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Dagur language

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Dagur
Daghur, Dahur, Daur
Даор Усуву

ᡩᠠᠣ‍ᠷ
ᡠᠰᡠᠸᡠ
Daor Usuwu (Hailar)
ᡩᠠᠸᡠᠷ
ᡴᡝᠯ

Dagur Kel (Qiqihar)
Pronunciation[daɔr usuɣu]
Native toChina, Mongolia, Russia
RegionChina: Inner Mongolia, Heilongjiang Province, Xinjiang
EthnicityDaur
Native speakers
(China: 91,000 cited 1999)[1]
Latin script
Mongol script
Cyrillic script[2]
Manchu script (historically)
Language codes
ISO 639-3dta
Glottologdaur1238
ELPDagur
Dagur is classified as Definitely Endangered by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

The Dagur, Daghur, Dahur, or Daur language, is a Mongolic language, as well as a distinct branch of the Mongolic language family,[3] and is primarily spoken by members of the Daur ethnic group.

There is no written standard in use, although a Pinyin-based orthography has been devised; instead the Dagur make use of Mongolian or Chinese, as most speakers know these languages as well.[4] During the time of the Qing dynasty, Dagur was written with the Manchu alphabet.[5]

Distribution

[edit]

Dagur is a Mongolic language consisting of five dialects:[6]

Phonology

[edit]

Dagur phonology is peculiar in that some of its dialects have developed a set of labialized consonants (e.g. /sʷar/ 'flea' vs. /sar/ 'moon'),[8] while it shares palatalized consonants[9] with most Mongolian dialects that have not been developed in the other Mongolic languages. It also has /f/, which is, however, limited to loan words.[10] Word-final short vowels were lost[11] and historically short vowels in non-initial syllables have lost phoneme status.[12] Dagur is the only Mongolic language to share this development with Mongolian (i.e. Mongolian proper, Oirat, Buryat). Due to the merger of /ɔ/ and /ʊ/ with /o/ and /u/, vowel harmony was lost.[13] According to Tsumagari (2003), vowel harmony is still a productive synchronic phonotactic aspect of Dagur in which initial syllable long vowels are divided into "masculine" (back), "feminine" (front), and neutral groups. Likewise, suffixal long vowels must agree in harmonic group with the root.

Vowels

[edit]
Dagur vowels (Chuluu 1994)
Front Central Back
short long short long short long
Close i iː u uː
Mid e eː ə əː ɔ ɔː
Open a aː

Consonants

[edit]
Dagur consonants (Chuluu 1994)
Labial Alveolar Postalveolar Velar
plain lab. pal. plain lab. pal. plain lab. plain lab. pal.
Stop/
Affricate 		voiceless p t tʷ tʲ tʃ tʃʷ k kʷ kʲ
voiced b bʲ d dʷ dʲ dʒ dʒʷ ɡ ɡʲ
Fricative f s sʷ ʃ x xʷ xʲ
Nasal m mʷ mʲ n nʲ ŋ
Trill r rʲ
Lateral l lʲ
Semivowel j w

Writing system

[edit]
[citation needed]
Letters Contextual forms Transliteration International Phonetic Alphabet
Initial Medial Final Latin Cyrillic
ᠠ ᠠ‍ ‍ᠠ‍ ‍ᠠ

‍ᠠ᠋

a [[[A (Cyrillic)|а]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 16) (help) /a/
ᠡ ᠡ‍ ‍ᠡ‍ ‍ᠡ

‍ᠡ᠋

e [[[E (Cyrillic)|э]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 16) (help) /ə/
ᠢ ᠢ‍ ‍ᠢ‍ ‍ᠢ i [[[I (Cyrillic)|и]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 16) (help) /i/
ᠣ ᠣ‍ ‍ᠣ‍ ‍ᠣ o [[[O (Cyrillic)|о]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 16) (help) /ɔ/
ᠦ ᡠ‍ ‍ᡠ᠊᠋‍ ‍᠊ᡠ u [[[Ue (Cyrillic)|у]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /u/
ᠨ ᠨ‍ ‍ᠨ‍

‍ᠨ᠋‍

‍ᠨ

‍ᠨ᠎

n [[[N (Cyrillic)|н]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 16) (help) /n/
ᠩ — ‍ᠩ‍ ‍ᠩ ng [нг] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 1) (help) /ŋ/
ᠪ ᠪ‍ ‍ᠪ‍ ‍ᠪ b [[[Be (Cyrillic)|б]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /b/
ᡦ᠊ ᡦ᠊‍ ‍᠊ᡦ᠊‍ — p [[[Pe (Cyrillic)|п]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /p/
ᡥ᠊ ᡥ᠊‍

‍ᡭ᠊᠎

‍᠊ᡥ᠊

‍᠊ᡭ᠊᠎

— h [[[Kha (Cyrillic)|х]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 18) (help) /x/
ᠬ ᠬ

‍ᠺ᠊᠎

‍ᠬ‍

‍᠊ᠺ᠊᠎

‍ᠬ k [[[Kha (Cyrillic)|к]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 18) (help) /k/
ᡤ᠊ ᡤ᠊

‍ᡬ᠊᠋‍

‍ᡤ᠊‍

‍᠊ᡬ᠊᠋‍

‍‍ᠭ᠎ g [[[Ge (Cyrillic)|г]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /g/
ᠮ ᠮ‍ ‍ᠮ‍ ‍ᠮ m [[[Em (Cyrillic)|м]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /m/
ᠯ ᠯ‍ ‍ᠯ‍ ‍ᠯ l [[[El (Cyrillic)|л]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /l/
ᠰ ᠰ‍ ‍ᠰ‍ ‍ᠰ s [[[Es (Cyrillic)|с]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /s/
ᡧ᠊ ᡧ᠊‍ ‍᠊ᡧ᠊‍ ‍᠊ᡧ x [[[Sha (Cyrillic)|ш]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 18) (help) /ʃ/
ᠲ ᠲ‍ ‍ᠲ‍ ‍ᠲ t [[[Te (Cyrillic)|т]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /t/
ᡩ᠊ ᡩ᠊‍ ‍᠊ᡩ᠊‍ ‍ᡩ᠊ d [[[De (Cyrillic)|д]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /d/
ᠴ ᠴ‍ ‍ᠴ‍ ‍‍ᠴ q [[[Che (Cyrillic)|ч]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 18) (help) /t͡ʃ/
ᠵ ᠵ‍ ‍ᠵ‍ ‍‍‍ᠵ j [[[Zhe (Cyrillic)|ж]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 18) (help) /d͡ʒ/
ᠶ ᠶ‍ ‍ᠶ‍ ‍ᠶ y [[[Short I|й]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 11) (help) /j/
ᠸ ᠸ‍ ‍᠊ᠸ᠊‍ ‍᠊ᠸ w [[[Short I|в]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 11) (help) /w/
ᠷ ᠷ‍ ‍ᠷ‍ ‍ᠷ r [[[Er (Cyrillic)|р]]] Error: {{Transliteration}}: transliteration text not Latin script (pos 17) (help) /r/

Grammar

[edit]

Dagur has a pronominal system that distinguishes between first person plural inclusive /bed/ and exclusive /baː/ and, even more archaic, it distinguishes between third person singular /iːn/ and plural /aːn/.[14] While the phoneme /t͡ʃ/ (< *t͡ʃʰ) has been retained, the second person singular pronoun has become /ʃiː/ nevertheless,[15] resembling a more thorough sound change in Khorchin Mongolian. The second person plural is retained as /taː/.[15] The genitive and accusative have fused in some variants, becoming –ji, and the ablative may assume the form of the instrumental case. The old comitative has been lost, while the innovated comitative is the same as in Mongolian.[16] In addition, several other cases have been innovated that are not shared by Mongolian, including a new allative, -maji.[17]

Dagur has a fairly simple tense-aspect system consisting of the nonpast markers -/bəi/ and (marginally) -/n/ and the past forms -/sən/ and (marginally) /la/ and the non-finite imperfective marker -/d͡ʒa/-. These may be inflected for person. The attributive particle forms are limited to –/ɡʷ/ (< Written Mongolian -γ-a) for imperfective aspect and future tense, -sən (< -γsan) for perfective aspect, -/ɡat͡ʃ/ (< -gči) for habituality (instead of -daγ which used to fulfil this function) and -/mar/ for potential and probable actions. It has acquired a highly complex converbal system containing several innovations. Notably, -mar which is a participle in Mongolian serves as a converb as well.[18]

Grammatical case suffix table

[edit]

[19]

Case Marker Note Example Meaning
Genitive -ei Added to words ending in a consonant (except j, q, x) битегей

biteg + ei → bitegei

of the book
хелегей

heleg + ei → helegei

адусей

adus + ei → adusei

аолэй

aol + ei → aolei

of the mountain
-ii Added to words ending in j, q, x кайчий

kaiq + ii → kaiqii

of shears
оржий

orj + ii → orjii

тульший

tulx + ii → tulxii

-i Added to words ending in a short vowel морий

mori + i → morii

of the horse
новуй

nowu + i → nowui

of the dog
дангай

danga + i → dangai

of smoke
-yi Appended to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs акааий

akaa + yi → akaayi

older brother's
касооий

kasoo + yi → kasooyi

of iron
даоий

dao + yi → daoyi

of the song
Accusative Same as genitive case
Locative -d Added to the stem (if ending in a consonant d, t, k, s, j, q, x add an appropriate vowel before -d) ширээд

xiree + d → xireed

on the desk
хорвуд

horwu + d → horwud

in/on the cabinet
тосод

tos + d → tosod

in the oil
Instrumental -aar, -eer, -oor Added to words ending in consonants (except j, q, x) according to vowel harmony сарпаар

sarp + aar → sarpaar

using chopsticks
лэкээр

lek + eer → lekeer

топоор

topoor + oor → topooroor

using an axe
-ier Added to words ending in j, q, x онкиэр

onq + ier → onqier

using a knife
оржиэр

orj + ier → orjier

-ar, -er, -or Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in short vowels дангаар

danga + ar → dangaar

using smoke
галиэр

gali + er → galier

using fire
мориэр

mori + er → morier

using a horse
новуор

nowu + or → nowuor

using a dog
-yaar, -yeer Added according to vowel harmony to words ending in long vowels and diphthongs чолоояар

qoloo + yaar → qolooyaar

using a stone
касоояар

kasoo + yaar → kasooyaar

using iron
Ablative Same as instrumental case The ablative form is sometimes -aas, -ees, -oos, -ies, -as, -es, -os, -yaas, -yees.
Comitative -tii Added to the word stem акаатий

akaa + tii → akaatii

together with older brother
эвээтий

ewee + tii → eweetii

together with mom
Terminative -qaar, -qeer Added to the word stem according to vowel harmony соочаар

soo + qaar → sooqaar

up to the armpits
сакчаар

sak + qaar → sakqaar

up to the ankles

Personal reflexive relationship suffixes

[edit]
Pronoun Number Marker Example Meaning
1st Singular mini жакмини

jakmini

my stuff/thing
хороомини

horoomini

my finger
Plural (exclusive) -maani себмаани

sebmaani

our teacher
Plural (inclusive) -naani себнаани

sebnaani

our teacher
2nd Singular -xini васкалшини

waskalxini

your clothing
Plural -taani гэритаани

geritaani

your home
3rd Singular -ini агини

agini

his brother
-yini экээйини

ekeeyini

his sister
Plural -inaani этэвуйнаани

eteewuinaani

their grandmother
-yinaani ачайинаани

aqaayinaani

their father

Imperative verb suffixes

[edit]
Pronoun Number Volitional Imperative Prohibitive
1st Singular -яа

-yaa

-гаан, -гээн

-gaan, -geen

-гаамини

-gaamini

-гэмини

-geemini

Plural (exclusive) -гаамани

-gaamaani

-гээмани

-geemaani

Plural (inclusive) -гааннаани

-gaannaani

-гээннаани

-geennaani

2nd Singular -гаание

-gaanie

(word stem) -гааншини

-gaanxini

-геение

-geenie

-гээншини

-geenxini

Plural -гаантие

-gaantie

-ту

-tu

-гаантаани

-gaantaani

-геентие

-geentie

-геентаани

-geentaani

3rd Singular & plural -тгай

-tgai

-гаанини

-gaanini

-гээнини

-geenini

Declarative verb suffixes

[edit]
Time Suffix Example Meaning
Present future tense -bei идбей (иден)

idbei (iden)

(he) will eat
-n яобей (явун)

yaobei (yawun)

(she) will go
Past tense -sen идсен

idsen

(she) ate
яосен

yaosen

(he) went

Pronouns' verb suffixes

[edit]

Present future tensse

[edit]
Pronoun Number Marker Example Meaning
1st Singular -wei(-w) Би харивей.

Bi hariwei(hariw).

I return.
-nbi Би харинби.

Bi harinbi.

I return.
Plural (exclusive) -waa Баа хариваа.

Baa hariwaa.

We return.
-nbaa Баа харинбаа.

Baa harinbaa.

We return.
Plural (inclusive) -wdaa Бид харивдаа.

Bid hariwdaa.

We return.
-ndaa Бид хариндаа.

Bid harindaa.

We return.
2nd Singular -beixi(-bxi) Ши харибейши.

Xi haribeixi.

You return.
-nxi Ши харинши.

Xi harinxi.

You return.
Plural -beitaa (-btaa) Таа харибейтаа.

Taa haribeitaa (haribtaa).

You return.
-ntaa Таа харинтаа.

Taa harintaa.

You return.

Past tense

[edit]
Pronoun Number Marker Example Meaning
1st Singular -senbi Би харисенби.

Bi harisenbi.

I returned.
Plural (exclusive) -senbaa Баа харисенбаа.

Baa harisenbaa.

We returned.
Plural (inclusive) -sendaa Бид харисэндаа.

Bid harisendaa.

We returned.
2nd Singular -senxi Ши харисенши.

Xi harisenxi.

You returned.
Plural -sentaa Таа харисентаа.

Taa harisentaa.

You returned.

Adverb suffixes

[edit]
[20]
Suffix Notes Example Meaning
-j Indicates parallel actions Ийчиж ужсенби.

iiqij ujsenbi.

I went to see (it).
-jie (dii) Indicates that two actions are performed simultaneously Саожие (дий) усвулжьжабей.

Saojie (dii) uswuljjabei.

(She) sits while talking.
-aar, -eer, -oor Indicates that the behavior occurred successively Гараар ирсэн.

Garaar irsen.

(He) came out.
Энкуер яосэн.

Enkuer yaosen.

(She) ate it.
-jii Signifies the end of the act Ужьжий яосэн.

Ujjii yaosen.

(He) left after reading (it).
Иджий яо!

Idjii yao!

Let's eat and (then) go.
-n ...-n Indicates behaviors that occur together Гуйн кариен яосэн.

Guin karien yaosen.

(He) jumped and bounced away.
-mkii,-mklii Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately Мадемький (мэдемький) ичсэн.

Medemkii (medemklii) iqsen.

(She) went as soon as (she) knew it.
-mder Indicates that the behavior occurs immediately Медемдерь (меднмкьлий) ичсэн.

Medemder (medemklii) iqsen.

(She) went as soon as she knew it.
-wueter Indicates readiness Елвуетерь медсен.

Elwueter medsen.

(She) will know as soon as (he) says it.
-aajaar, -eejeer (-eejaar), -oojaar Indicates simultaneous act Бариежаараа алдсэн.

Bariejaaraa aldsen.

(He) grabbed it and let it go.
-rsaar, rseer Indicates continuation and recurrence of behavior Элерсеерь араан болсен.

Elerseer araan bolsen.

How many times have you said it?
-aas, -ees, -oos Express the condition of the behavior Элеесшини укубей.

Eleesxini ukubei.

If you say so, I'll give it to you.
-tgai q Indicates concessive act Учийкэн аатгай чукаатий.

Uqiiken aatgai qukaatii.

Small but wise.
-worg, -wuar Indicates the act to follow Хийвуерь тортсен.

Hiiwuer tortsen.

(She) decided to do (it).
-gaanie, -geenie Expresses purpose Уйгеени игсен.

Uigeenie igsen.

(He) went to see (it).
-tel Indicates behavioral boundaries Яотельмини аасен.

Yaotelmini aasen.

(He'll) be there until (she) leaves.
-tlaa(-tlaanie), tlee(-tleenie) Expresses choice Элтлеение хиисехдь уль денген.

Eltleenie hiisehd ul dengen.

It's better to do (so).
-maak(-maaken), meek(-meken) Indicates the proximity of behavior Ванамаак (ванамаакен) болсен.

Wanamaak (wanamaaken) bolsen.

(It's) about to fall.

Personal pronouns

[edit]
[21]
1st Person 2nd Person 3rd Person
singular plural singular plural singular plural
exclusive inclusive
Nominative бий

bii

биэде

biede

баа

baa

ший

xii

таа

taa

инг

ing

аанг

aang

Genitive миний

minii

биэдний

biednii

мааний

maanii

шиний

xinii

тааний

taanii

иний

inii

ааний

aanii

Dative намд

namd

биэдендэ

biedende

маандэ

maande

шамд

xamd

таандэ

taande

ямд (инд)

yamd (ind)

аандэ

aande

Accusative намий

namii

биэдний

biednii

мааний

maanii

шамий

xamii

тааний

taanii

ямий

yamii

ааний

aanii

Ablative намаасэ

namaase

биэденаас

biedenaas

маанаас

maanaas

шамаасэ

xamaase

таанаас

taanaas

ямаас

yamaas

аанаас

aanaas

Instrumental намаарэ

namaare

биэдэнаар

biedenaar

маанаар

maanaar

шамаарэ

xamaare

таанаар

taanaar

ямаар

yamaar

аанаар

aanaar

Comitative намтий

namtii

биэдентий

biedentii

маантий

maantii

шамтий

xamtii

таантий

taantii

ямтий

yamtii

аантий

aantii

Lexicon

[edit]

It is estimated that out of Dagur's entire language vocabulary, over half is Mongolic in origin.[22] Additionally, while Dagur has over 50% common Mongolic vocabulary, it has borrowed 5[23] to 10% of its words from Chinese, as well as 10% of its words from Manchu, and a small number vocabulary borrowed from Evenki[24] and Russian – leaving about 20% vocabulary that is specific to Dagur only.[25]

Middle Mongol words

[edit]

Dagur retains quite a few archaic Mongolic words, and although they are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, they do appear in Middle Mongol sources, like the Hua-Yi yiyu and The Secret History of the Mongols. These words include:[26]

  • tergul ~ terwul (тэргул ~ тервул) ‘road’ (in Mongol *jam)
  • najir (нажийр) ‘summer’ (Mongol *jun)
  • xeky (хэкый) ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai)
  • sorby (сорбый) ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag)
  • kasoo (касоо) ‘iron’
  • saur (саур) ‘spade’
  • ogw (огв) ‘brain’
  • basert (басерть) ‘kidney’
  • twalcig (твалциг) ‘knee’
  • kataa (катаа) ‘salt’
  • warkel (варкэль) ‘clothes’
  • el- (эл-) ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-)

Numerals

[edit]

All basic numerals are of Mongolic origin.

English Classical Mongolian Dagur (Hailar) Dagur (Qiqihar)
1 One Nigen Нэкэн
Neken		 Neke
2 Two Qoyar Хойир
Hoir		 Hoyir
3 Three Ghurban Гуарбан
Guarban		 Guarbe
4 Four Dorben Дурубун
Durbun		 Durbu
5 Five Tabun Таавун
Taawun		 Taawu
6 Six Jirghughan Жиргөө
Jirwoo		 Jirgoo
7 Seven Dologhan Долөөн
Doloon		 Doloo
8 Eight Naiman Найман
Naiman		 Naime
9 Nine Yisun Йсэн
Isen		 Yise
10 Ten Arban Харбан
Harban		 Harbe

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Dagur at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
    zby/ {{{ld4}}} at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
  2. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 129
  3. ^ Janhunen, Juha A. (2012). Mongolian. John Benjamins Publishing. ISBN 978-90-272-3820-7.
  4. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 129
  5. ^ Engkebatu 2001
  6. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 129, Sengge 2004: 616
  7. ^ a b Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. On page 129, Janhunen writes: 'The Nonni Dagur are normally divided into speakers of the Butha (northern) and Tsitsikar (southern) dialects'. ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7.
  8. ^ Chuluu 1994: 5, but for example not the Tacheng dialect, see Yu et al. 2008: 25-26
  9. ^ Sengge 2004a, Tsumagari 2003: 133
  10. ^ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 66-67, cp. Tsumagari 2003: 131
  11. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 131
  12. ^ cp. Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 84
  13. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 131 basically in agreement with Sengge 2004a; in contrast, Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 37 give a pretty standard Mongolian vowel harmony system with the pharyngeal vowels /ɑ/, /ɔ/, /ʊ/ contrasting with the non-pharyngeal vowels /ə/, /o/, /u/, while /i/ is neutral.
  14. ^ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 211-126, cp. Tsumagari 2003: 141
  15. ^ a b Sengge 2004c: 621
  16. ^ Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983: 110-121, Sengge 619-620
  17. ^ Sengge 2004c: 620
  18. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 144-148 supplemented with Sengge 2004c. The exact form of the plosive in -/ɡat͡ʃ/ is unclear as these two sources and Namcarai and Qaserdeni 1983 give different phones.
  19. ^ 恩和巴图 (1983). 达汉小词典. 内蒙古人民出版社. p. 243.
  20. ^ 恩和巴图 (1983). 达汉小词典. 内蒙古人民出版社. p. 247.
  21. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 141
  22. ^ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. Page 151, under 'Lexicon', Janhunen writes: "It has been estimated that, roughly speaking, more than half of the entire vocabulary of Dagur is Mongolic in origin, including both inherited items and reintroduced borrowings.". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7.
  23. ^ Sengge 2004b
  24. ^ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. Page 151, Janhunen writes: " Borrowings from Manchu amount to c.10 per cent, while borrowings from Chinese cover another 10 per cent of the lexicon. A smaller number of items has been borrowed from Ewenki. This means that a significant proportion, over 20 per cent, of all vocabulary items are specific only to Dagur". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7.
  25. ^ Tsumagari 2003: 151-152
  26. ^ Janhunen, Juha (2006-01-27). The Mongolic Languages. Routledge. pp. In pages 151 and 152: "Due to its peripheral position, Dagur retains a considerable number of archaic Mongolic words, which are not commonly found in the modern Mongolic languages, but which are attested in Middle Mongol sources, such as the Hua-Yi yiyu and the ‘Secret History’. Such words include: tergul ~ terwul ‘road’ (Mongol *jam), najir ‘summer’ (Mo. *jun), xeky ‘head’ (Mongol *tologai), sorby ‘staff’ (Mongol *tayag). Other more or less idiosyncratic words include several basic items, such as: kasoo ‘iron’, saur‘spade’, ogw ‘brain’, basert ‘kidney’, twalcig ‘knee’, kataa ‘salt’, warkel ‘clothes’, el- ‘to say’ (cf. Mongol *kele-).". ISBN 978-1-135-79690-7.

Bibliography

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  • Chuluu, Üjiyediin (1994), Introduction, Grammar, and Sample Sentences for Dagur (PDF), Sino-Platonic Papers, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
  • Engkebatu (2001): Cing ulus-un üy-e-dü dagur kele-ber bicigdegsen jokiyal-ud-un sudulul. Kökeqota: Öbür monggol-un yeke surgaguli-yin keblel-ün qoriy-a.
  • Namcarai; Qaserdeni (1983), Daγur kele ba mongγul kelen-ü qaričaγulul, Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a, OCLC 45024952
  • Oyunčimeg, ed. (2004), Mongγul sudulul-un nebterkei toli, Kökeqota: Öbür mongγul-un arad-un keblel-ün qoriy-a, ISBN 978-7-204-07745-8, OCLC 67279589
  • Sengge (2004): Daγur kele. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 616-617.
  • Sengge (2004a): Daγur kelen-ü abiy-a. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 618.
  • Sengge (2004b): Daγur kelen-ü üges. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 619.
  • Sengge (2004c): Daγur kelen-ü kele ǰüi. In: Oyunčimeg 2004: 618-622.
  • Tsumagari, Toshiro (2003): Dagur. In: Janhunen, Juha (ed.) (2003): The Mongolic languages. London: Routledge: 129-153.
  • Yu, Wonsoo, Jae-il Kwon, Moon-Jeong Choi, Yong-kwon Shin, Borjigin Bayarmend, Luvsandorj[in] Bold (2008): A study of the Tacheng dialect of the Dagur language. Seoul: Seoul National University Press
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