Jump to content

Pollution

Page semi-protected
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Pollution limits)
For other uses, see Pollution (disambiguation).
"Environmental pollution" redirects here. For the journal, see Environmental Pollution (journal).

Part of a series on
Pollution
Air pollution from a factory
Air
Biological
Digital
Electromagnetic
Natural
Noise
Radiation
Soil
Solid waste
Space
Thermal
Visual
War
Water
Topics
Misc
Lists
Categories

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse change.[1] Pollution can take the form of any substance (solid, liquid, or gas) or energy (such as radioactivity, heat, sound, or light). Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or naturally occurring contaminants.

Although environmental pollution can be caused by natural events, the word pollution generally implies that the contaminants have an anthropogenic source – that is, a source created by human activities, such as manufacturing, extractive industries, poor waste management, transportation or agriculture. Pollution is often classed as point source (coming from a highly concentrated specific site, such as a factory, mine, construction site), or nonpoint source pollution (coming from a widespread distributed sources, such as microplastics or agricultural runoff).

Many sources of pollution were unregulated parts of industrialization during the 19th and 20th centuries until the emergence of environmental regulation and pollution policy in the later half of the 20th century. Sites where historically polluting industries released persistent pollutants may have legacy pollution long after the source of the pollution is stopped. Major forms of pollution include air pollution, water pollution, litter, noise pollution, plastic pollution, soil contamination, radioactive contamination, thermal pollution, light pollution, and visual pollution.[2]

Pollution has widespread consequences on human and environmental health, having systematic impact on social and economic systems. In 2019, pollution killed approximately nine million people worldwide (about one in six deaths that year); about three-quarters of these deaths were caused by air pollution.[3][4][5][6][7] A 2022 literature review found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.[8][9] Pollutants frequently have outsized impacts on vulnerable populations, such as children and the elderly, and marginalized communities, because polluting industries and toxic waste sites tend to be collocated with populations with less economic and political power.[10] This outsized impact is a core reason for the formation of the environmental justice movement,[11][12] and continues to be a core element of environmental conflicts, particularly in the Global South.

Because of the impacts of these chemicals, local and international countries' policy have increasingly sought to regulate pollutants, resulting in increasing air and water quality standards, alongside regulation of specific waste streams. Regional and national policy is typically supervised by environmental agencies or ministries, while international efforts are coordinated by the UN Environmental Program and other treaty bodies. Pollution mitigation is an important part of all of the Sustainable Development Goals.[13]

Definitions and types

Various definitions of pollution exist, which may or may not recognize certain types, such as noise pollution or greenhouse gases. The United States Environmental Protection Administration defines pollution as "Any substances in water, soil, or air that degrade the natural quality of the environment, offend the senses of sight, taste, or smell, or cause a health hazard. The usefulness of the natural resource is usually impaired by the presence of pollutants and contaminants."[14] In contrast, the United Nations considers pollution to be the "presence of substances and heat in environmental media (air, water, land) whose nature, location, or quantity produces undesirable environmental effects."[15]

Smog in the center of Moscow, Russia in August 2010

The major forms of pollution are listed below along with the particular contaminants relevant to each of them:

Natural causes

Air pollution produced by ships may alter clouds, affecting global temperatures.

One of the most significant natural sources of pollution are volcanoes, which during eruptions release large quantities of harmful gases into the atmosphere. Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, which can be fatal in large concentrations and contributes to climate change, hydrogen halides which can cause acid rain, sulfur dioxides, which are harmful to animals and damage the ozone layer, and hydrogen sulfides, which are capable of killing humans at concentrations of less than 1 part per thousand.[20] Volcanic emissions also include fine and ultrafine particles which may contain toxic chemicals and substances such as arsenic, lead, and mercury.[21]

Wildfires, which can be caused naturally by lightning strikes, are also a significant source of air pollution. Wildfire smoke contains significant quantities of both carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, which can cause suffocation. Large quantities of fine particulates are found within wildfire smoke as well, which pose a health risk to animals.[22]

Human generation

Deaths caused as a result of fossil fuel use (areas of rectangles in chart) greatly exceed those resulting from production of renewable energy (rectangles barely visible in chart).[23]

Motor vehicle emissions are one of the leading causes of air pollution.[24][25][26] China, United States, Russia, India[27] Mexico, and Japan are the world leaders in air pollution emissions. Principal stationary pollution sources include chemical plants, coal-fired power plants, oil refineries,[28] petrochemical plants, nuclear waste disposal activity, incinerators, large livestock farms (dairy cows, pigs, poultry, etc.), PVC factories, metals production factories, plastics factories, and other heavy industry. Agricultural air pollution comes from contemporary practices which include clear felling and burning of natural vegetation as well as spraying of pesticides and herbicides.[29]

About 400 million metric tons of hazardous wastes are generated each year.[30] The United States alone produces about 250 million metric tons.[31] Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population, but produce roughly 25% of the world's CO2,[32] and generate approximately 30% of world's waste.[33][34] In 2007, China overtook the United States as the world's biggest producer of CO2,[35] while still far behind based on per capita pollution (ranked 78th among the world's nations).[36]

An industrial area, with a power plant, south of Yangzhou's downtown, China

Chlorinated hydrocarbons (CFH), heavy metals (such as chromium, cadmium – found in rechargeable batteries, and lead – found in lead paint, aviation fuel, and even in certain countries, gasoline), MTBE, zinc, arsenic, and benzene are some of the most frequent soil contaminants. A series of press reports published in 2001, culminating in the publication of the book Fateful Harvest, revealed a widespread practise of recycling industrial leftovers into fertilizer, resulting in metal poisoning of the soil.[37] Ordinary municipal landfills are the source of many chemical substances entering the soil environment (and often groundwater), emanating from the wide variety of refuse accepted, especially substances illegally discarded there, or from pre-1970 landfills that may have been subject to little control in the U.S. or EU. There have also been some unusual releases of polychlorinated dibenzodioxins, commonly called dioxins for simplicity, such as TCDD.[38]

Pollution can also occur as a result of natural disasters. Hurricanes, for example, frequently result in sewage contamination and petrochemical spills from burst boats or automobiles. When coastal oil rigs or refineries are involved, larger-scale and environmental damage is not unusual. When accidents occur, some pollution sources, such as nuclear power stations or oil ships, can create extensive and potentially catastrophic emissions.[39]

Plastic pollution is choking our oceans by making plastic gyres, entangling marine animals, poisoning our food and water supply, and ultimately inflicting havoc on the health and well-being of humans and wildlife globally. With the exception of a small amount that has been incinerating, virtually every piece of plastic that was ever made in the past still exists in one form or another. And since most of the plastics do not biodegrade in any meaningful sense, all that plastic waste could exist for hundreds or even thousands of years. If plastic production is not circumscribed, plastic pollution will be disastrous and will eventually outweigh fish in oceans.[40]

Greenhouse gas emissions

Main article: Greenhouse gas emissions
Historical and projected CO2 emissions by country (as of 2005).
Source: Energy Information Administration.[41][42]

Carbon dioxide, while vital for photosynthesis, is sometimes referred to as pollution, because raised levels of the gas in the atmosphere are affecting the Earth's climate. Disruption of the environment can also highlight the connection between areas of pollution that would normally be classified separately, such as those of water and air. Recent studies have investigated the potential for long-term rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide to cause slight but critical increases in the acidity of ocean waters, and the possible effects of this on marine ecosystems.

In February 2007, a report by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), representing the work of 2,500 scientists, economists, and policymakers from more than 120 countries, confirmed that humans have been the primary cause of global warming since 1950. Humans have ways to cut greenhouse gas emissions and avoid the consequences of global warming, a major climate report concluded. But to change the climate, the transition from fossil fuels like coal and oil needs to occur within decades, according to the final report this year from the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC).[43]

Effects

Human health

Further information: Soil pollution § Health effects, Toxic hotspots, List of pollution-related diseases, and Air pollution § Health effects
Overview of main health effects on humans from some common types of pollution[44][45][46]

Pollution affects humans in every part of the world. An October 2017 study by the Lancet Commission on Pollution and Health found that global pollution, specifically toxic air, water, soil and workplaces, kills nine million people annually, which is triple the number of deaths caused by AIDS, tuberculosis and malaria combined, and 15 times higher than deaths caused by wars and other forms of human violence.[47] The study concluded that "pollution is one of the great existential challenges of the Anthropocene era. Pollution endangers the stability of the Earth's support systems and threatens the continuing survival of human societies."[7]

Adverse air quality can kill many organisms, including humans. Ozone pollution can cause respiratory disease, cardiovascular disease, throat inflammation, chest pain, and congestion. A 2010 analysis estimated that 1.2 million people died prematurely each year in China alone because of air pollution.[48] China's high smog levels can damage the human body and cause various diseases.[49] In 2019, air pollution caused 1.67 million deaths in India (17.8% of total deaths nationally).[50] Studies have estimated that the number of people killed annually in the United States could be over 50,000.[51] A study published in 2022 in GeoHealth concluded that energy-related fossil fuel emissions in the United States cause 46,900–59,400 premature deaths each year and PM2.5-related illness and death costs the nation $537–$678 billion annually.[52] In the US, deaths caused by coal pollution were highest in 1999, but decreased sharply after 2007. The number dropped by about 95% by 2020, as coal plants have been closed or have scrubbers installed.[53]

In 2019, water pollution caused 1.4 million premature deaths.[54] Contamination of drinking water by untreated sewage in developing countries is an issue, for example, over 732 million Indians (56% of the population) and over 92 million Ethiopians (92.9% of the population) do not have access to basic sanitation.[55] In 2013 over 10 million people in India fell ill with waterborne illnesses in 2013, and 1,535 people died, most of them children.[56] As of 2007, nearly 500 million Chinese lack access to safe drinking water.[57]

Acute exposure to certain pollutants can have short and long term effects. Oil spills can cause skin irritations and rashes. Noise pollution induces hearing loss, high blood pressure, stress, and sleep disturbance. Mercury has been linked to developmental deficits in children and neurologic symptoms. Older people are significantly exposed to diseases induced by air pollution. Those with heart or lung disorders are at additional risk. Children and infants are also at serious risk. Lead and other heavy metals have been shown to cause neurological problems, intellectual disabilities and behavioural problems.[58] Chemical and radioactive substances can cause cancer and birth defects.

Socio economic impacts

The health impacts of pollution have both direct and lasting social consequences. A 2021 study found that exposure to pollution causes an increase in violent crime.[59] A 2019 paper linked pollution to adverse school outcomes for children.[60] A number of studies show that pollution has an adverse effect on the productivity of both indoor and outdoor workers.[61][62][63][64]

Environment

Great Pacific Garbage Patch

Pollution has been found to be present widely in the natural environment. A 2022 study published in Environmental Science & Technology found that levels of anthropogenic chemical pollution have exceeded planetary boundaries and now threaten entire ecosystems around the world.[8][9]

There are a number of effects of this:

Regulation and monitoring

This section is an excerpt from Regulation and monitoring of pollution.[edit]

To protect the environment from the adverse effects of pollution, many nations worldwide have enacted legislation to regulate various types of pollution as well as to mitigate the adverse effects of pollution. At the local level, regulation usually is supervised by environmental agencies or the broader public health system. Different jurisdictions often have different levels regulation and policy choices about pollution. Historically, polluters will lobby governments in less economically developed areas or countries to maintain lax regulation in order to protect industrialisation at the cost of human and environmental health.[citation needed]

The modern environmental regulatory environment has its origins in the United States with the beginning of industrial regulations around Air and Water pollution connected to industry and mining during the 1960s and 1970s.[65]

Because many of pollutants have trans-boundary impacts, the UN and other treaty bodies have been used to regulate pollutants that circulate as air pollution, water pollution or trade in wastes. Early international agreements were successful at addressing Global Environmental issues, such as Montreal Protocol, which banned Ozone depleting chemicals in 1987, with more recent agreements focusing on broader, more widely dispersed chemicals such as persistent organic pollutants in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants created in 2001, such as PCBs, and the Kyoto Protocol in 1997 which initiated collaboration on addressing greenhouse gases to mitigate climate change. Governments, NPOs, research groups, and citizen scientists monitor pollution with an expanding list of low-cost pollution monitoring tools.[66][67]

Control

A litter trap catches floating waste in the Yarra River, east-central Victoria, Australia.
Air pollution control system, known as a thermal oxidizer, decomposes hazard gases from industrial air streams at a factory in the United States.
A dust collector in Pristina, Kosovo

Pollution control is a term used in environmental management. It refers to the control of emissions and effluents into air, water or soil. Without pollution control, the waste products from overconsumption, heating, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, transportation and other human activities, whether they accumulate or disperse, will degrade the environment. In the hierarchy of controls, pollution prevention and waste minimization are more desirable than pollution control. In the field of land development, low impact development is a similar technique for the prevention of urban runoff.

Policy, law and monitoring/transparency/life-cycle assessment-attached economics could be developed and enforced to control pollution.[68] A review concluded that there is a lack of attention and action such as work on a globally supported "formal science–policy interface", e.g. to "inform intervention, influence research, and guide funding".[4]

In September 2023 a Global Framework on Chemicals aiming to reduce pollution was agreed during an international conference in Bonn, Germany. The framework includes 28 targets, for example, to "end the use of hazardous pesticides in agriculture where the risks have not been managed" by 2035.[69]

Practices

Devices

Cost

Pollution has a cost.[71][72][73] Manufacturing activities that cause air pollution impose health and clean-up costs on the whole of society. A manufacturing activity that causes air pollution is an example of a negative externality in production. A negative externality in production occurs "when a firm's production reduces the well-being of others who are not compensated by the firm."[74] For example, if a laundry firm exists near a polluting steel manufacturing firm, there will be increased costs for the laundry firm because of the dirt and smoke produced by the steel manufacturing firm.[75] If external costs exist, such as those created by pollution, the manufacturer will choose to produce more of the product than would be produced if the manufacturer were required to pay all associated environmental costs. Because responsibility or consequence for self-directed action lies partly outside the self, an element of externalization is involved. If there are external benefits, such as in public safety, less of the good may be produced than would be the case if the producer were to receive payment for the external benefits to others. Goods and services that involve negative externalities in production, such as those that produce pollution, tend to be overproduced and underpriced since the externality is not being priced into the market.[74]

Pollution can also create costs for the firms producing the pollution. Sometimes firms choose, or are forced by regulation, to reduce the amount of pollution that they are producing. The associated costs of doing this are called abatement costs, or marginal abatement costs if measured by each additional unit.[76] In 2005 pollution abatement capital expenditures and operating costs in the US amounted to nearly $27 billion.[77]

Dirtiest industries

The Pure Earth, an international non-for-profit organization dedicated to eliminating life-threatening pollution in the developing world, issues an annual list of some of the world's most polluting industries. Below is the list for 2016:[78]

A 2018 report by the Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy and GRAIN says that the meat and dairy industries are poised to surpass the oil industry as the world's worst polluters.[79]

Textile industry

This section is an excerpt from Chemical waste § Textile industry.[edit]
Indigo color water pollution in Phnom Penh, Cambodia, 2005

The textile industry is one of the largest polluters in the globalized world of mostly free market dominated socioeconomic systems.[80] Chemically polluted textile wastewater degrades the quality of the soil and water.[81] The pollution comes from the type of conduct of chemical treatments used e.g., in pretreatment, dyeing, printing, and finishing operations[82] that many or most market-driven companies use despite "eco-friendly alternatives". Textile industry wastewater is considered to be one the largest polluters of water and soil ecosystems, causing "carcinogenic, mutagenic, genotoxic, cytotoxic and allergenic threats to living organisms".[83][84] The textile industry uses over 8000 chemicals in its supply chain,[85] also polluting the environment with large amounts of microplastics[86] and has been identified in one review as the industry sector producing the largest amount of pollution.[87]

A campaign of big clothing brands like Nike, Adidas and Puma to voluntarily reform their manufacturing supply chains to commit to achieving zero discharges of hazardous chemicals by 2020 (global goal)[88][89] appears to have failed.

The textile industry also creates a lot of pollution that leads to externalities which can cause large economic problems. The problem usually occurs when there is no division of ownership rights. This means that the problem of pollution is largely caused because of incomplete information about which company pollutes and at what scale the damage was caused by the pollution.

Outdoor air pollution attributable to fossil fuel use alone causes ~3.61 million deaths annually, making it one of the top contributors to human death, beyond being a major driver of climate change whereby greenhouse gases are considered per se as a form of pollution (see above).[90]

Socially optimal level

See also: Right to a healthy environment

Society derives some indirect utility from pollution; otherwise, there would be no incentive to pollute. This utility may come from the consumption of goods and services that inherently create pollution (albeit the level can vary) or lower prices or lower required efforts (or inconvenience) to abandon or substitute these goods and services. Therefore, it is important that policymakers attempt to balance these indirect benefits with the costs of pollution in order to achieve an efficient outcome.[91][additional citation(s) needed]

A visual comparison of the free market and socially optimal outcomes

It is possible to use environmental economics to determine which level of pollution is deemed the social optimum. For economists, pollution is an "external cost and occurs only when one or more individuals suffer a loss of welfare". There is a socially optimal level of pollution at which welfare is maximized.[92] This is because consumers derive utility from the good or service manufactured, which will outweigh the social cost of pollution until a certain point. At this point the damage of one extra unit of pollution to society, the marginal cost of pollution, is exactly equal to the marginal benefit of consuming one more unit of the good or service.[93]

Moreover, the feasibility of pollution reduction rates could also be a factor of calculating optimal levels. While a study puts the global mean loss of life expectancy (LLE; similar to YPLL) from air pollution in 2015 at 2.9 years (substantially more than, for example, 0.3 years from all forms of direct violence), it also indicated that a significant fraction of the LLE is unavoidable in terms of current economical-technological feasibility such as aeolian dust and wildfire emission control.[94]

In markets with pollution, or other negative externalities in production, the free market equilibrium will not account for the costs of pollution on society. If the social costs of pollution are higher than the private costs incurred by the firm, then the true supply curve will be higher. The point at which the social marginal cost and market demand intersect gives the socially optimal level of pollution. At this point, the quantity will be lower and the price will be higher in comparison to the free market equilibrium.[93] Therefore, the free market outcome could be considered a market failure because it "does not maximize efficiency".[74]

This model can be used as a basis to evaluate different methods of internalizing the externality, such as tariffs, a Pigouvian tax (such as a carbon tax) and cap and trade systems.

History

Further information: History of environmental pollution and Legacy pollution

Prior to 19th century

Air pollution has always accompanied civilizations. Pollution started from prehistoric times, when man created the first fires. According to a 1983 article in the journal Science, "soot" found on ceilings of prehistoric caves provides ample evidence of the high levels of pollution that was associated with inadequate ventilation of open fires."[95]

Metal forging appears to be a key turning point in the creation of significant air pollution levels outside the home. Core samples of glaciers in Greenland indicate increases in pollution associated with Greek, Roman, and Chinese metal production.[96]

Air pollution in the US, 1973

The burning of coal and wood, and the presence of many horses in concentrated areas made the cities the primary sources of pollution. King Edward I of England banned the burning of sea-coal by proclamation in London in 1272, after its smoke became a problem;[97][98] the fuel was so common in England that this earliest of names for it was acquired because it could be carted away from some shores by the wheelbarrow.

19th century

The Industrial Revolution gave birth to environmental pollution as we know it today. London also recorded one of the earlier extreme cases of water quality problems with the Great Stink on the Thames of 1858, which led to the construction of the London sewerage system soon afterward. Pollution issues escalated as population growth far exceeded the viability of neighborhoods to handle their waste problem. Reformers began to demand sewer systems and clean water.[99]

In 1870, the sanitary conditions in Berlin were among the worst in Europe. August Bebel recalled conditions before a modern sewer system was built in the late 1870s:

Waste-water from the houses collected in the gutters running alongside the curbs and emitted a truly fearsome smell. There were no public toilets in the streets or squares. Visitors, especially women, often became desperate when nature called. In the public buildings the sanitary facilities were unbelievably primitive....As a metropolis, Berlin did not emerge from a state of barbarism into civilization until after 1870.[100]

20th and 21st century

The primitive conditions were intolerable for a world national capital, and the Imperial German government brought in its scientists, engineers, and urban planners to solve the deficiencies and forge Berlin as the world's model city. A British expert in 1906 concluded that Berlin represented "the most complete application of science, order and method of public life," adding "it is a marvel of civic administration, the most modern and most perfectly organized city that there is."[101]

The emergence of great factories and consumption of immense quantities of coal gave rise to unprecedented air pollution, and the large volume of industrial chemical discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste. Chicago and Cincinnati were the first two American cities to enact laws ensuring cleaner air in 1881. Pollution became a significant issue in the United States in the early twentieth century, as progressive reformers took issue with air pollution caused by coal burning, water pollution caused by bad sanitation, and street pollution caused by the three million horses who worked in American cities in 1900, generating large quantities of urine and manure. As historian Martin Melosi notes, the generation that first saw automobiles replacing horses saw cars as "miracles of cleanliness".[102] By the 1940s, automobile-caused smog was a significant issue in Los Angeles.[103]

Other cities followed around the country until early in the 20th century when the short-lived Office of Air Pollution was created under the Department of the Interior. The cities of Los Angeles experienced extreme smog events and Donora, Pennsylvania, in the late 1940s, serving as another public reminder.[104]

Air pollution would continue to be a problem in England, especially later during the Industrial Revolution, and extending into the recent past with the Great Smog of 1952. Awareness of atmospheric pollution spread widely after World War II, with fears triggered by reports of radioactive fallout from atomic warfare and testing.[105] Then a non-nuclear event – the Great Smog of 1952 in London – killed at least 4000 people.[106] This prompted some of the first major modern environmental legislation: the Clean Air Act of 1956.

Pollution began to draw significant public attention in the United States between the mid-1950s and early 1970s, when Congress passed the Noise Control Act, the Clean Air Act, the Clean Water Act, and the National Environmental Policy Act.[107]

Smog pollution in Taiwan

Severe incidents of pollution helped increase consciousness. PCB dumping in the Hudson River resulted in a ban by the EPA on consumption of its fish in 1974. National news stories in the late 1970s – especially the long-term dioxin contamination at Love Canal starting in 1947 and uncontrolled dumping in Valley of the Drums – led to the Superfund legislation of 1980.[108] The pollution of industrial land gave rise to the name brownfield, a term now common in city planning.

The development of nuclear science introduced radioactive contamination, which can remain lethally radioactive for hundreds of thousands of years. Lake Karachay – named by the Worldwatch Institute as the "most polluted spot" on earth – served as a disposal site for the Soviet Union throughout the 1950s and 1960s. Chelyabinsk, Russia, is considered the "Most polluted place on the planet".[109]

Nuclear weapons continued to be tested in the Cold War, especially in the earlier stages of their development. The toll on the worst-affected populations and the growth since then in understanding the critical threat to human health posed by radioactivity has also been a prohibitive complication associated with nuclear power. Though extreme care is practiced in that industry, the potential for disaster suggested by incidents such as those at Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima pose a lingering specter of public mistrust. Worldwide publicity has been intense on those disasters.[110] Widespread support for test ban treaties has ended almost all nuclear testing in the atmosphere.[111]

International catastrophes such as the wreck of the Amoco Cadiz oil tanker off the coast of Brittany in 1978 and the Bhopal disaster in 1984 have demonstrated the universality of such events and the scale on which efforts to address them needed to engage. The borderless nature of the atmosphere and oceans inevitably resulted in the implication of pollution on a planetary level with the issue of global warming. Most recently, the term persistent organic pollutant (POP) has come to describe a group of chemicals such as PBDEs and PFCs, among others. Though their effects remain poorly understood owing to a lack of experimental data, they have been detected in various ecological habitats far removed from industrial activity, such as the Arctic, demonstrating diffusion and bioaccumulation after only a relatively brief period of widespread use.

Litter on the coast of Guyana

The Great Pacific Garbage Patch is a concentration of plastics in the North Pacific Gyre. It and other garbage patches contain debris that can transport invasive species and that can entangle and be ingested by wildlife.[112] Organizations such as 5 Gyres and the Algalita Marine Research Foundation have researched the Great Pacific Garbage Patch and found microplastics in the water.[113]

Pollution introduced by light at night is becoming a global problem, more severe in urban centres, but contaminating also large territories, far away from towns.[114]

Growing evidence of local and global pollution and an increasingly informed public over time have given rise to environmentalism and the environmental movement, which generally seek to limit human impact on the environment.

See also

Air pollution

Soil contamination

Water pollution

Other

References

  1. ^ "Pollution – Definition from the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary". Merriam-Webster. 13 August 2010. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
  2. ^ Gaur, Nidhi; Sharma, Swati; Yadav, Nitin (2024). "Chapter 2 - Environmental pollution". Green Chemistry Approaches to Environmental Sustainability: 23–41. doi:10.1016/B978-0-443-18959-3.00010-0.
  3. ^ Dickie, Gloria (18 May 2022). "Pollution killing 9 million people a year, Africa hardest hit - study". Reuters. Retrieved 23 June 2022.
  4. ^ a b Fuller, Richard; Landrigan, Philip J; Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Bathan, Glynda; Bose-O'Reilly, Stephan; Brauer, Michael; Caravanos, Jack; Chiles, Tom; Cohen, Aaron; Corra, Lilian; Cropper, Maureen; Ferraro, Greg; Hanna, Jill; Hanrahan, David; Hu, Howard; Hunter, David; Janata, Gloria; Kupka, Rachael; Lanphear, Bruce; Lichtveld, Maureen; Martin, Keith; Mustapha, Adetoun; Sanchez-Triana, Ernesto; Sandilya, Karti; Schaefli, Laura; Shaw, Joseph; Seddon, Jessica; Suk, William; Téllez-Rojo, Martha María; Yan, Chonghuai (June 2022). "Pollution and health: a progress update". The Lancet Planetary Health. 6 (6): e535–e547. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(22)00090-0. PMID 35594895. S2CID 248905224.
  5. ^ Fuller, Richard; Landrigan, Philip J; Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Bathan, Glynda; Bose-O'Reilly, Stephan; Brauer, Michael; Caravanos, Jack; Chiles, Tom; Cohen, Aaron; Corra, Lilian; Cropper, Maureen; Ferraro, Greg; Hanna, Jill; Hanrahan, David; Hu, Howard (17 May 2022). "Pollution and health: a progress update". The Lancet Planetary Health. 6 (6): e535–e547. doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00090-0. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 35594895.
  6. ^ Beil, Laura (15 November 2017). "Pollution killed 9 million people in 2015". Science News. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  7. ^ a b Carrington, Damian (20 October 2017). "Global pollution kills 9m a year and threatens 'survival of human societies'". The Guardian. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
  8. ^ a b Persson, Linn; et al. (2022). "Outside the Safe Operating Space of the Planetary Boundary for Novel Entities". Environmental Science & Technology. 56 (3): 1510–1521. Bibcode:2022EnST...56.1510P. doi:10.1021/acs.est.1c04158. PMC 8811958. PMID 35038861.
  9. ^ a b Carrington, Damian (18 January 2022). "Chemical pollution has passed safe limit for humanity, say scientists". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 January 2022.
  10. ^ "Targeting minority, low-income neighborhoods for hazardous waste sites". University of Michigan News. 19 January 2016. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  11. ^ Schlosberg, David (2002). Light, Andrew; De-Shalit, Avner (eds.). Moral and Political Reasoning in Environmental Practice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. p. 79. ISBN 0262621649. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)
  12. ^ Schlosberg, David. (2007) Defining Environmental Justice: Theories, Movements, and Nature. Oxford University Press.
  13. ^ Environment, U. N. (21 February 2020). "A Global response to Pollution". Beat Pollution. Retrieved 11 March 2023.
  14. ^ "Vocabulary Catalog". US EPA: System of Registries. Archived from the original on 16 August 2022. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  15. ^ "pollution". glossary. UNdata. Retrieved 1 May 2022.
  16. ^ "Drinking Water". Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether. U.S. EPA. Concerns about MTBE. Archived from the original on 5 August 2015.
  17. ^ Aboyeji, Oyebanji Oluseun (1 December 2013). "Freshwater Pollution in Some Nigerian Local Communities, Causes, Consequences and Probable Solutions". Academic Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies. doi:10.5901/ajis.2013.v2n13p111.
  18. ^ Englande, A.J.; Krenkel, Peter; Shamas, J. (2015), "Wastewater Treatment &Water Reclamation☆", Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences, Elsevier: B978-0-12-409548-9.09508-7, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-409548-9.09508-7, ISBN 978-0-12-409548-9, PMC 7158167
  19. ^ Ahmed, Jebin; Thakur, Abhijeet; Goyal, Arun (2021), Shah, Maulin P (ed.), "CHAPTER 1. Industrial Wastewater and Its Toxic Effects", Chemistry in the Environment, Cambridge: Royal Society of Chemistry, pp. 1–14, doi:10.1039/9781839165399-00001, ISBN 978-1-83916-279-4
  20. ^ "Volcanic gases can be harmful to health, vegetation and infrastructure". United States Geologic Survey. Retrieved 7 May 2022.
  21. ^ Trejos, Erika M.; Silva, Luis F. O.; Hower, James C.; Flores, Eriko M. M.; González, Carlos Mario; Pachón, Jorge E.; Aristizábal, Beatriz H. (1 March 2021). "Volcanic emissions and atmospheric pollution: A study of nanoparticles". Geoscience Frontiers. 12 (2): 746–755. Bibcode:2021GeoFr..12..746T. doi:10.1016/j.gsf.2020.08.013. hdl:11323/7574. ISSN 1674-9871. S2CID 224936937.
  22. ^ "Wildfires". World Health Organization. Retrieved 8 May 2022.
  23. ^ Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max (2021). "What are the safest and cleanest sources of energy?". Our World in Data. Archived from the original on 15 January 2024. Data sources: Markandya & Wilkinson (2007); UNSCEAR (2008; 2018); Sovacool et al. (2016); IPCC AR5 (2014); Pehl et al. (2017); Ember Energy (2021).
  24. ^ Environmental Performance Report 2001 Archived 12 November 2007 at the Wayback Machine (Transport, Canada website page)
  25. ^ State of the Environment, Issue: Air Quality (Australian Government website page)
  26. ^ "Pollution". 11 April 2007. Archived from the original on 11 April 2007. Retrieved 1 December 2017.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link)
  27. ^ Laboratory, Oak Ridge National. "Top 20 Emitting Countries by Total Fossil-Fuel CO2 Emissions for 2009". Cdiac.ornl.gov. Archived from the original on 11 May 2017. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  28. ^ a b Beychok, Milton R. (1967). Aqueous Wastes from Petroleum and Petrochemical Plants (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-07189-1. LCCN 67019834.
  29. ^ Silent Spring, R Carlson, 1962
  30. ^ "Pollution Archived 2009-10-21 at the Wayback Machine". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009.
  31. ^ "Solid Waste – The Ultimate Guide". Ppsthane.com. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  32. ^ "Revolutionary CO2 maps zoom in on greenhouse gas sources Archived 2020-05-01 at the Wayback Machine". Purdue University. 7 April 2008.
  33. ^ "Waste Watcher" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
  34. ^ Alarm sounds on US population boom. 31 August 2006. The Boston Globe.
  35. ^ "China overtakes US as world's biggest CO2 emitter". Guardian.co.uk. 19 June 2007.
  36. ^ "Ranking of the world's countries by 2008 per capita fossil-fuel CO2 emission rates. Archived 2011-09-27 at the Wayback Machine". CDIAC. 2008.
  37. ^ "Environmental Pollution | Chemistry Science Fair Project". www.seminarsonly.com. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  38. ^ Beychok, Milton R. (January 1987). "A data base for dioxin and furan emissions from refuse incinerators". Atmospheric Environment. 21 (1): 29–36. Bibcode:1987AtmEn..21...29B. doi:10.1016/0004-6981(87)90267-8.
  39. ^ "Environmental disasters". www.lenntech.com. Retrieved 7 June 2022.
  40. ^ Hassan, Sidra; Haq, Ihsan ul (27 June 2019). "Pervasive Pollution Problems Caused by Plastics and its Degradation". International Journal of Online and Biomedical Engineering. 15 (10): 29–39. doi:10.3991/ijoe.v15i10.10873. ISSN 2626-8493. S2CID 198582480.
  41. ^ World Carbon Dioxide Emissions Archived 26 March 2008 at the Wayback Machine (Table 1, Report DOE/EIA-0573, 2004, Energy Information Administration)
  42. ^ Carbon dioxide emissions chart (graph on Mongabay website page based on Energy Information Administration's tabulated data)
  43. ^ "Global Warming Can Be Stopped, World Climate Experts Say". News.nationalgeographic.com. Archived from the original on 9 May 2007. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
  44. ^ World Resources Institute: August 2008 Monthly Update: Air Pollution's Causes, Consequences and Solutions Archived 1 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine Submitted by Matt Kallman on Wed, 20 August 2008 18:22. Retrieved on 17 April 2009
  45. ^ waterhealthconnection.org Overview of Waterborne Disease Trends Archived 5 September 2008 at the Wayback Machine By Patricia L. Meinhardt, MD, MPH, MA, Author. Retrieved on 16 April 2009
  46. ^ Pennsylvania State University > Potential Health Effects of Pesticides. Archived 11 August 2013 at the Wayback Machine by Eric S. Lorenz. 2007.
  47. ^ Stanglin, Doug (20 October 2017). "Global pollution is the world's biggest killer and a threat to survival of mankind, study finds". USA Today. Retrieved 20 October 2017.
  48. ^ Wong, Edward (1 April 2013). "Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Deaths in China". The New York Times. Retrieved 1 December 2017.
  49. ^ Maji, Kamal Jyoti; Arora, Mohit; Dikshit, Anil Kumar (1 April 2017). "Burden of disease attributed to ambient PM2.5 and PM10 exposure in 190 cities in China". Environmental Science and Pollution Research. 24 (12): 11559–11572. Bibcode:2017ESPR...2411559M. doi:10.1007/s11356-017-8575-7. ISSN 0944-1344. PMID 28321701. S2CID 37640939.
  50. ^ Pandey, Anamika; Brauer, Michael; Cropper, Maureen L; Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Mathur, Prashant; Dey, Sagnik; Turkgulu, Burak; Kumar, G Anil; Khare, Mukesh; Beig, Gufran; Gupta, Tarun; Krishnankutty, Rinu P; Causey, Kate; Cohen, Aaron J; Bhargava, Stuti (21 December 2020). "Health and economic impact of air pollution in the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019". The Lancet Planetary Health. 5 (1): e25–e38. doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(20)30298-9. ISSN 2542-5196. PMC 7805008. PMID 33357500.
  51. ^ David; Michael; Caroline, Mindy; Neil Franklin; Vikas. "Air Pollution – Effects". Library.thinkquest.org. Archived from the original on 30 April 2011. Retrieved 26 August 2010.
  52. ^ Mailloux, Nicholas A.; Abel, David W.; Holloway, Tracey; Patz, Jonathan A. (16 May 2022). "Nationwide and Regional PM2.5-Related Air Quality Health Benefits From the Removal of Energy-Related Emissions in the United States". GeoHealth. 6 (5): e2022GH000603. Bibcode:2022GHeal...6..603M. doi:10.1029/2022GH000603. PMC 9109601. PMID 35599962.
  53. ^ "Particulate pollution from coal associated with double the risk of mortality than PM2.5 from other sources". News. 23 Nov 2023. Retrieved 10 Apr 2024.
  54. ^ Fuller, Richard; Landrigan, Philip J; Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Bathan, Glynda; Bose-O'Reilly, Stephan; Brauer, Michael; Caravanos, Jack; Chiles, Tom; Cohen, Aaron; Corra, Lilian; Cropper, Maureen; Ferraro, Greg; Hanna, Jill; Hanrahan, David; Hu, Howard (June 2022). "Pollution and health: a progress update". The Lancet Planetary Health. 6 (6): e535–e547. doi:10.1016/s2542-5196(22)00090-0. ISSN 2542-5196. PMID 35594895.
  55. ^ "Out of Order – The State of the World's Toilets 2017" (PDF). WaterAid. November 2017. Archived (PDF) from the original on Dec 7, 2023.
  56. ^ Isalkar, Umesh (29 July 2014). "Over 1,500 lives lost to diarrhoea in 2013, delay in treatment blamed". The Times of India. Indiatimes. Retrieved 29 July 2014.
  57. ^ "As China Roars, Pollution Reaches Deadly Extremes". The New York Times. 26 August 2007.
  58. ^ World Health Organisation (31 August 2022). "Lead poisoning". www.who.int. Retrieved 5 July 2023.
  59. ^ Herrnstadt, Evan; Heyes, Anthony; Muehlegger, Erich; Saberian, Soodeh (2021). "Air Pollution and Criminal Activity: Microgeographic Evidence from Chicago". American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 13 (4): 70–100. doi:10.1257/app.20190091. hdl:10871/122348. ISSN 1945-7782. S2CID 226513602.
  60. ^ Heissel, Jennifer; Persico, Claudia; Simon, David (2019). "Does Pollution Drive Achievement? The Effect of Traffic Pollution on Academic Performance". National Bureau of Economic Research. Working Paper Series. doi:10.3386/w25489. hdl:10945/61763. S2CID 135425218.
  61. ^ Zivin, Joshua Graff; Neidell, Matthew (1 December 2012). "The Impact of Pollution on Worker Productivity". American Economic Review. 102 (7): 3652–3673. doi:10.1257/aer.102.7.3652. ISSN 0002-8282. PMC 4576916. PMID 26401055.
  62. ^ Li, Teng; Liu, Haoming; Salvo, Alberto (29 May 2015). "Severe Air Pollution and Labor Productivity". Rochester, NY: Social Science Research Network. SSRN 2581311. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  63. ^ Neidell, Matthew; Gross, Tal; Graff Zivin, Joshua; Chang, Tom Y. (2019). "The Effect of Pollution on Worker Productivity: Evidence from Call Center Workers in China" (PDF). American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 11 (1): 151–172. doi:10.1257/app.20160436. ISSN 1945-7782. S2CID 3329058.
  64. ^ Salvo, Alberto; Liu, Haoming; He, Jiaxiu (2019). "Severe Air Pollution and Labor Productivity: Evidence from Industrial Towns in China". American Economic Journal: Applied Economics. 11 (1): 173–201. doi:10.1257/app.20170286. ISSN 1945-7782. S2CID 41838178.
  65. ^ Oppenheimer, Michael (2003-10-01). "Atmospheric Pollution: History, Science, and Regulation". Physics Today. 56 (10): 65–66. Bibcode:2003PhT....56j..65J. doi:10.1063/1.1629008. ISSN 0031-9228.
  66. ^ Botero-Valencia, J.S.; Barrantes-Toro, C.; Marquez-Viloria, D.; Pearce, Joshua M. (December 2023). "Low-cost air, noise, and light pollution measuring station with wireless communication and tinyML". HardwareX. 16: e00477. doi:10.1016/j.ohx.2023.e00477. PMC 10562912. PMID 37822753.
  67. ^ Idrees, Zeba; Zheng, Lirong (2020-03-01). "Low cost air pollution monitoring systems: A review of protocols and enabling technologies". Journal of Industrial Information Integration. 17: 100123. doi:10.1016/j.jii.2019.100123. ISSN 2452-414X.
  68. ^ Ni-Bin Chang; Ana Pires (18 February 2015). Sustainable Solid Waste Management: A Systems Engineering Approach. John Wiley & Sons. p. 209. ISBN 978-1-118-96453-8.
  69. ^ "New UN framework to protect environment from harmful chemicals". United Nations. 30 September 2023. Retrieved 12 October 2023.
  70. ^ American Petroleum Institute (API) (February 1990). Management of Water Discharges: Design and Operations of Oil–Water Separators (1st ed.). American Petroleum Institute.
  71. ^ The staggering economic cost of air pollution By Chelsea Harvey, Washington Post, 29 January 2016
  72. ^ Freshwater Pollution Costs US At Least $4.3 Billion A Year, Science Daily, 17 November 2008
  73. ^ The human cost of China's untold soil pollution problem, The Guardian, Monday 30 June 2014 11.53 EDT
  74. ^ a b c Jonathan., Gruber (2013). Public finance and public policy (4th ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4292-7845-4. OCLC 819816787.
  75. ^ Kolstad, Charles D. (2011). Environmental economics (2nd ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-973264-7. OCLC 495996799.
  76. ^ "Abatement and Marginal Abatement Cost (MAC)". www.econport.org. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  77. ^ "Pollution Abatement Costs and Expenditures: 2005 Survey". US EPA. 31 March 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  78. ^ "2016 World's Worst Pollution Problems" (PDF). WorstPolluted.org. Pure Earth, Green Cross Switzerland. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 February 2024.
  79. ^ Gabbatiss, Josh (18 July 2018). "Meat and dairy companies to surpass oil industry as world's biggest polluters, report finds". The Independent. Retrieved 29 June 2019.
  80. ^ Niinimäki, Kirsi; Peters, Greg; Dahlbo, Helena; Perry, Patsy; Rissanen, Timo; Gwilt, Alison (April 2020). "The environmental price of fast fashion". Nature Reviews Earth & Environment. 1 (4): 189–200. doi:10.1038/s43017-020-0039-9. ISSN 2662-138X. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
  81. ^ Pattnaik, Punyasloka; Dangayach, G. S.; Bhardwaj, Awadhesh Kumar (1 June 2018). "A review on the sustainability of textile industries wastewater with and without treatment methodologies". Reviews on Environmental Health. 33 (2): 163–203. doi:10.1515/reveh-2018-0013. ISSN 2191-0308. PMID 29858909. S2CID 44084197.
  82. ^ Madhav, Sughosh; Ahamad, Arif; Singh, Pardeep; Mishra, Pradeep Kumar (March 2018). "A review of textile industry: Wet processing, environmental impacts, and effluent treatment methods". Environmental Quality Management. 27 (3): 31–41. doi:10.1002/tqem.21538.
  83. ^ Kishor, Roop; Purchase, Diane; Saratale, Ganesh Dattatraya; Saratale, Rijuta Ganesh; Ferreira, Luiz Fernando Romanholo; Bilal, Muhammad; Chandra, Ram; Bharagava, Ram Naresh (1 April 2021). "Ecotoxicological and health concerns of persistent coloring pollutants of textile industry wastewater and treatment approaches for environmental safety" (PDF). Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 9 (2): 105012. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2020.105012. ISSN 2213-3437. S2CID 233532794.
  84. ^ Akhtar, Muhammad Furqan; Ashraf, Muhammad; Javeed, Aqeel; Anjum, Aftab Ahmad; Sharif, Ali; Saleem, Mohammad; Mustafa, Ghulam; Ashraf, Moneeb; Saleem, Ammara; Akhtar, Bushra (28 February 2018). "Association of textile industry effluent with mutagenicity and its toxic health implications upon acute and sub-chronic exposure". Environmental Monitoring and Assessment. 190 (3): 179. doi:10.1007/s10661-018-6569-7. ISSN 1573-2959. PMID 29492685. S2CID 3710964.
  85. ^ Nimkar, Ullhas (1 February 2018). "Sustainable chemistry: A solution to the textile industry in a developing world". Current Opinion in Green and Sustainable Chemistry. 9: 13–17. doi:10.1016/j.cogsc.2017.11.002. ISSN 2452-2236.
  86. ^ Xu, Xia; Hou, Qingtong; Xue, Yingang; Jian, Yun; Wang, LiPing (20 November 2018). "Pollution characteristics and fate of microfibers in the wastewater from textile dyeing wastewater treatment plant". Water Science and Technology. 78 (10): 2046–2054. doi:10.2166/wst.2018.476. ISSN 0273-1223. PMID 30629532. S2CID 58649372.
  87. ^ Behera, Meerambika; Nayak, Jayato; Banerjee, Shirsendu; Chakrabortty, Sankha; Tripathy, Suraj K. (1 August 2021). "A review on the treatment of textile industry waste effluents towards the development of efficient mitigation strategy: An integrated system design approach". Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering. 9 (4): 105277. doi:10.1016/j.jece.2021.105277. ISSN 2213-3437. S2CID 233901225.
  88. ^ "Destination Zero: seven years of Detoxing the clothing industry" (PDF). Greenpeace. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  89. ^ "Greenpeace Calls Out Nike, Adidas and Puma for Toxic Clothing". Reuters. 9 August 2011. Retrieved 30 September 2020.
  90. ^ Lelieveld, J.; Klingmüller, K.; Pozzer, A.; Burnett, R. T.; Haines, A.; Ramanathan, V. (25 March 2019). "Effects of fossil fuel and total anthropogenic emission removal on public health and climate". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 116 (15): 7192–7197. Bibcode:2019PNAS..116.7192L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1819989116. PMC 6462052. PMID 30910976. S2CID 85515425.
  91. ^ "18.1 Maximizing the Net Benefits of Pollution | Principles of Economics". open.lib.umn.edu. 17 June 2016. Retrieved 7 March 2018.
  92. ^ William), Pearce, David W. (David (1990). Economics of natural resources and the environment. Turner, R. Kerry. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. ISBN 978-0-8018-3987-0. OCLC 20170416.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  93. ^ a b R., Krugman, Paul (2013). Microeconomics. Wells, Robin. (3rd ed.). New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 978-1-4292-8342-7. OCLC 796082268.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  94. ^ Lelieveld, Jos; Pozzer, Andrea; Pöschl, Ulrich; Fnais, Mohammed; Haines, Andy; Münzel, Thomas (1 September 2020). "Loss of life expectancy from air pollution compared to other risk factors: a worldwide perspective". Cardiovascular Research. 116 (11): 1910–1917. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvaa025. ISSN 0008-6363. PMC 7449554. PMID 32123898.
  95. ^ Spengler, John D.; Sexton, K. A. (1983). "Indoor Air Pollution: A Public Health Perspective". Science. 221 (4605): 9–17 [p. 9]. Bibcode:1983Sci...221....9S. doi:10.1126/science.6857273. PMID 6857273.
  96. ^ Hong, Sungmin; et al. (1996). "History of Ancient Copper Smelting Pollution During Roman and Medieval Times Recorded in Greenland Ice". Science. 272 (5259): 246–249 [p. 248]. Bibcode:1996Sci...272..246H. doi:10.1126/science.272.5259.246. S2CID 176767223.
  97. ^ David Urbinato (Summer 1994). "London's Historic "Pea-Soupers"". United States Environmental Protection Agency. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  98. ^ "Deadly Smog". PBS. 17 January 2003. Retrieved 2 August 2006.
  99. ^ Lee Jackson, Dirty Old London: The Victorian Fight Against Filth (2014)
  100. ^ Cited in David Clay Large, Berlin (2000) pp 17-18
  101. ^ Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Berlin" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 03 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 785–791, see page 786. Dr A. Shadwell (Industrial Efficiency, London, 1906) describes it as representing "the most complete application of science.... "
  102. ^ Patrick Allitt, A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism (2014) p 206
  103. ^ Jeffry M. Diefendorf; Kurkpatrick Dorsey (2009). City, Country, Empire: Landscapes in Environmental History. University of Pittsburgh Press. pp. 44–49. ISBN 978-0-8229-7277-8.
  104. ^ Fleming, James R.; Knorr, Bethany R. "History of the Clean Air Act". American Meteorological Society. Retrieved 14 February 2006.
  105. ^ Patrick Allitt, A Climate of Crisis: America in the Age of Environmentalism (2014) pp. 15–21
  106. ^ 1952: London fog clears after days of chaos (BBC News)
  107. ^ John Tarantino. "Environmental Issues". The Environmental Blog. Archived from the original on 11 January 2012. Retrieved 10 December 2011.
  108. ^ Judith A. Layzer, "Love Canal: hazardous waste and politics of fear" in Layzer, The Environmental Case (CQ Press, 2012) pp. 56–82.
  109. ^ Lenssen, "Nuclear Waste: The Problem that Won't Go Away", Worldwatch Institute, Washington, D.C., 1991: 15.
  110. ^ Friedman, Sharon M. (2011). "Three Mile Island, Chernobyl, and Fukushima: An analysis of traditional and new media coverage of nuclear accidents and radiation". Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. 67 (5): 55–65. Bibcode:2011BuAtS..67e..55F. doi:10.1177/0096340211421587. S2CID 145396822.
  111. ^ Jonathan Medalia, Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty: Background and Current Developments (Diane Publishing, 2013.)
  112. ^ "Garbage Patches". NOAA Marine Debris Program. 21 March 2024. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
  113. ^ Hoare, Rose (22 May 2012). "Research ship finds the world's oceans are 'plasticized'". CNN. Retrieved 8 June 2024.
  114. ^ Falchi, Fabio; Cinzano, Pierantonio; Duriscoe, Dan; Kyba, Christopher C. M.; Elvidge, Christopher D.; Baugh, Kimberly; Portnov, Boris A.; Rybnikova, Nataliya A.; Furgoni, Riccardo (1 June 2016). "The new world atlas of artificial night sky brightness". Science Advances. 2 (6): e1600377. arXiv:1609.01041. Bibcode:2016SciA....2E0377F. doi:10.1126/sciadv.1600377. ISSN 2375-2548. PMC 4928945. PMID 27386582.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pollution&oldid=1256752596#Pollution_control"