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Internet in Africa

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Internet users in 2015 as a percentage of a country's population
Africa clearly shows as the largest single area behind the digital divide.
Source: International Telecommunication Union.[1]
Main article: Digital divide

The Internet in Africa is limited by a lower penetration rate when compared to the rest of the world. Measurable parameters such as the number of ISP subscriptions, overall number of hosts, IXP-traffic, and overall available bandwidth are indicators that Africa is far behind the "digital divide". Moreover, Africa itself exhibits an inner digital divide, with most Internet activity and infrastructure concentrated in South Africa, Morocco, and Egypt, as well as smaller economies like Mauritius and the Seychelles. In general, only 43% of the African population has access to the Internet as of 2021.[2][3] Only 0.4% of the African population has a fixed-broadband subscription. The majority of internet users use it through mobile broadband.[4][5][6][7]

During the COVID-19 pandemic, many people who were not connected to the internet lost access to health care and education. Production in all industries was seriously harmed.[4][8][9][10]

While the telecommunications market in Africa is still in its early stages of development, it is also one of the fastest-growing in the world. In the 2000s, mobile telephone service in Africa has been rising, and mobile telephone use is now substantially more widespread than fixed-line telephony. Telecommunication companies in Africa are looking at Broadband Wireless Access technologies as the key to make Internet available to the population at large. Projects are being completed that aim at the realization of Internet backbones that might help cut the cost of bandwidth in African countries.

The International Telecommunication Union held the first Connect the World meeting in Kigali, Rwanda (in October 2007) as a demonstration that the development of telecommunications in Africa is considered a key intermediate objective for the fulfillment of the Millennium Development Goals.[11]

Internet penetration in Africa, by country

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Previous situation

[edit]
A map of the percentage of the population of African countries using the Internet in 2015 (see table for 2000 and 2015 data by individual country).

The information available about the ability of people in Africa to use the internet (for instance ISP subscriptions, host number, network traffic, available bandwidth and bandwidth cost) give an essentially homogeneous picture. South Africa is the only African country that has figures similar to those of Europe and North America: it is followed by some smaller, tourist-dependent economies, such as Seychelles and Mauritius, and a few North African countries, notably Morocco and Egypt. The leading Subsaharan countries in telecommunication sand internet development are South Africa and Kenya.[12]

Nation
Population
in thousands		 Individuals
using the internet
in 2000
(%)		 Individuals
using the internet
in 2015
(%)
Algeria 39670 0.49 38.20
Angola 25326 0.11 12.40
Benin 10782 0.23 6.79
Botswana 2176 2.90 27.50
Burkina Faso 18450 2.90 27.50
Burundi 9824 0.08 4.87
Cameroon 21918 0.25 20.68
Cape Verde 525 1.82 43.02
Central African
Republic		 4900 0.05 4.56
Chad 13675 0.04 2.70
Congo 3903 0.03 7.62
DR Congo 77267 0.01 3.80
Ivory Coast 23126 0.23 21.00
Djibouti 961 0.19 11.92
Egypt 89125 0.64 37.82
Equatorial Guinea 1996 0.13 21.32
Eritrea 6895 0.14 1.08
Ethiopia 99391 0.02 11.60
Gabon 1873 1.22 23.50
Gambia 2022 0.92 17.12
Ghana 27414 0.15 23.48
Guinea 10935 0.10 4.70
Guinea Bissau 1788 0.23 3.54
Kenya 45533 0.32 45.62
Lesotho 1908 0.21 16.07
Liberia 4046 0.02 5.90
Libya 6278 0.19 19.02
Madagascar 23043 0.20 4.17
Malawi 16307 0.13 9.30
Mali 17796 0.14 10.30
Mauritania 3632 0.19 15.20
Mauritius 1263 7.28 50.14
Morocco 34380 0.69 57.08
Mozambique 28013 0.11 9.00
Namibia 2281 1.64 22.31
Niger 18880 0.04 2.22
Nigeria 181563 0.06 47.44
Rwanda 11324 0.06 18.00
São Tomé and
Príncipe		 206 4.64 25.82
Senegal 14150 0.40 21.69
Sierra Leone 6513 0.12 5.36
Somalia 10972 0.02 55.76
South Africa 54957 5.35 51.92
Sudan 40235 / 12519 0.03 26.61
Eswatini 1119 0.93 30.38
Tanzania 51046 0.12 5.36
Togo 7065 0.80 7.12
Tunisia 11118 2.75 48.52
Uganda 37102 0.16 19.22
Zambia 15474 0.19 21.00
Zimbabwe 13503 0.40 16.36

Current trend

[edit]

As of December 2020, Kenya had an internet penetration of approximately 85.2. This high rate is mainly because Kenya is home to M-Pesa, which is a mobile wallet provider and the offered secure payment system encourages internet access. As of October 2020, the majority of web traffic in leading digital markets in Africa originated from mobile devices in Nigeria, one of the countries with the biggest number of internet users worldwide. Across the nation, 74 percent of web traffic was generated via smartphones and only 24 percent via PC devices. This is connected to the fact that mobile connections are much cheaper and do not require the infrastructure that is needed for traditional desktop PCs with fixed-line internet connections.[13]

Context

[edit]
Internet access point in Kigali, Rwanda

Obstacles to the accessibility of Internet services in Africa include generally low levels of computer literacy in the population, poor infrastructures, and high costs of Internet services. Power availability is also scarce, with vast rural areas that are not connected to power grids as well as frequent black-outs in major urban areas such as Dar es Salaam.[14]

In 2000, Subsaharan Africa as a whole had fewer fixed telephone lines than Manhattan, and in 2006, Africa contributed to only 2% of the world's overall telephone lines in the world.[14] As a consequence of this general lack of connectivity, most Africa-generated network traffic (something between 70%[15] and 85%[14]) is routed through servers that are located elsewhere (mainly Europe).

Overall bandwidth in Africa is scarce, and its irregular distribution clearly reflects the African "inner digital divide". In 2007, 16 countries in Africa had just one international Internet connection with a capacity of 10 Mbit/s or lower, while South Africa alone had over 800 Mbit/s. The main backbones connecting Africa to the rest of the world via submarine cables, i.e., SAT-2 and SAT-3, provide for a limited bandwidth. In 2007, all these international connections from Africa amounted to roughly 28,000 Mbit/s, while Asia had 800,000 Mbit/s and Europe had over 3,000,000 Mbit/s. The total bandwidth available to Africa was less than that available to Norway alone (49,000 Mbit/s).[14]

As a consequence of the scarce overall bandwidth provided by cable connections, a large section of Internet traffic in Africa goes through expensive satellite links.[15] In general, thus, the cost of Internet access (and even more so broadband access) is unaffordable for most of the population.[14] According to the Kenyan ISPs aAsociation, high costs are also a consequence of the subjection of African ISPs to European ISPs and the lack of a clear international regulation of inter-ISP cost partition. For example, while ITU has long ratified that the cost of inter-provider telephonic connections must be charged to all involved providers in equal parts, in 2002, the Kenyan ISP association has denounced that all costs of Internet traffic between Europe and Africa are charged to African providers.[16]

Internet access

[edit]
Internet users by region[17]
Region 2005 2010 2017 2023
Africa 2% 10% 21.8% 37%
Americas 36% 49% 65.9% 87%
Arab States 8% 26% 43.7% 69%
Asia and Pacific 9% 23% 43.9% 66%
Commonwealth of
Independent States 		10% 34% 67.7% 89%
Europe 46% 67% 79.6% 91%

According to 2011 estimates, about 13.5% of the African population has Internet access.[18] While Africa accounts for 15.0% of the world's population, only 6.2% of the World's Internet subscribers are Africans.[19] Africans who have access to broadband connections are estimated to be in percentage of 1% or lower.[15][20] In September 2007, African broadband subscribers were 1,097,200, with a major part of these subscriptions from large companies or institutions.[20]

Internet access is also irregularly distributed, with 2/3 of overall online activity in Africa being generated in South Africa (which only accounts for 5% of the continent's population).[19] Most of the remaining 1/3 is in Morocco and Egypt.[14] The largest percentage of Internet subscribers are found in small economies such as Seychelles, where as much as 37% of the population has Internet access (while in South Africa this value is 11% and in Egypt it is 8%).[14]

It has been noted, anyway, that data on Internet subscribers only partially reflect the actual number of Internet users in Africa, and the impact of the network on African daily life and culture.[21][22] For example, cybercafes and Internet kiosks are common in the urban areas of many African countries. There are also other informal means to "access" the Internet; for example, couriers that print e-mail messages and deliver them by hand to recipients in remote locations, or radio stations that broadcast information taken from the Internet.[21]

Number of hosts

[edit]

The picture provided by the figures for the number of network hosts is coherent with those above. At the end of 2007:

  • about 1.8 million hosts were in Africa, versus over 120 million in Europe, 67 million in Asia and 27 million in South America;
  • Africa as a whole had fewer hosts than Finland alone;
  • relatively developed Nigeria,[23] despite its 155 million inhabitants, had one third of the hosts found in Liechtenstein with its 35,000 inhabitants; and
  • the largest number of African hosts (almost 90%) were in just three countries, South Africa, Morocco, and Egypt.[24]

The table below lists the number of hosts for African countries with more than 1000 hosts in 2007 and 2013. These countries collectively account for 99% of Africa's overall hosts. The last column for each year provides the "host density" measured as the number of hosts per 1000 inhabitants; for comparison, consider that the average host density in the world was 43 hosts per 1000 inhabitants in 2007 and 72 hosts per 1000 inhabitants in 2013.[24][25]

  June 2013[25] December 2007[24]
Nation Hosts
(×1000)		 Percentage
(of Africa's
total)		 Hosts
(per 1000
 inhabitants)		 Hosts
(×1000)		 Percentage
(of Africa's
total)		 Hosts
(per 1000
 inhabitants)
South Africa 4835 80 96 1197 65 25
Morocco 279 5 9 273 15 9
Egypt 204 3 4 175 10 2
Mozambique 92 2 4 23 1 1
Libya 79 1 12 — — —
Namibia 78 1 37 7 0 3
Kenya 73 1 2 24 1 1
Ghana 60 1 2 24 1 1
Mauritius 51 1 42 10 1 8
Zimbabwe 47 1 4 18 1 2
Madagascar 43 1 21 11 1 1
Angola 37 1 2 6 0 0
Uganda 33 1 1 1 0 0
Réunion 33 1 39 — — —
Tanzania 27 0 1 21 1 1
Côte d'Ivoire 25 0 1 6 0 0
Zambia 17 0 1 8 0 1
Lesotho 11 0 5 — — —
Cameroon 10 0 1 — — —
Botswana 8 0 4 6 0 4
Rwanda 4 0 0 2 0 0
Malawi 3 0 0 — — —
Congo, DR 3 0 0 2 0 0
Swaziland 3 0 2 3 0 2
Congo, RO 3 0 1 — — —
Nigeria 2 0 0 2 0 0
Burkina Faso 2 0 0 — — —
Gambia 2 0 1 — — —
São Tomé and
Príncipe		 2 0 10 1 0 8
Eritrea 1 0 0 1 0 0
Sierra Leone 1 0 0 — — —
Benin 1 0 0 — — —
Togo 1 0 0 — — —
Africa (total) 6027 100 6 1830 100 2

IXP traffic

[edit]

An indirect measure that is sometimes used to assess the penetration of Internet technology in a given area is the overall amount of data traffic at Internet exchange points (IXPs). On African IXPs, traffic can be measured in kbit/s (kilobits per second) or Mbit/s (megabits per second), while in the rest of the world it is typically in the order of magnitude of Gbit/s (gigabits per second). The main IXP of Johannesburg, JINX (which is also the largest IXP in Africa) has about 6.5 Gbit/s traffic (in Sep 2012).[26]

IXP traffic, anyway, is only a measure of local network traffic (mainly e-mail), while most of African generated traffic is routed through other continents, and most Web content created in Africa is hosted on Web servers located elsewhere.[20] Additionally, measurable data do not consider private peering, i.e., inter-ISP traffic that does not go through IXPs. For example, the main academic network in South Africa, TENET, has 10 Gbit/s private peering with ISP Internet Solutions both in Johannesburg and Cape Town.[20]

Regulation

[edit]

The privatization of the telecommunication market, as well as the regulation of the competition in this market, are in an early stage of development in many Africa countries. Kenya and Botswana have started a privatization process for Telkom Kenya and Botswana Telecommunications Corporation (BTC), respectively.[14] The mobile telephony market is generally more open and dynamic, and even more so is the Internet market.[14]

The table below depicts the percentage of African countries where telecommunications markets (fixed line telephony, mobile telephony, Internet) are monopolistic, partially competitive, or fully competitive, either de iure or de facto (data refer to 2007).[14]


Internet		 Mobile
telephones		 Fixed
telephones
Monopolistic 10% 9% 55%
Partially competitive 12% 41% 23%
Fully competitive 69% 43% 25%

The regulation of network businesses and the establishment of authorities to control them is widely recognised as a relevant objective by most African governments. A model for such regulation is provided by Morocco; after an authority was established in 1998, and Meditel entered the market in 1999 to compete with the main incumbent Maroc Telecom, the situation has been quickly developing.[14] Based on such experiences and on the directions provided by ITU, most African countries now have local Internet authorities and are defining local regulation of the Internet market. In 2007, 83% of African countries had their own authority for Internet services and data traffic.[14]

Benefits of Internet Access in Africa

[edit]

It is widely recognized that increased availability of Internet technology in Africa would provide several key benefits. Specifically, some of the major issues of the continent might be tackled by applications of this technology, as demonstrated by some initiatives that have already been started and that proved successful. For example, organizations such as RANET (RAdio and interNET for The communication of Hydro-Meteorological and Climate-Related Information) and the ACMAD (African Centre of Meteorological Application for Development) use Internet to develop reliable weather models for Sahel and other areas in Africa, with dramatic benefits for local agricultures.[21]

Internet-based telemedicine and distance education could improve quality of life in the most remote rural areas of Africa.[27] The availability of information on the network could benefit education in general, counterbalancing the general lack of local libraries.[21] It has also been suggested that e-Government applications could indirectly alleviate widespread political issues such as they would definitely help bridge the gap between the institutions and remote rural areas. Most Web 2.0 applications developed in Africa insofar have actually been created by governments.[14]

African economy might also benefit from broadband availability, for example as a consequence of the applicability of e-commerce and outsourcing business models that have long proved effective in Europe and North America.[14] Currently there are many small businesses (Cybercafes, local ISPs or Wireless ISPs) that benefit from broadband availability via satellite to provide Internet connectivity solutions to local customers.

One technology that has been utilized in many African countries for the provision of Internet broadband connectivity is VSAT, which allows businesses to access the European or US Internet backbone via satellite in regions that lack terrestrial Internet access. Fiber in Africa has been restricted to big coastal cities facing North Atlantic, South Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. According to World Bank data only 37% of Africa's 1.2 billion people actually live in those regions. Therefore, satellite remains to be the most effective and viable way to reach rural areas, and thus a major portion of Africa's population. Satellite access in Africa is popular on KU band and C band,[28] with C band being the preferred access method in countries that have heavy rainfall.

Evolution and perspectives

[edit]

Internet availability

[edit]

The African telecommunication market is growing at a faster rate than in the rest of the world.[24] In the 2000s this has especially been true for the mobile telephony market, that between 2004 and 2007 grew three times as fast as the world's average.[29] In 2005, over 5 billion USD have been invested in Africa in telecommunication infrastructures.[15]

Internet in Africa is now growing even faster than mobile telephony. Between 2000 and 2008, Internet subscriptions have grown by 1030.2%, versus the world's average of 290.6%.[19]

The table below summarizes figures for the number of Internet subscription in Africa from 2000 to 2008, based on estimates made in 2008.[19]

Nation
Population
(×1000)		 Subscriptions
in 2000
(×1000)		 Subscriptions
in 2008
(×1000)		 Growth
2000–2008
(%)		 Internet
users
(%)
Algeria 33770 50 3500 69 10
Angola 12531 30 100 233 1
Benin 8295 15 150 900 2
Botswana 1842 15 80 433 4
Burkina Faso 15265 10 80 700 1
Burundi 8691 3 60 1900 1
Camerun 18468 20 370 1750 2
Cape Verde 427 8 37 362 9
Central African
Republic		 4435 1 13 767 1
Chad 10111 1 60 5900 1
Comoros 732 1 21 1300 3
Congo 3903 1 70 13900 2
DR Congo 66514 1 230 45980 1
Côte d'Ivoire 18373 40 300 650 2
Djibouti 506 1 11 685 2
Egypt 81713 450 8620 1815 10
Equatorial Guinea 616 1 8 1500 1
Eritrea 5028 5 120 2300 2
Ethiopia 78254 10 291 2810 1
Gabon 1486 15 81 440 5
Gambia 1735 4 100 2405 6
Ghana 23383 30 650 2066 3
Guinea 10211 8 50 525 1
Guinea Bissau 1503 1 37 2366 2
Kenya 37954 200 3000 1400 8
Lesotho 2128 4 70 1650 3
Liberia 3335 1 1 100 1
Libya 6174 10 260 2500 4
Madagascar 20043 30 110 266 1
Malawi 13932 15 139 830 1
Mali 12324 18 100 431 1
Mauritania 3365 5 30 500 1
Mauritius 1274 87 340 291 27
Morocco 34343 100 7300 7200 21
Mozambique 21285 30 200 566 1
Namibia 2089 30 100 233 5
Niger 13273 5 40 703 1
Nigeria 168803 200 10000 4900 7
Rwanda 10186 5 150 2900 1
São Tomé and
Príncipe		 206 6 23 253 11
Senegal 12853 40 820 1950 6
Seychelles 82 6 32 433 39
Sierra Leone 6295 5 13 160 1
Somalia 9559 1 98 48900 1
South Africa 43786 2400 5100 112 22
Sudan 40218 30 1500 4900 4
Swaziland 1128 10 42 320 4
Tanzania 40213 115 400 248 1
Togo 5859 100 320 220 5
Tunisia 10383 100 1722 1622 17
Uganda 31368 40 2000 4900 6
Zambia 11669 20 500 2400 4
Zimbabwe 12382 50 1351 2602 11
Africa (total) 985726 4514 51022 1030 5

Infrastructure development

[edit]
African undersea cables

A number of projects have been started that aim at bringing more bandwidth to Africa, in order to cut down costs for both operators and end users. At least three projects for an underseas backbone in the Indian Ocean have been started. EASSy (East African Submarine cable System), sponsored by the World Bank and the Development Bank of Southern Africa, is a cable system that will connect Mtunzini (South Africa) and Port Sudan (Sudan), with branches to several countries on the eastern coast of Africa. The Kenyan government has started a similar project named TEAMS (The East Africa Marine System), with the collaboration of Etisalat.[30] A third project, SEACOM, is completely African-owned.[31] SEACOM bandwidth has already been sold to several customers, including the South African network TENET.[32] On the eastern coast of the continent of Africa, the Africa Coast to Europe cable connects Gibraltar to South Africa and lands in Gulf of Guinea nations, and allows for more access to connectivity. The Eastern African Submarine System, a 10,000 km cable network, is another example.[4][33]

In South Africa, the SANReN network, with a 500 Gbit/s core, has been designed to become the fastest academic network in the world; the universities of Witwatersrand and Johannesburg are already using a bandwidth of 10 Gbit/s provided by this network.

According to the European Commission, a 10% rise in digital coverage could result in a more than 1% increase in African GDP. The European Investment Bank makes funding emerging developments on the continent a priority, in line with the EU's plan for African digital transformation.[34][35] The European Investment Bank is providing a €25 million for a 600 km undersea cable in Mauritania, to provide digital access to more people.[4][36]

Access

[edit]

Efforts to connect previously disconnected parts of the world have been compared to previous rounds of infrastructure in Africa. The recent linking of East Africa to the global fibre-optic network generated similar visions and hopes to those that emerged in the Victorian era when railways were used to connect the previously disconnected.[37]

With bandwidth becoming more available and less costly, the first to benefit will be institutions and companies that already have Internet access. In order for the network to reach a larger part of the population, solutions are needed for the last mile problem, i.e., to make bandwidth available to the final user. To be feasible for Africa, last mile solutions must be found that take into account the limited penetration of fixed telephony lines, especially in rural areas. Of about 400.000 rural communities that are estimated to exist in Africa, less than 3% have PSTN access. Note that providing network access to rural communities is one of Millennium Goals defined by the World Summit on the Information Society.

Most studies on this subject identify Broadband Wireless Access (BWA) technologies such as WiMAX as the most promising solution for the end user's Internet access in Africa.[14] These technologies can also benefit from the wide availability of the mobile telephony network. Even in smaller countries like Seychelles, most Internet users already access the network via the GSM network.[14] Providers that have 3G licenses will be able to provide WiMAX services.[14]

Some experimentation is already being conducted in a few countries. In Kenya, the Digital Village Scheme project aims at providing government services in rural areas via wireless access. In Nigeria, Horizon Wireless is running a broadband (3.5 GHz) wireless network. Since 2007, MTN Rwanda has been working to provide broadband wireless access in Kigali.[14] In Algeria, the Icosnet ISP and Aperto Networks have been collaborating for a business WiMAX solution. The South African authority ICASA has already assigned WiMAX licences to several providers, and Neotel is implementing WiMAX-based last mile solutions in Johannesburg, Pretoria, Cape Town and Durban.[38]

Mobile technology is the primary infrastructure for telecom services in Africa, with operators focusing their efforts on it. In certain markets, mobile networks handle up to 99% of voice and data traffic. Fixed-line infrastructure is slower, more expensive, has a larger reach, and has fewer difficulties.[4][39] The number of mobile customers in Africa is expanding faster than everywhere else. By rapidly linking entrepreneurs, startups, and enterprises with existing and future clientele, digital platforms are creating possibilities for them. Mobile financial services allow for immediate payment of products and services.[40][41][42]

According to a survey conducted in 2022, the percentage of banks offering digital products or services ranges from at least 80% in Central Africa to more than 95% in West Africa (mostly driven by Nigeria). The top three most often requested services are domestic money transfers (87%), receiving payments from clients (85%), and paying bills or suppliers (79.6%).[43][44][45]

In the 2020s, in an effort to bridge the digital divide, several African countries granted licenses to companies such as SpaceX’s Starlink who offer satellite internet. Amazon’s Project Kuiper also plans to offer services in the country.[46]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet 2000-2012", International Telecommunication Union (Geneva), June 2013, retrieved 22 June 2013
  2. ^ Black, Jeremy (April 2022). A History of the World: From Prehistory to the 21st Century. Arcturus. p. 221. ISBN 9781838570514.
  3. ^ Galal, Saifaddin (Jan 10, 2024). "Internet usage in Africa - statistics & facts". STATISTA.
  4. ^ a b c d e "Digital infrastructure help Africa build resilient societies". European Investment Bank. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  5. ^ "African e-Connectivity Index 2021: the final frontier and a huge opportunity". Investment Monitor. 2021-11-10. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  6. ^ "Africa Connectivity Outlook: 2022 and Beyond". SES. 27 June 2022. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  7. ^ "Why aren't more people using mobile internet in West Africa?". blogs.worldbank.org. 8 December 2021. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  8. ^ "COVID-19 and Africa: Socio-economic implications and policy responses". OECD. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  9. ^ "Africa and Europe: In the face of common opportunities and challenges, let's build common responses | EEAS Website". www.eeas.europa.eu. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  10. ^ "COVID-19". World Bank. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  11. ^ ITU (2010)
  12. ^ "Percentage of Individuals using the Internet". ITU Statistics. ITU. 2017. Retrieved 27 February 2017.
  13. ^ "Africa: internet penetration, by country 2020". Statista. Retrieved 2021-05-22.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r ITU (2007)
  15. ^ a b c d Waters (2007)
  16. ^ BBC News (2002)
  17. ^ "Measuring digital development: Facts and figures 2023". Telecommunication Development Bureau, International Telecommunication Union (ITU). Retrieved 2024-06-14.
  18. ^ Internet World Statistics [1] Archived 2018-04-13 at the Wayback Machine(2011)
  19. ^ a b c d Internet World Stats (2011)
  20. ^ a b c d Pingdom (2008)
  21. ^ a b c d Cornu (2005)
  22. ^ Oyelaran-Oyeyinka and Nyaki Adeya (2002)
  23. ^ "Nigeria | History, Population, Flag, Map, Languages, Capital, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-05-22.
  24. ^ a b c d Livraghi (2008)
  25. ^ a b Livraghi (2014)
  26. ^ INX portal
  27. ^ Albert Butare (Rwanda Minister of Telecommunications), quoted in Waters (2007)
  28. ^ ""C Band Ku Band Comparison". Technical. Link Communications Systems". 30 July 2004.
  29. ^ Hamadoun Touré, International Telecommunication Union, quoted in Waters (2007)
  30. ^ Balancing Act (2008b)
  31. ^ MyBroadband (2007)
  32. ^ Andrew Alston, quoted in Pingdom (2008)
  33. ^ "Eurasia Terrestrial - Submarine Networks". www.submarinenetworks.com. Retrieved 2022-09-06.
  34. ^ "Press corner". European Commission - European Commission. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
  35. ^ "How digitalisation fights COVID-19 and climate change in Africa". European Investment Bank. Retrieved 2021-04-16.
  36. ^ "MAURITANIA COVID-19 RESILIENCE SUBMARINE CABLE". www.eib.org. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  37. ^ Graham, Mark; Andersen, Casper; Mann, Laura (2014-12-15). "Geographical imagination and technological connectivity in East Africa". Transactions of the Institute of British Geographers. 40 (3): 334–349. doi:10.1111/tran.12076. ISSN 0020-2754.
  38. ^ Balancing (2008b)
  39. ^ "Sub-Saharan Africa". The Mobile Economy. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  40. ^ "Solutions". www.wearetech.africa (in French). Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  41. ^ "How Africa's growing mobile money market is evolving". www.ey.com. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
  42. ^ Bayuo, Blaise; Bamford, Roxanne; Baah, Belinda; Mwaya, Judith; Gakuo, Chizi; Tholstrup, Sophie (February 2022). "Supercharging Africa's Startups: The Continent's Path to Tech Excellence".
  43. ^ Bank, European Investment (2022-10-19). Finance in Africa - Navigating the financial landscape in turbulent times. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5382-2.
  44. ^ Hiebert, Tapfuma Musewe, Kyle. "The Future of Fintech Is Unfolding in Africa". Centre for International Governance Innovation. Retrieved 2022-10-28.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ "Fintech in Nigeria | McKinsey". www.mckinsey.com. Retrieved 2022-10-28.
  46. ^ "Zambia becomes sixth African country to get SpaceX's Starlink satellite internet service". 5 October 2023.
  • Jean-Michel Cornu (2005), How people use the Internet today in Africa, UNESCO, [2]
  • Giancarlo Livraghi (2008), Dati sull'Internet in Africa, [3] (in Italian)
  • Giancarlo Livraghi (2014), Dati sull'Internet in Africa, [4] (in Italian)
  • Darren Waters (2007), Africa waiting for net revolution. «BBC News» October 29, [5]
  • Balancing Act (2005), South Africa's MTN Spends USD60-70M on 3G Launch, «Balancing Act» nr. 264, [6]
  • Balancing Act (2008), Private Investors Sign Up for Stake in TEAMS cable project in Kenya, «Balancing Act» n. 398, [7]
  • Balancing Act (2008b), Mobile Internet Take-up Is Speeding the Take-up of IPv6 in Africa, «Balancing Act» n. 406, [8]
  • BBC News (2002), The Great African Internet Robbery, April 15, [9]
  • ITU (2007), Telecommunications/ICT Markets and Trends in Africa, [10]
  • ITU (2010), Connect the World, [11]
  • Internet World Stats (2008), African Internet Usage and Population Stats [12] Archived 2018-04-13 at the Wayback Machine
  • MyBroadband (2007), Is SEACOM Racing Past EASSy?, [13]
  • Banji Oyelaran-Oyeyinka and Catherine Nyaki Adeya (2002), Internet Access in Africa: An Empirical Exploration, May, United Nations University, [14]
  • Pingdom (2008), Africa's Internet is Still Very Far Behind, March, [15]
[edit]

African online communities

[edit]
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