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List of kingdoms and empires in African history

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A kingdom is a state with a king or queen as its head.[1] An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant centre and subordinate peripheries".[2]

There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of the continent of Africa throughout history, despite popular understanding often being that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. Whether rooted in ignorance, Eurocentrism, or racism, famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures. In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across the continent, from the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes, to the sacral Congolese empires and expansive West Sudanic empires.[3]

The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, almost all of the continent came under the control of European powers. Traditional power structures were often utilised by the colonial authorities.

Some kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of non–sovereign monarchs throughout Africa vary greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region.[4][5] They are often regarded as custodians of tradition and culture, and in some cases, play an important role in local religious activities.[6][7] On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad,[8] or had their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962,[9] and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM).

There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa;[10] two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM).

There have been a number of autocrats in Africa who invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes,[11] such as the Bongos of Gabon,[12] Gnassingbés of Togo,[13] or Aptidon–Guelleh of Djibouti,[14] generating the term monarchical republic.[12] These have been tentatively included due to their similarities to, and possibly even taking inspiration from, the institution of monarchy and are labelled (MR).

Criteria

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Only kingdoms and tribal kingdoms as per Elman Service's classifications that were once independent are included, excluding bands, tribes, and most chiefdoms. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries.

The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.

History periods and sources

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Main article: African historiography

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

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Main article: Ancient Africa

Outside of North Africa, most of African political history relating to this time period has been pieced together through archaeological discoveries. There is very little written information about Sub–Saharan Africa at this time, besides that from outsiders such as "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea", dated to the 1st century AD, and the accounts of Claudius Ptolemy, dated to the 2nd century AD, both illuminating the East African coast. The delicate threads of oral tradition generally do not go back this far.

7th century – 15th century AD

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Main article: Medieval and early modern Africa

Sub–Saharan African societies have broadly been labelled "oral civilisations", contrasted with "literate civilisations", due to the emphasis placed on oral tradition and the important place it has in their cultures. As such, most of African history predating the colonial period has been preserved orally, passed down from generation to generation, and served a different function to the academic discipline of history. Perhaps the most famous examples of this is the Griots of West Africa, such as Balla Fasséké in the Mali Empire, who held largely hereditary positions. One of their roles was to study and memorise their people's history and serve in the king's court as an advisor, to represent the past, and to identify lessons. Whilst many oral traditions refer to this particular time period, they often take a mythological and parabolic form, and are over time condensed until eventually crystallising into a cliché, limiting but not eradicating their usefulness to modern historians, as displayed in the oral traditions about the Empire of Kitara, an empire in the Great Lakes region that existed from around the 10th century to 15th century AD.

Following the spread of Islam to Africa in the 7th century AD, there were many more written histories, most notably from Ibn Khaldun, but also from al–Masudi, al–Bakri, al–Idrisi, Yaqut, Abulfeda, al–Umari, and Ibn Battuta. Ge'ez literature also began covering history from the 14th to 16th century.

16th century AD – present

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Main article: Modern history
Further information: Medieval and early modern Africa, Colonial Africa, and Postcolonial Africa

There is a wealth of oral traditions referring to the modern period that offer important and often crucial information for modern historians. There were high levels of scepticism regarding oral histories among historians of the 18th, 19th and 20th centuries leading to their obscurity, and whilst valid criticisms remain about their limitations, modern attitudes towards oral traditions as historical sources continue to improve.[15]

Increased trade with Europe and an influx of Catholic missions from the 16th century onwards produced more written information which supplemented the Arabic literature, however African historiography as we view it today didn't take off until the 19th century under increased European interest in the region. These histories have been invaluable to modern historians, however they were often written from the colonial perspective under the pretence of Western superiority, occasionally for the purpose of disseminating colonial narratives. This has provided the fuel for anti–African bias, particularly regarding their history, which still persists in many countries today.[16][17]

Comparison between kingdoms

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Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power:[18]

  1. Despotic Kingdoms (D): Kingdoms where the king controlled the internal and external affairs directly and personally appointed overseers. The king kept a monopoly on the use of force. Examples include Rwanda, Nkore/Ankole, and Kongo of the 16th century.
  2. Regal Kingdoms (R): Kingdoms where the king controlled the external affairs directly, and the internal affairs via a system of overseers where most local chiefs kept their positions but not their autonomy after conquest. The king and most of his administration belonged to the same religion, group and/or family.
  3. Incorporative Kingdoms (I): Kingdoms where the king only controlled the external affairs and the nucleus with no permanent administrative links between him and the chiefs of the provinces. The local chiefs of the provinces were left largely undisturbed after conquest. Examples are the Bamileke, Luba and the Lozi.
  4. Aristocratic Kingdoms (A): The only link between central authority and the provinces was payment of tribute which symbolised subordination. These kingdoms were kept together by the superior military strength of the nucleus. This type is rather common in Africa, examples include Kongo of the 17th century, Kazembe, Kuba, the Ha, and Chagga states of the 18th century.
  5. Federations (F): Kingdoms where the external affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who is simply primus inter pares, such as in the Ashanti Union. (Confederations are not included; see "List of confederations").

Almost all sultanates embody (R) due to the nature of the Islamic version of kingship.[19] For this reason, and in the interest of highlighting differences, classifications for sultanates will only reference the relationship between the sultan and their administration.

Classifications not given as examples by Vansina are open to scrutiny (here). Ones where two classifications are given and joined by an "and" mean that the kingdom had elements from both present; [a] refers to the king's place and power, particularly in the nucleus, whilst [b] refers to the relationship between king and administration.

List of African kingdoms

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A list of known kingdoms and empires on the African continent that we have record of.

North Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of North Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

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Old and Middle Kingdoms of Ancient Egypt

7th century – 15th century AD

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Almoravid Empire
Fatimid Caliphate

16th century AD – present

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Senussi Order including sphere of influence circa 1880
Domains of the Aksumite Empire and the Adal Sultanate.

East Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of East Africa
See also: List of African Great Lakes kingdoms

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

[edit]

7th century – 15th century AD

[edit]
Sultanate of Kilwa 1310 AD
African Great Lakes Kingdoms, c.1880

16th century AD – present

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Horn Of Africa 1915
13th–century Africa – Map of the main trade routes and states, kingdoms and empires.

West Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of West Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

[edit]

7th century – 15th century AD

[edit]
West Africa in 1625 AD

16th century AD – present

[edit]
West Africa circa 1875
Fula jihad circa 1830
Sokoto Caliphate 19th century

Central Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of Central Africa
Central East Africa circa 1750 AD
UN Macroregion of Central Africa

4th millennium BC – 6th century AD

[edit]

7th century – 15th century AD

[edit]

16th century AD – present

[edit]
Kingdoms in Angola circa 1760 AD

Southern Africa

[edit]
Further information: History of Southern Africa

7th century – 15th century AD

[edit]
Mutapa and surrounding kingdoms circa 1747 AD

16th century AD – present

[edit]

Unplaced or undated kingdoms/sultanates

[edit]

See also

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Bibliography

[edit]
  • 'History periods':
    • General History of Africa: Volume 1 Methodology and African Historiography, chapters 1-10. UNESCO Publishing. 1981.
    • Vansina, Jan (1971). "Once upon a Time: Oral Traditions as History in Africa". Daedalus. 100 (2). MIT Press: 442–468. JSTOR 20024011.
    • Vansina, Jan (1985). Oral Tradition as History. The University of Wisconsin Press. ISBN 0299102106.
  • 'Comparison between kingdoms':

Further reading

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References

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  2. ^ Howe, Stephen (2002). Empire: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-19-280223-1.
  3. ^ Dalziel, Nigel; MacKenzie, John M, eds. (2016-01-11). "African kingdoms and empires". The Encyclopedia of Empire (1 ed.). Wiley. doi:10.1002/9781118455074.wbeoe378. ISBN 978-1-118-44064-3.
  4. ^ Florêncio, Fernando (2017-08-04). No Reino da Toupeira: Autoridades Tradicionais do M'balundu e o Estado Angolano [In the Mole Kingdom: Traditional M'balundu Authorities and the Angolan State]. ebook'IS (in Portuguese). Lisboa: Centro de Estudos Internacionais. pp. 79–175. ISBN 978-989-8862-32-7. Archived from the original on 2021-07-28. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
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