW solar farm in Texas, Renewables Now, April 12, 2024
  66. ^ "Roseland Solar + Storage Project". www.enelgreenpower.com. Retrieved April 18, 2024.
  67. ^ Completion of Aktina Solar Power Plant in the USA, Tokyo Gas Co., January 24, 2024
  68. ^ "Spotsylvania Solar Energy Project". www.mortenson.com. Retrieved September 25, 2023.
  69. ^ "RESOLUTION E-4347 September 2, 2010" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 16, 2011. Retrieved September 26, 2010.
  70. ^ "Desert Sunlight Solar Farm". Archived from the original on January 8, 2015. Retrieved January 13, 2015.
  71. ^ "Electricity Data Browser". Archived from the original on March 23, 2018. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
  72. ^ "Electricity Data Browser". Archived from the original on March 23, 2018. Retrieved June 7, 2015.
  73. ^ "Electricity Data Browser". www.eia.gov. Retrieved December 27, 2020.
  74. ^ Steve Leone (December 7, 2011). "Billionaire Buffett Bets on Solar Energy". Renewable Energy World. Archived from the original on October 24, 2013. Retrieved December 8, 2011.
  75. ^ "California Valley's Topaz Solar Farm now producing electricity". sanluisobispo. Archived from the original on March 3, 2015. Retrieved February 18, 2014.
  76. ^ Energy Information Administration. "Topaz Solar Farm, Monthly". Electricity Data Browser. Archived from the original on October 9, 2013. Retrieved October 9, 2013.
  77. ^ "Table 6.3. New Utility Scale Generating Units by Operating Company, Plant, and Month, 2016, Electric Power Monthly, U.S. Energy Information Administration, October 25, 2016". Archived from the original on November 23, 2016. Retrieved November 18, 2016.
  78. ^ "Two major solar energy projects in Riverside County are fully operational". The Desert Sun. Retrieved November 23, 2023.
  79. ^ "Enel completes first 252-MW phase of Roadrunner solar project in Texas". Solar Power World. December 30, 2019. Retrieved February 28, 2020.
  80. ^ Proctor, Darrell (October 18, 2023). "Major Solar-Plus-Storage Project Online at Retired Gas-Fired Power Plant". POWER Magazine. Retrieved November 22, 2023.
  81. ^ "Blythe Solar Power Project". California Energy Commission. Retrieved July 28, 2022.
  82. ^ "Electricity Data Browser". www.eia.gov. Retrieved December 28, 2020.
  83. ^ Brown, Alex. "Doral CEO excited to bring Mammoth North Solar project to the grid". Inside INdiana Business. Retrieved July 11, 2024.
  84. ^ "MAMMOTH NORTH SOLAR |". doral-llc.com. Retrieved February 13, 2024.
  85. ^ Ørsted is first in US to operate solar, wind, and storage at utility scale, eletrek, Michelle Lewis, May 4, 2021
  86. ^ "ACCIONA Energía starts operating its largest PV plant, Red-Tailed Hawk, in Texas". www.acciona.com. Retrieved May 22, 2024.
  87. ^ Lewis, Michelle (February 23, 2024). "Texas just got an enormous 1.1-million-panel solar farm". Electrek. Retrieved March 11, 2024.
  88. ^ Solar Market Insight Report 2013 Year in Review (Report). Solar Energy Industries Association. 2014. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
  89. ^ "Solar Panel Cost in 2020 [State By State Data] | EnergySage". Solar News. July 15, 2020. Archived from the original on September 6, 2020.
  90. ^ Penrod, Emma (October 13, 2021). "Developers increasingly pair batteries with utility-scale solar to combat declining value in crowded markets". Utility Dive. Archived from the original on October 14, 2021.
  91. ^ "Solar 4 All™ Fact Sheet" (PDF). PSE&G. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
  92. ^ "The State of Solar Power in the U.S.: Current Trends" (PDF). Haynes Boone. October 7, 2010. Retrieved July 17, 2014.
  93. ^ "Brighter Future: A Study on Solar in U.S. Schools". Solar Energy Industries Association. November 2017. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  94. ^ "Solar Means Business – Tracking Corporate Solar Adoption in the U.S." (PDF). Solar Energy Industries Association. Retrieved December 1, 2018.
  95. ^ Scheier, Eric; Kittner, Noah (December 2022). "A measurement strategy to address disparities across household energy burdens". Nature Communications. 13 (1): 288. Bibcode:2022NatCo..13..288S. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-27673-y. ISSN 2041-1723. PMC 8755748. PMID 35022411.
  96. ^ Barbose, Galen L.; Forrester, Sydney; Darghouth, Naim R.; Hoen, Ben (February 1, 2020). "Income Trends among U.S. Residential Rooftop Solar Adopters [Slides]". doi:10.2172/1603637. OSTI 1603637. S2CID 216398906. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  97. ^ "Community Solar Basics". Energy.gov. Retrieved May 6, 2022.
  98. ^ "Community Solar". nrel.gov. Retrieved May 6, 2022.
  99. ^ a b Mulvaney, Dustin (July 1, 2014). "Are green jobs just jobs? Cadmium narratives in the life cycle of Photovoltaics". Geoforum. 54: 178–186. doi:10.1016/j.geoforum.2014.01.014. ISSN 0016-7185.
  100. ^ "Panasonic to lay off 50 at Salem solar panel factory". The Oregonian. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
  101. ^ "First Solar's Perrysburg facility announces layoffs". Retrieved February 5, 2017.
  102. ^ "Hillsboro/Oregon". SolarWorld. Retrieved February 5, 2017.
  103. ^ Korosec, Kirsten. "GE postpones thin-film solar factory plans – ZDNet".
  104. ^ "SolarCity investing $5B in Buffalo, creating 3,000 jobs". September 23, 2014. Archived from the original on October 4, 2014.
  105. ^ Robinson, David (November 8, 2019). "Tesla's Buffalo plant gets $884 million write-down". Buffalo News.
  106. ^ a b Mulvaney, Dustin (June 1, 2013). "Opening the Black Box of Solar Energy Technologies: Exploring Tensions Between Innovation and Environmental Justice". Science as Culture. 22 (2): 230–237. doi:10.1080/09505431.2013.786995. ISSN 0950-5431. S2CID 144264359.
  107. ^ a b Iles, Alastair (November 1, 2004). "Mapping Environmental Justice in Technology Flows: Computer Waste Impacts in Asia". Global Environmental Politics. 4 (4): 76–107. doi:10.1162/glep.2004.4.4.76. ISSN 1526-3800. S2CID 57568141.
  108. ^ "The Dark Side of Solar Power". Harvard Business Review. June 18, 2021. ISSN 0017-8012. Retrieved June 22, 2021.
  109. ^ Stevens, Pippa (March 10, 2022). "Solar costs jumped in 2021, reversing years of falling prices". CNBC. Retrieved September 15, 2022.
  110. ^ "Working Out the Details of a Circular Solar Economy". www.nrel.gov. Retrieved September 15, 2022.
  111. ^ https://www.epa.gov/hw/improving-recycling-and-management-renewable-energy-wastes-universal-waste-regulations-solar. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  112. ^ "Environmental History Timeline". Archived from the original on July 26, 2012. Retrieved July 13, 2012.
  113. ^ The Power of Light: The Epic Story of Man's Quest to Harness the Sun, Frank Kryza, ISBN 9780071400213 p. 21
  114. ^ "Sun Power Operates Pumping Plant" Popular Mechanics, December 1911, pp. 843–44.
  115. ^ Kozlowski, Lori (October 2010). "Solar Power: Karl Wolfgang Boer and a Lifetime of Green Discoveries". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved October 1, 2010.
  116. ^ "World's Largest Solar Thermal Plant Syncs to the Grid". IEEE Spectrum: Technology, Engineering, and Science News. September 26, 2013.
  117. ^ a b c "Solana, the largest parabolic trough plant in the world". Abengoa. Archived from the original on December 3, 2013. Retrieved November 26, 2013.
  118. ^ "solana - Diccionario Inglés-Español WordReference.com". wordreference.com.
  119. ^ Mouawad, Jad (March 4, 2010). "The Newest Hybrid Model". The New York Times. Retrieved March 9, 2010.
  120. ^ "DOE Finalizes $737 Million Loan Guarantee to Tonopah Solar Energy for Nevada Project" (Press release). Loan Programs Office (LPO), Dept. of Energy (DOE). September 28, 2011. Archived from the original on October 15, 2011. Retrieved September 29, 2011.
  121. ^ National Renewable Energy Laboratory (November 10, 2015). "Crescent Dunes Solar Energy Project".
  122. ^ Will the BrightSource-Abengoa Tower Be the Last CSP Project in the US?, GreenTech Media, Eric Wesoff, September 22, 2014
  123. ^ Company To Withdraw Proposed Solar Tower Project in Inyo County, KCET, Chris Clarke, May 29, 2015
  124. ^ California rejects new plan for Palen solar farm, Sammy Roth, The Desert Sun, February 10, 2016
  125. ^ "Electricity Data Browser". www.eia.gov. Retrieved December 28, 2020.
  126. ^ SEIA (December 2013). "U.S. Solar Market Insight Q4 2013". SEIA. Retrieved March 6, 2014.
  127. ^ EIA (March 1, 2016). "Solar, natural gas, wind make up most 2016 generation additions". EIA. Retrieved March 2, 2016.
  128. ^ National Renewable Energy Laboratory (October 2010). "2009 U.S. State Clean Energy Data Book" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 17, 2011. Retrieved December 9, 2010.
  129. ^ Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (September 2011). "2010 Renewable Energy Data Book" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 28, 2012. Retrieved February 11, 2012.
  130. ^ 2011 Renewable Energy Data Book p.64
  131. ^ Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy (November 2013). "2012 Renewable Energy Data Book" (PDF). United States Department of Energy. Retrieved December 4, 2013.
  132. ^ "Solar Market Insight Report 2013 Year in Review – SEIA". SEIA.
  133. ^ "Solar Market Insight Report 2014 Q4 – SEIA". SEIA.
  134. ^ U.S. Solar Market Sets New Record, Installing 7.3 GW of Solar PV in 2015 Retrieved March 2, 2016
  135. ^ "Table 4.2.B. Existing Net Summer Capacity of Other Renewable Sources by Producer Type, 2010 through 2020 (Megawatts)". U.S. Energy Information Administration. Retrieved June 5, 2022.
  136. ^ "Database of State Incentives for Renewables and Efficiency". Dsireusa.org. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  137. ^ "Three lessons from California's Million Solar Roofs milestone". environmentcalifornia.org. Retrieved April 21, 2022.
  138. ^ Halper, Evan (August 9, 2014). "Rules prevent solar panels in many states with abundant sunlight". Los Angeles Times.
  139. ^ Solar Investment Credit FINALLY Passed! Archived October 6, 2008, at the Wayback Machine retrieved October 13, 2008.
  140. ^ Federal Solar Tax Credits Archived October 8, 2008, at the Wayback Machine Retrieved August 15, 2008.
  141. ^ Residential Solar and Fuel Cell Tax Credit Retrieved August 15, 2008.
  142. ^ "Why the 1603 Treasury Grant Program Matters to Solar and RE".
  143. ^ "Homeowner's Guide to the Federal Tax Credit for Solar Photovoltaics". Energy.gov. US Department of Energy. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  144. ^ "Federal Income Tax Credits for Energy Efficiency". EnergyStar.gov. US EPA. Retrieved December 21, 2016.
  145. ^ "Solar Firms, Utilities Clash As 30% Tax Credit Fades". October 8, 2015.
  146. ^ "Forget Oil Exports—What Just Happened to Solar is a Really Big Deal". Bloomberg.com. December 17, 2015.
  147. ^ "Overview and Status Update of the §1603 Program" (PDF). United States Department of the Treasury. May 5, 2016. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  148. ^ "Hatch Continues Inquiry of Green Energy Programs". U.S. Senate Finance Committee. June 9, 2016. Retrieved June 20, 2016.
  149. ^ "DOE to Invest $17.6 Million in Six Early-Stage Photovoltaic Projects". Apps1.eere.energy.gov. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  150. ^ "EERE: Solar Energy Technologies Program Home Page". .eere.energy.gov. Archived from the original on December 19, 2011. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  151. ^ "Solar Energy Technologies Office". Energy.gov.
  152. ^ a b c d Billions in U.S. solar projects shelved after Trump panel tariff. Reuters. June 7, 2018. Retrieved April 22, 2019.
  153. ^ a b c "Trump tariffs are helping more than double U.S. solar capacity". Bloomberg (via the LA Times). May 30, 2018. Retrieved June 14, 2019.
  154. ^ Rogers, Kate (April 5, 2019). "After being rocked by Trump tariffs, the solar energy business is bouncing back". CNBC. Retrieved June 2, 2019.
  155. ^ Casey, Tina (June 9, 2019). "US Solar Cell Innovators Tackle US Manufacturing Challenges". Clean Technica. Retrieved June 13, 2019.
  156. ^ "China says U.S. tariff extension on solar products hurts new energy trade". Reuters. February 7, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
  157. ^ "San Francisco Offers Solar Subsidies". Greentechmedia.com. June 10, 2008. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  158. ^ "Final changes and logistics of the SF Solar Incentive Program Explained". Sfsolarsubsidy.com. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  159. ^ Domonoske, Camila (April 20, 2016). "San Francisco Requires New Buildings To Install Solar Panels". NPR.
  160. ^ Berkeley FIRST Archived June 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine retrieved June 25, 2009
  161. ^ Loan Programs Archived June 16, 2010, at the Wayback Machine retrieved December 19, 2009
  162. ^ "Berkeley FIRST: Financing Initiative for Renewable and Solar Technology". City of Berkeley. Archived from the original on June 2, 2013. Retrieved March 26, 2013.
  163. ^ Residential Small Renewable Electrical Generation Systems Rebate, New Hampshire Public Utilities Commission.
  164. ^ "Tax Credit for Solar and Wind Energy Systems on Residential Property". Archived from the original on September 29, 2011.
  165. ^ "Tax Credit for Solar and Wind Energy Systems on Residential Property". Archived from the original on April 17, 2012.
  166. ^ "Solar Energy Sales Tax Exemption". DSIRE. NC Clean Energy Technology Center. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  167. ^ "Property Tax Exemption for Renewable Energy Systems". DSIRE. NC Clean Energy Technology Center. Retrieved April 29, 2016.
  168. ^ "Massachusetts Solar Incentives in 2022 (Your Go-To-Guide)Whaling City Solar". Whaling City Solar. November 29, 2021. Retrieved November 29, 2021.
  169. ^ "Solar Massachusetts Renewable Target (SMART) Program | Mass.gov". www.mass.gov. Retrieved November 29, 2021.
  170. ^ "EPIA: Garantierte Einspeisevergütungen machen Solarstrom immer wettbewerbsfähiger" [Guaranteed feed-in tariffs make Solar power more competitive]. solarserver.com (in German). July 6, 2007. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  171. ^ "Are Feed-in Tariffs a Possibility in California?". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Archived from the original on September 10, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  172. ^ "California Approves Feed-In Tariffs, Rewards Energy Efficiency". Eere.energy.gov. January 25, 2012. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  173. ^ "Washington State Passes Progressive Renewable Energy Legislation". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Archived from the original on February 13, 2007. Retrieved January 31, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  174. ^ "Hawaii FIT". Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
  175. ^ "Consumers Energy FIT". Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
  176. ^ "Vermont SPEED". Archived from the original on October 30, 2012. Retrieved August 13, 2012.
  177. ^ "Table of Financial Incentives". Archived from the original on January 19, 2013.
  178. ^ "FERC Decision Clears the Way for Multi-Tiered State FITs". Archived from the original on June 17, 2012. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
  179. ^ How to Design Feed-in Tariffs in the U.S. without Fear of Federal Preemption
  180. ^ "Implications of the US-China Solar Tariff on Project Development – Sol Systems". Sol Systems.
  181. ^ Rowland, Geoffrey (January 26, 2018). "Solar company puts hold on $20M US investment following new tariff". The Hill.
  182. ^ Bird, Lori; Heeter, Jenny; Kreycik, Claire (November 2011). "Solar Renewable Energy Certificate (SREC) Markets: Status and Trends" (PDF). National Renewable Energy Laboratory. Retrieved December 23, 2011.
  183. ^ "MMA Renewable Ventures Solar Energy Program". Mmarenewableventures.com. Retrieved January 31, 2012.
  184. ^ "U.S. Retailers Save with Solar PV & Energy Efficiency". Renewableenergyaccess.com. Archived from the original on October 12, 2007. Retrieved January 31, 2012.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  185. ^ Guice, Jon; King, John D.H. (October 3, 2017). "Solar Power Services: How PPAs are Changing the PV Value Chain". Green Tech Media. executive report Archived April 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
  186. ^ "Power Purchase Agreement". Archived from the original on April 9, 2012. Retrieved July 31, 2012.
  187. ^ "Lancaster, CA, Becomes First US City to Require Solar". Greentech Media. March 27, 2013.
  188. ^ "2014 Renewable Energy Data Book" (PDF). National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL). November 2015. p. 29. Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  189. ^ "Table 1.17.B. Net Generation from Solar Photovoltaic". U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Retrieved June 4, 2022.
  190. ^ "Table 1.1.A. Net Generation from Renewable Sources: Total (All Sectors)". U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Retrieved July 27, 2015.
  191. ^ "Table 3.1.B. Net Generation by Other Renewable Sources: Total (All Sectors), 2001 – 2011". U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Retrieved June 8, 2022.
  192. ^ "Electric Power Annual 2007" (PDF). U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). January 2009. p. 23. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
  193. ^ "Electric Power Annual 2007" (PDF). U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). January 2009. p. 26. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
  194. ^ "Electricity Data Browser". 2024. Retrieved July 2, 2024.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Solar power in the United States.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar_power_in_the_United_States&oldid=1256253140#Solar_America_Initiative"