Fascism in Asia
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Fascist movements gained popularity in many countries in Asia during the 1920s.[1]
East Asia
[edit]China
[edit]Kuomintang
[edit]The Kuomintang, a Chinese nationalist political party, had an alleged history of fascism under Chiang Kai-shek's leadership.[2][3]
The Blue Shirts Society has been described as one of the most relevant fascist groups in China at the time. It began as a secret society in the KMT military before being reformed within the party.[4] By the 1930s, it had influence upon China's economy and society.[5][6] Historian Jeffrey Crean notes, however, that the Blue Shirts impacted only elite politics, not the vast majority of China's population.[7]: 64–65 The Blue Shirts held contempt for liberal democracy and stressed the political usefulness of violence.[7]: 64 They were influenced by KMT contact with Nazi advisors and inspired by the German Brownshirts and the Italian Blackshirts. Unlike those organizations, however, the Blue Shirts were composed of political elites, not the popular masses.[7]: 64
Close Sino-German ties also promoted cooperation between the Nationalist Government and Nazi Germany in the early-to-mid 1930s. However, despite early diplomatic honeymoon between Nationalist China and Nazi Germany, the Sino-German relationship rapidly deteriorated as Germany failed to pursue a detente between China and Japan, which led to the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War. China later declared war on fascist countries, including Germany, Italy, and Japan, as part of the Declarations of war during World War II and became the most powerful "anti-fascist" nation in Asia.[8]
The New Life Movement was a government-led civic movement in 1930s China initiated by Chiang Kai-shek to promote cultural reform and Neo-Confucian social morality, and to ultimately unite China under a centralised ideology following the emergence of ideological challenges to the status quo. The Movement attempted to counter threats of Western and Japanese imperialism through a resurrection of traditional Chinese morality, which it held to be superior to modern Western values. As such the Movement was based upon Confucianism, mixed with Christianity, nationalism and authoritarianism that had some similarities to fascism.[9] It rejected individualism and liberalism, while also opposing socialism and communism. Some historians regard this movement as imitating Nazism and being a neo-nationalistic movement used to elevate Chiang's control of everyday lives. Frederic Wakeman suggested that the New Life Movement was "Confucian fascism".[10] The New Life Movement drew inspirations from the Blue Shirts Society, although some historians are reluctant to define them as fascist.[4]
Kai-tsu p'ai faction of the Kuomintang
[edit]Wang Jingwei, a right-wing nationalist and anti-communist member of the Kuomintang (Nationalist Party of China), and in particular the left-wing nationalist Kai-tsu p'ai (Reorganization) faction, was originally hostile towards fascism in Europe. Still, it gradually drifted into supporting fascism, especially the economic policies of Nazism in the late 1930s.[11][12] Wang Jingwei's visit to Germany in 1936 changed his views on fascism, and afterward he spoke positively about European fascist states, saying, "Several advanced countries have already expanded their national vitality and augmented their people's strength, and are no longer afraid of foreign aggression."[13] Publicist T'iang Leang-Li of the People's Tribune newspaper associated with the Kai-tsu p'ai promoted fascism in Europe while attempting to distance Kai-tsu p'ai from its overtly negative aspects, and wrote in 1937: "Whatever we may think about fascist and Nazi methods and policies, we must recognize the fact that their leaders have secured the enthusiastic support of their respective nations."[13] T'iang Leang-Li claimed that the "foolish, unwise, and even cruel things" done in fascist states had been done positively to bring about "tremendous change in the political outlook of the German and Italian people".[13] T'iang Leang-Li wrote articles that positively assessed the "socialist" character of Nazism. Similarly, Shih Shao-pei of the Kai-tsu p'ai rebuked Chinese critics of Nazism by saying, "We in China [...] have heard too much about the 'national' and other flagwaving activities of the Nazis, and not enough about the 'socialist' work they are doing."[13] Shih Shao-pei wrote about reports of improved working conditions in German factories, the vacations given to employees by Kraft durch Freude, improved employer-employee relations, and the public service work camps for the unemployed.[13] Other works in the People's Tribune spoke positively about Nazism, saying that it was bringing the "integration of the working classes ... into the National Socialist state and the abolition of ... the evil elements of modern capitalism".[13]
Feudal fascism
[edit]Neoauthoritarianism
[edit]Neoauthoritarianism (or neoconservatism) is a current of political thought that advocates a powerful state to facilitate market reforms.[14]
Some critics have pointed out that Chinese neoconservatism is "fascistic";[15] Slavoj Žižek said, "Deng Xiaoping changed China from a communist country to soft fascism: liberalise the economy, liberalise culture, but the party retains absolute control."[16] In the 70th anniversary of the People's Republic of China, there is an analysis that Xi Jinping's rhetoric is similar to the Nazi Party Congress.[17] In the 21st century, there has been renewed Chinese academic interest in the ideas of German jurist and Nazi Party member Carl Schmitt.[18][19][20]
Japan
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Statism in Shōwa Japan
[edit]Shōwa Statism (國家主義, Kokkashugi) is the nationalist ideology associated with the Empire of Japan, particularly during the Shōwa era. It is sometimes also referred to as Emperor-system fascism (天皇制ファシズム, Tennōsei fashizumu),[21][22] Japanese-style fascism (日本型ファシズム, Nihongata fashizumu)[22] or Shōwa nationalism. Developed over time since the Meiji Restoration, it advocated for ultranationalism, traditionalist conservatism, militarist imperialism and a dirigisme-based economy.
Taisei Yokusankai
[edit]
The Taisei Yokusankai (大政翼賛会, Imperial Rule Assistance Association) was created by Prime Minister Fumimaro Konoe on 12 October 1940. It evolved into a "militaristic" political party, which aimed to remove sectionalism from the politics and economics of the Empire of Japan to create a totalitarian one-party state, to maximize the efficiency of Japan's total war effort in World War II.[citation needed]
Tohokai
[edit]Tohokai was a Japanese Nazi party formed by Seigo Nakano.[citation needed]
National Socialist Workers' Party
[edit]The National Socialist Japanese Workers' Party was a small neo-nazi party which is now classified as an uyoku dantai, a small Japanese ultranationalist far-right group.[citation needed]
Korean Peninsula
[edit]North Korea
[edit]Brian Reynolds Myers judged that North Korea's dominant ideology was not communism, but nationalism derived from Japanese fascism. Some scholars point out that North Korea's Juche ideology has a far-right and fascist element, but it is debated whether Juche ideology is a far-right ideology.
South Korea
[edit]Lee Bum-seok, a Korean independence activist and South Korean national-conservative politician, was negative about Nazi Germany and the Japanese Empire, but positively evaluated their strong patriotism and fascism based on ethnic nationalism. Along with South Korea's right-wing nationalist Ahn Ho-sang, he embodied the One-People Principle, a major ideology of the Syngman Rhee regime.[23]
Some South Korean liberal-left media have defined Park Chung-hee administration as an anti-American, Pan-Asian fascist and Chinilpa regime influenced by Ikki Kita's "Pure Socialism" (純正社会主義, Korean: 순정 사회주의).[24][25][26]
South Asia
[edit]India
[edit]Indian independence activist Subhas Chandra Bose insisted on the union of Nazism and communism. He was also a supporter of Shōwa Statism.
Hindutva is the predominant form of Hindu nationalism in India and was mainstreamed into the politics of India with Narendra Modi's election as prime minister in 2014.[27][28] As a political ideology, the term Hindutva was articulated by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1923.[29] It is championed by the Hindu Nationalist volunteer organisation Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)[30][31] and other organisations, collectively called the Sangh Parivar. The Hindutva movement has been described as a variant of "right-wing extremism"[27] and as "almost fascist in the classical sense", adhering to a concept of homogenised majority and cultural hegemony.[32][33] Some analysts dispute the "fascist" label, and suggest Hindutva is an extreme form of "conservatism" or "ethnic absolutism".[citation needed] Hindutva organizations are mainly for nationalism and peace. They also want Akhand Bharat, or greater India, which includes India's historical boundaries of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Nepal, Tibet, Bhutan, Myanmar and Sri Lanka. Some people also include Iran, Afghanistan, Indonesia, Thailand, Malaysia and more.[34]
Southeast Asia
[edit]Indonesia
[edit]In 1933, in the Dutch East Indies, the Javanese politician Notonindito created the short-lived Indonesian Fascist Party. He had previously participated in the political party of Sukarno, the Indonesian National Party.
There also existed a branch of the Dutch National Socialist Movement (NSB) in Indonesia, namely the Indo NSB. It mainly consisted of Indos, who were of mixed Dutch and Indonesian descent.
Notonindito, the party's founder, was already well acquainted with Europeans and European society in the Indies in his youth through his membership in the Theosophical Society. In the early 1920s he had traveled to Europe to complete his education, first in The Hague and then in Berlin, where he finished a doctorate in Economics and Commerce. After his return to the Indies, he became involved in the Indonesian nationalist movement, at first in the Sarekat Islam Party in 1927 and then Sukarno's Indonesian National Party in 1929, eventually becoming its chairman in Pekalongan.
In the early 1930s in the Indies, the influence of fascism was being increasingly felt, with organizations such as the Netherlands Indies Fascist Organization (Dutch: Nederlandsch Indische Fascisten Organisatie, NIFO) and Fascisten Unie. These organizations appealed to expatriate Germans living in the Indies, as well as some Dutch and Indo (mixed race) people.
In the summer of 1933, newspapers in Java reported that Notonindito has broken his ties with the Indonesian National Party and founded his own party which he called the Partai Fasis Indonesia (Indonesian Fascist Party). The party was said to have as its goal an independent Java with a descendant of Sutawijaya (founder of the Mataram Sultanate) as its constitutional monarch. The party also wished the Indies to become a federation of such independent kingdoms with a non-aggression pact with the Netherlands. Reaction to the new party was generally quite negative in the Indies press. For example, a newspaper associated with the Indonesian National Party, Menjala, stated that solutions to the Indies' problems should be found in the present, not in the Feudal past. Sikap, likewise, thought that such a project was against the interests of the common Indonesian and that a twisting of Javanese historical figures into Fascist mythology was poorly considered, whereas the editors of Djawa Barat thought the party was counterproductive and harmful. Notonindito quickly denied to newspapers that he had "accepted the offer" of this party to become its leader. Nonetheless, investigation by De Locomotief seemed to indicate that the party did indeed existed and that it had a few dozen members at that time. It is unclear what happened to the party soon after.
Thailand
[edit]It is well known that the Thai Prime Minister during the Second World War, Plaek Phibunsongkhram, was inspired by Benito Mussolini.
He has established the Seri Manangkhasila Party on 29 September 1955 as the first political party registered after the announcement of the Political Parties Act, B.E. 1955, with Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkram, Prime Minister, as the party leader. The party secretary was Pol. Gen Phao Sriyanond, the Director of the Police Department. The deputy leaders of the party were Field Marshal Sarit Thanarat, Commander-in-Chief of the Royal Thai Army, and Air Marshal Fuen Ronnaphagrad Ritthakhanee, Commander of the Royal Thai Air Force, with the party head office located at Manangkhasila House.
Malaysia
[edit]A constitutional framework that elevated Malay Supremacism had as its basis a series of Malay congresses culminating in the formation of a right-wing nationalist party called the United Malays National Organization (UMNO). It was founded on 10 May 1946 at the Third Malay Congress in Johor Bahru, with Datuk Onn Jaafar as its founder with the slogan "Long Live Malays" and "Malaya For Malays". After that, the (United Malays National Organization) party joined together with two other right-wing parties from the Malayan Chinese Association (MCA), which represented the Chinese ethnic group and the Malayan Indian Congress (MIC) which represented the Indian ethnic group who agreed in fighting for the ideology of nationalism to form a new alliance of three parties from UMNO, MCA and MIC jointly on 30 October 1957 which was named (Parti Perikatan) or Alliance Party and replaced and reformed the party on 1, January 1974 which was named as the BN Party (Barisan Nasional) or Front National to continue the ideology of Racial Supremacism according to their respective ethnic parties to bring a combination of right-wing ideology.
West Asia
[edit]Iran
[edit]Fascism in Iran was adhered to by the SUMKA (Hezb-e Sosialist-e Melli-ye Kargaran-e Iran or the Iran National-Socialist Workers Group), a neo-Nazi party founded by Davud Monshizadeh in 1952. SUMKA copied not only the ideology of the Nazi Party but also that group's style, adopting the swastika, the black shirt and the Hitler salute. At the same time, Monshizadeh even sought to cultivate an appearance similar to that of Adolf Hitler.[35] The group became associated with opposition to Mohammad Mosaddegh and the Tudeh Party while supporting the Shah over Mossadegh.[35] The Pan-Iranist Party is a right-wing group that has also been accused of being fascist due to its adherence to chauvinism[36] and irredentism, along with the rise of Zoroastrian nationalism among many Iranians due to the decline of Islam in the country.[37]
Iraq
[edit]The Al-Muthanna Club (Arabic: نادي المثنى) was an influential Pan-Arab fascist society established in Baghdad ca. 1935 to 1937 which remained active until May 1941, when the coup d'état of Pro-Nazi Rashid Ali al-Gaylani failed. It was named after Al-Muthanna ibn Haritha, an Iraqi Muslim Arab general who led forces that helped to defeat the Persian Sassanids at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah. Later known as the National Democratic Party, Nadi al-Muthanna was influenced by European fascism and controlled by radical Arab nationalists who, according to 2005's Memories of State, "formed the core of new radicals" for a combined Pan-Arab civilian and military coalition.
In 1938, as fascism in Iraq grew, Saib Shawkat, a known fascist and pan-Arab nationalist, was appointed director-general of education.
With co-founder:Taha al-Hashimi, Shawkat founded the al-Muthanna club in 1939, and the club remained under his guidance.
Under German ambassador Fritz Grobba's influence, The al-Muthanna club developed a youth organization, the Al-Futuwwa, modeled on European fascist lines and on the Hitler Youth.
Yunis al-Sabawi (يونس السبعاوي) (who translated Hitler's book Mein Kampf into Arabic in the early 1930s) was active in the al-Muthanna club and in the leadership of the al-Futuwwa. He was a deputy in the Iraqi government, minister of economics. Al-Sabawi had become anti-Semitic; on 1 and 2 June 1941, members of al-Muthanna and its youth organization led a mob that attacked Baghdad's Jewish community in a pogrom later named the Farhud. Two days before Farhud, Al-Sabawi, a government minister who proclaimed himself the governor of Baghdad, had summoned Rabbi Sasson Khaduri, the community leader, and recommended to him that Jews stay in their homes for the next three days as a protective measure. He had planned for a larger massacre, planning to broadcast a call for the Baghdad public to massacre Jews. However, the broadcast was never made since al-Sabawi was forced to flee the country.
After the British overthrew the coup government, Sabawi was court-martialed for the mutiny, sentenced to death, and hanged on 5 May 1942.
Israel
[edit]Revisionist Maximalism
[edit]The Revisionist Maximalist short-term movement formed by Abba Achimeir in 1930 was the ideology of the right-wing fascist faction Brit HaBirionim within the Zionist Revisionist Movement (ZRM). Achimeir was a self-described fascist who wrote a series of articles in 1928 titled "From the Diary of a Fascist".[38] Achimeir rejected humanism, liberalism, and socialism; condemned liberal Zionists for only working for middle-class Jews; and stated the need for an integralist, "pure nationalism" similar to that in Fascist Italy under Benito Mussolini.[38][39] Achimeir refused to be part of reformist Zionist coalitions and insisted that he would only support revolutionary Zionists willing to utilize violence.[40] Anti-Jewish violence in 1929 in the British Mandate of Palestine resulted in a rise in support for Revisionist Maximalists and lead Achimeir to decry British rule, claiming that the English people were declining while the Jewish people were ready to flourish, saying:
We fought the Egyptian Pharaoh, the Roman emperors, the Spanish Inquisition, the Russian tsars. They 'defeated' us. But where are they today? Can we not cope with a few despicable muftis or sheiks?... For us, the forefathers, the prophets, the zealots were not mythological concepts...." Abba Achimeir.[41]
In 1930, Achimeir and the Revisionist-Maximalists became the largest faction within the ZRM and they called for closer relations with Fascist Italy and the Italian people, based on Achimeir's claim that Italians were deemed the least anti-Semitic people in the world.[42]
In 1932, the Revisionist Maximalists pressed the ZRM to adopt their policies, titled the "Ten Commandments of Maximalism", made "in the spirit of complete fascism".[40] Moderate ZRM members refused to accept this and moderate ZRM member Yaacov Kahan pressured the Revisionist Maximalists to take the democratic nature of the ZRM and not push for the party to adopt fascist dictatorial policies.[40]
Despite the Revisionist Maximalists' opposition to the anti-Semitism of the Nazi Party, Achimeir was initially controversially supportive of the Nazi Party in early 1933, believing that the Nazis' rise to power was positive because it recognized that previous attempts by Germany to assimilate Jews had finally been proven to be failures.[43] In March 1933, Achimeir wrote about the Nazi party, stating, "The anti-Semitic wrapping should be discarded but not its anti-Marxist core...."[40] Achimeir personally believed that the Nazis' anti-Semitism was just a nationalist ploy that did not have substance.[44]
After Achimeir supported the Nazis, other Zionists within the ZRM quickly condemned Achimeir and the Revisionist Maximalists for their support of Hitler.[45] Achimeir, in response to the outrage, in May 1933 reversed their position and opposed Nazi Germany and began to burn down German consulates and tear down Germany's flag.[45] However, in 1933, Revisionist Maximalist' support quickly deteriorated and fell apart; they would not be reorganized until 1938, after a new leader replaced Achimeir.[45]
Lebanon
[edit]Within Lebanon, two pre-war groups emerged that took their inspiration from the fascist groups active in Europe at the time. In 1936 the Kataeb Party was founded by Pierre Gemayel, and this group also took its inspiration from the European fascists, using the Nazi salute and a brown shirted uniform.[46] This group also espoused a strong sense of Lebanese nationalism and a leadership cult. Still, it did not support totalitarianism and as a result, it could not be characterised as fully fascist.[47][48] Both groups are still active, although neither of them demonstrates the characteristics of fascism now.
Syria
[edit]The Syrian Social Nationalist Party was founded in 1932 by Antun Saadeh to restore independence to Syria from France and take its lead from Nazism and fascism.[49] This group also used the Roman salute and a symbol similar to the swastika[50][51][52] while Saadeh borrowed elements of Nazi ideology, notably the cult of personality and the yearning for a mythical, racially pure golden age.[53] A youth group, based on the Hitler Youth template, was also organised.[54]
Turkey
[edit]In Turkey, the group known as the Grey Wolves is widely regarded as neofascist; they are understood to operate as a paramilitary group and are famous for their salute known as the Wolf salute. They are regarded as a terrorist group variously in Austria, Kazakhstan, and France.[55]
See also
[edit]- Anti-fascism
- Fascism in Europe
- Fascism in North America
- Fascism in South America
- Post–World War II anti-fascism
- Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world
References
[edit]- ^ Thomas David DuBois (25 April 2011), Religion and the Making of Modern East Asia, Cambridge University Press, pp. 176–, ISBN 978-1-139-49946-0
- ^ Eastman, Lloyd (2021). "Fascism in Kuomintang China: The Blue Shirts". The China Quarterly (49). Cambridge University Press: 1–31. JSTOR 652110. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ Payne, Stanley (2021). A History of Fascism 1914-1945. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 337. ISBN 9780299148744. Retrieved 2 February 2021.
- ^ a b "Origins and Development of Chinese Fascism". Divulga UAB - University research dissemination magazine. February 2015.
- ^ Hans J. Van de Ven (2003). War and nationalism in China, 1925-1945. Psychology Press. p. 165. ISBN 0-415-14571-6. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ Suisheng Zhao (1996). Power by design: constitution-making in Nationalist China. University of Hawaii Press. p. 62. ISBN 0-8248-1721-4. Retrieved 2010-06-28.
- ^ a b c Crean, Jeffrey (2024). The Fear of Chinese Power: an International History. New Approaches to International History series. London, UK: Bloomsbury Academic. ISBN 978-1-350-23394-2.
- ^ Guido Samarani, ed. (2005). Shaping the Future of Asia: Chiang Kai-shek, Nehru and China-India Relations During the Second World War Period. Centre for East and South-East Asian Studies, Lund University.
- ^ Schoppa, R. Keith. The Revolution and Its Past (New York: Pearson Prentic Hall, 2nd ed. 2006, pp. 208–209 .
- ^ Wakeman, Frederic, Jr. (1997). "A Revisionist View of the Nanjing Decade: Confucian Fascism." The China Quarterly 150: 395–432.
- ^ Dongyoun Hwang. Wang Jingwei, The National Government, and the Problem of Collaboration. Ph.D. Dissertation, Duke University. UMI Dissertation Services, Ann Arbor, Michigan. 2000, 118.
- ^ Larsen, Stein Ugelvik (ed.). Fascism Outside of Europe. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-88033-988-8. p. 255.
- ^ a b c d e f Larsen, p. 255.
- ^ Bramall, Chris (2008). Chinese Economic Development. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-134-19051-5.
- ^ Shambaugh, David (April 2, 2008). China's Communist Party: Atrophy and Adaptation. University of California Press. p. 177. ISBN 978-0-520-25492-3.
- ^ "Slavoj Žižek's war with the left: At 75, the "rock star" intellectual has alienated many. But is his politics a strange source of sanity?". New Statesman. 27 July 2024. Retrieved 17 November 2024.
- ^ Niklas Hageback, ed. (July 2022). The Downfall of China Or CCP 3.0?. Histria Books.
And the rhetoric at the 70th anniversary matched that of the Nazi Party Congress ... Xi Jinping's speeches were heavily interspersed with fight talk, much more than any of his recent predecessors, and an eagerness to confront both internal and external enemies, something which has not been heard since the times of Mao Tse Tung.
- ^ Che, Chang (December 1, 2020). "The Nazi Inspiring China's Communists". The Atlantic. Archived from the original on 1 December 2020. Retrieved December 1, 2020.
- ^ Liu, Jiantao. "Carl Schmitt, Liu Xiaofeng, and the Longevity of Chinese Empire". illiberalism.org. Retrieved 2024-11-18.
- ^ Libin, Xie; Patapan, Haig (2020-05-21). "Schmitt Fever: The use and abuse of Carl Schmitt in contemporary China". International Journal of Constitutional Law. 18 (1): 130–146. doi:10.1093/icon/moaa015. hdl:10072/396618. ISSN 1474-2640.
- ^ Kasza, Gregory (2006). Blamires, Cyprian; Jackson, Paul (eds.). World Fascism: A-K. ABC-CLIO. p. 353. ISBN 9781576079409.
- ^ a b Tansman, Alan (2009). The Culture of Japanese Fascism. Duke University Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780822390701.
- ^ ""100% 대한민국", 가능하다! 파시즘이라면". 프레시안. 25 January 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2021.
- ^ "한국의 파시즘은 사라졌나: 일본 극우에 사상적 뿌리둔 박정희의 유산… 무의식에 깔린 잔재마저 청산해야" [Has Korean fascism disappeared?: Park Jeong-hee's legacy is ideologically rooted in the far right of Japan... Even the remnants of unconsciousness must be cleared.]. The Hankyoreh (in Korean). 18 November 1999. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
- ^ "홍종학, 박정희와 나치 "상당히 유사"…논문서 주장" [Hong Jong-hak argued in his paper that Park Jung-hee and the Nazis are "very similar".]. 이데일리 (in Korean). 24 October 2017. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
- ^ "10월 17일 유신 선포... '천황파시즘' 흠모한 박정희: 10월 유신은 일본제국 파시즘 체제의 전면적 부활" [Park Jung-hee, who declared a Yushin on October 17, admired the Tennō fascism: The October Yushin means the full revival of the Japanese imperial style fascism system.]. OhmyNews (in Korean). 16 October 2012. Retrieved 9 October 2021.
- ^ a b Leidig, Eviane (2020-07-17). "Hindutva as a variant of right-wing extremism". Patterns of Prejudice. 54 (3): 215–237. doi:10.1080/0031322X.2020.1759861. hdl:10852/84144. ISSN 0031-322X.
- ^ Purandare, Vaibhav (22 August 2019). "Hindutva is not the same as Hinduism said Savarkar". telegraphindia.com. Retrieved 23 December 2020.
- ^ Pavan Kulkarni (28 May 2019). "How Did Savarkar, a Staunch Supporter of British Colonialism, Come to Be Known as 'Veer'?". The Wire.
- ^ The Hindutva Road, Frontline, 4 December 2004
- ^ Krishna 2011, p. 324.
- ^ Prabhat Patnaik (1993). "Fascism of our times". Social Scientist. 21 (3/4): 69–77. doi:10.2307/3517631. JSTOR 3517631.
- ^ Frykenberg 2008, pp. 178–220: "This essay attempts to show how — from an analytical or a historical perspective — Hindutva is a melding of Hindu fascism and Hindu fundamentalism."
- ^ Chetan Bhatt; Parita Mukta (May 2000). "Hindutva in the West: Mapping the Antinomies of Diaspora Nationalism". Ethnic and Racial Studies. 23 (3): 407–441. doi:10.1080/014198700328935. S2CID 143287533.
- ^ a b Hussein Fardust, The Rise and Fall of the Pahlavi Dynasty: Memoirs of Former General Hussein, p. 62
- ^ Azimi, Fakhreddin (2008). Quest for Democracy in Iran: A Century of Struggle Against Authoritarian Rule. Harvard University Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0674027787.
- ^ Weinbaum, Marvin (1973), "Iran finds a party system: the institutionalization of Iran Novin", The Middle East Journal, 27 (4): 439–455, JSTOR 4325140
- ^ a b Kaplan, Eran (2005). The Jewish Radical Right. University of Wisconsin Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0299203801.
- ^ Larsen, Stein Ugelvik (ed.). Fascism Outside of Europe. New York: Columbia University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-88033-988-8. pp. 364–365.
- ^ a b c d Larsen, p. 377.
- ^ Larsen, p. 375.
- ^ Larsen, p. 376.
- ^ Larsen, p. 379.
- ^ Larsen, p. 381.
- ^ a b c Larsen, p. 380.
- ^ Fisk, Robert (2007-08-07). "Lebanese strike a blow at US-backed government". The Independent. Archived from the original on February 13, 2010. Retrieved 2009-04-10.
- ^ Reich, Bernard (1990). Political leaders of the contemporary Middle East and North Africa: a biographical dictionary. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 203–204 / 557. ISBN 9780313262135.
- ^ Entelis, John Pierre (1974). Pluralism and party transformation in Lebanon: Al-Kataʼib, 1936-1970. Social, economic, and political studies of the Middle East. Vol. 10. Brill. pp. 45 / 227. ISBN 9789004039117.
- ^ Simon, Reeva S. (1996). Encyclopedia of the Modern Middle East. Macmillan Reference USA. ISBN 0028960114.
The Syrian Social Nationalist party (SSNP) was the brainchild of Antun Sa'ada, a Greek Orthodox Lebanese who was inspired by Nazi and fascist ideologies.
- ^ Ya’ari, Ehud (June 1987). "Behind the Terror". Atlantic Monthly.
[The SSNP] greet their leaders with a Hitlerian salute; sing their Arabic anthem, "Greetings to You, Syria", to the strains of "Deutschland, Deutschland über alles"; and throng to the symbol of the red hurricane, a swastika in circular motion.
- ^ Pipes, Daniel (1992). Greater Syria. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0195060229.
The SSNP flag, which features a curved swastika called the red hurricane (zawba'a), points to the party's fascistic origins.
- ^ Rolland, John C. (2003). Lebanon. Nova Publishers. ISBN 1590338715.
[The SSNP's] red hurricane symbol was modeled after the Nazi swastika.
- ^ Johnson, Michael (2001). All Honourable Men. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 1860647154.
Saadeh, the party's 'leader for life', was an admirer of Adolf Hitler and influenced by Nazi and fascist ideology. This went beyond adopting a reversed swastika as the party's symbol and singing the party's anthem to Deutschland über alles, and included developing the cult of a leader, advocating totalitarian government, and glorifying an ancient pre-Christian past and the organic whole of the Syrian Volk or nation.
- ^ Becker, Jillian (1984). The PLO: The Rise and Fall of the Palestine Liberation Organization. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. ISBN 0297785478.
[The SSNP] had been founded in 1932 as a youth movement, deliberately modeled on Hitler's Nazi Party. For its symbol it invented a curved swastika, called the Zawbah.
- ^ "Diese 13 extremistischen Symbole werden verboten". Heute (in German). 12 February 2019. Archived from the original on 28 July 2020.
Works cited
[edit]- Frykenberg, Robert (2008). "Hindutva as a Political Religion: An Historical Perspective". In R. Griffin; R. Mallett; J. Tortorice (eds.). The Sacred in Twentieth-Century Politics: Essays in Honour of Professor Stanley G. Payne. Palgrave Macmillan UK. pp. 178–200. ISBN 978-0-230-24163-3.
- Krishna, Ananth V. (2011). India since Independence: Making Sense of Indian Politics. Pearson Education India. ISBN 978-8131734650.