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Kingdom of Mapungubwe

Coordinates: 22°11′33″S 29°14′20″E / 22.19250°S 29.23889°E / -22.19250; 29.23889
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Kingdom of Mapungubwe
Mapungubwe
c. 1220 (1220)–c. 1300 (1300)
StatusKingdom
CapitalMapungubwe Hill
GovernmentMonarchy
History 
• Established
c. 1220 (1220)
• Mapungubwe Hill abandoned
c. 1300 (1300)
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Leopard's Kopje
Kingdom of Zimbabwe
Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape
UNESCO World Heritage Site
LocationLimpopo, South Africa
CriteriaCultural: (ii), (iii), (iv), (v)
Reference1099bis
Inscription2003 (27th Session)
Extensions2014
Area281.686602 km2 (69,606 acres)
Buffer zone1,048 km2 (259,000 acres)
Coordinates22°11′33″S 29°14′20″E / 22.19250°S 29.23889°E / -22.19250; 29.23889
Map
Kingdom of Mapungubwe is located in Limpopo
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
Location of Kingdom of Mapungubwe in Limpopo
Kingdom of Mapungubwe is located in South Africa
Kingdom of Mapungubwe
Kingdom of Mapungubwe (South Africa)

The Kingdom of Mapungubwe (pronounced /mɑːˈpuːnɡuːbweɪ/ mah-POON-goob-weh) was an ancient[a] state in South Africa located at the confluence of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, south of Great Zimbabwe. The kingdom was the first stage in a development that would culminate in the creation of the Kingdom of Zimbabwe in the 13th century, and with gold trading links to Rhapta and Kilwa Kisiwani on the African east coast. At its height the capital's population was about 5000 people.[6]

The Mapungubwe Collection of artefacts found at the archaeological site is housed in the Mapungubwe Museum in Pretoria. The site is located in the Mapungubwe National Park in South Africa, on the border with Zimbabwe and Botswana.[7]

Etymology

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The capital was called Mapungubwe, which is where the kingdom gets its name.[8] Mapungubwe means "a place of (many) jackals". In various Bantu languages, "-pungubwe" refers to jackals. Jackal is "phunguwe" in Venda, while in Northern Sotho it is "phukubje".[9]

History

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Mapungubwe Hill

Origins

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The origins of the Kingdom of Mapungubwe lie in Leopard's Kopje. From around 700-900, the climate in the Limpopo-Shashe Basin became colder and drier, and was not inhabited.[9]

Schroda (900-1000)

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Motivated by the ivory trade, some Zhizo people moved south around 900 to settle Schroda, near the Limpopo River. They herded cattle and engaged in farming. Schroda was likely the Zhizo's capital due to being the most populated (around 500). The chief was the wealthiest, and accumulated cattle through court fines, forfeits, tributes, raids, and the high price of marrying one of his daughters. The Zhizo made elaborate pottery with diverse styles, for which they were named after. Figurines were used as props in school lessons. Via the Indian Ocean trade they traded ivory, gold, rhino skins, leopard skins, and iron to coastal cities such as Sofala in exchange for glass beads, cotton and silk cloths, and glazed ceramics.[1]: 10-14 

K2 (1000-1220)

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Around 1000, some Leopard's Kopje people moved south to settle Bambandyanalo (known as K2), as the Zhizo moved west to settle Toutswe in modern day Botswana. Some scholars believe their relations to have been hostile, however others insist they were more complex, both socially and politically.[10] Leopard's Kopje people spoke an early form of Shona, likely Kalanga (western Shona). K2 was the capital, and was likely divided into residential areas under the authority of a family head, with the chief having the largest area. Women worked copper, while men worked iron.[1]: 16–23 

They cultivated sorghum, pearl millet, finger millet, ground beans, and cowpeas. The population expanded, and K2 had a population of 1500 by 1200. Rainmaking was widespread, and the chief sometimes hired strangers who were believed to have special relationships with the spirits of the land, such as the San, due to their longer habitation. Likewise some Zhizo who remained at Leokwe, likely subordinate to K2, specialised in rituals also due to their longer habitation.[1]: 26–29 

The large wealth generated by the Indian Ocean trade created unprecedented inequalities, evolving over time from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes. K2's spatial arrangement became unsuited to this development.[1]: 30 

Mapungubwe Hill (1220-1300)

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Around 1220, the population of K2 moved to Mapungubwe.


Stone masonry

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Spatial organisation in the kingdom of Mapungubwe involved the use of stone walls to demarcate important areas for the first time. There was a stone-walled residence likely occupied by the principal councillor.[11] Stone and wood were used together. There would have also been a wooden palisade surrounding Mapungubwe Hill. Most of the capital's population would have lived inside the western wall.[11]

Culture and society

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Over the course of settlement at K2, their society transitioned from a society based on social ranking to one based on social classes, and is thought by archaeologists to be the first class-based social system in southern Africa. Mapungubwe's architecture and spatial arrangement also provide "the earliest evidence for sacred leadership in southern Africa".[12]

Life in Mapungubwe was centred on family and farming. Special sites were created for initiation ceremonies, household activities, and other social functions. Cattle lived in kraals located close to the residents' houses, signifying their value.

Most speculation about society continues to be based upon the remains of buildings, since the Mapungubwean people left no written record.

The kingdom was likely divided into a three-tiered hierarchy with the commoners inhabiting low-lying sites, district leaders occupying small hilltops, and the capital at Mapungubwe Hill as the supreme authority.[11] Elites within the kingdom were buried in hills. Royal wives lived in their own area away from the king. Important men maintained prestigious homes on the outskirts of the capital. This type of spatial division occurred first at Mapungubwe but would be replicated in later Butua and Rozwi states.[8] The growth in population at Mapungubwe may have led to full-time specialists in ceramics, specifically pottery. Gold objects were uncovered in elite burials on the royal hill (Mapungubwe Hill).[11]

Re-discovery

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On New Year's Eve 1932, ESJ van Graan, a local farmer and prospector, and his son, a former student of the University of Pretoria, set out to follow up on a legend he had heard about.

According to an article published in 1985, translated from the Afrikaans text: Remains of a Rock Fort located on top of the hill were under investigation, dated back to the 11th century. Access to the archaeological site for the public is limited to supervised visits and tours. However, some of the items discovered were put on display at the Department of Archaeology, at the University of Pretoria. Mapungubwe Hill and K2 were declared national monuments in the 1980s by the government.[13]

Mapungubwe was added to the South African grade 6 curriculum in 2003.[14]

Mapungubwe hill burials

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At least twenty four skeletons were unearthed on Mapungubwe hill but only eleven were available for analysis, with the rest disintegrating upon touch or as soon as they were exposed to light and air. Most of the skeletal remains were buried with few or no accessories, with most adults buried with glass beads. Two adult burials (labelled numbers 10 and 14 by the early excavators) as well as one unlabelled skeleton (referred to as the original gold burial)[15] were associated with gold artefacts and were unearthed from the so-called grave area upon Mapungubwe Hill. Despite this latest information the remains were all buried in the traditional Bantu burial position (sitting with legs drawn to the chest, arms folded round the front of the knees) and they were facing west. The skeleton numbered 10, a male, was buried with his hand grasping a golden sceptre.

The skeleton labelled number 14 (female) was buried with at least 100 gold wire bangles around her ankles and there were at least one thousand gold beads in her grave. The last gold burial (male), who was most probably the king, was buried with a headrest and three objects made of gold foil tacked onto a wooden core, depicting a bowl, sceptre and rhino. At least two more rhinos were in the sample, but their association with a specific grave is unknown.

In 2007, the South African Government gave the green light for the skeletal remains that were excavated in 1933 to be reburied on Mapungubwe Hill in a ceremony that took place on 20 November 2007.

Panorama from the top of Mapungubwe Hill

Population

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Diet and lifestyle

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Skeletal Analysis has been done on the people of Mapungubwe to learn about their health and lifestyle. Findings include that the populations at Mapungubwe experienced mortality rates expected for a pre-industrial group (comparable to pre-industrial Europeans), with high mortality at youth but an expected 35-40 year life-span after adulthood is reached.[16] Another finding is that the people of Mapungubwe grew well, without a notable frequency of chronic infections, though children sometimes were found with anaemia (sickle cell not specified); malaria was not indicated.[17] This health index apparently stood in contrast to agrarian populations at Oakhurst, South Africa, to whom these samples were compared.

Ethnic affiliation

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Skeletal analysis of craniometric traits (ie: traits on the skull) have been used to infer the genetic relationship between the people of Mapungubwe and other populations. Early analysis by Galloway, 1939/1957 saw affinities between the people of Mapungubwe and samples taken from 'Khoisanid' samples, and thus classed the Mapungubwe population as 'racially Boskop' (Khoisan),[17] perhaps even with additional 'Caucasoid' traits.[18] This became a controversial classification, particularly because (as discussed above), the material culture finds from the site are largely in line with known contemporary Iron-Age Bantu practices. Re-analysis of Galloway's remains is difficult because of poor preservation practice on his skulls,[18] but subsequent analysis on other finds has demonstrated that the majority of those samples from Mapungubwe which were not damaged by poor storage or vulnerable to destruction fall within a general range to be expected of "Bantu" groups. Analysis by Rightmire 1970 found that, measuring cranial length, glabella protrusion, nasion-basion (nose bridge) length, alveolare-basion length, and a number of other traits (35 in total), the 6 "K2 Crania" (Rightmire treats K2 alongside Bambandyanalo and Mapungubwe) all clearly fall outside of the range for "Bushman" (San?) samples, and 4 clearly fall out of the range of "Hottentot" samples. Two aside, "the rest are firmly within the range of expected modern Bantu variation...".[18] Concluding, he reasons the idea that:

Bambandyanalo and Mapungubwe people be viewed as representative of a “large Khoisan” (i.e., Hottentot) population seems to have missed the mark... [as] there is no basis for continued emphasis on these remains as pre- or non-Negro and hence no necessity to “explain” the K2 (Leopard’s Kopje) material culture as "taken over"...

Analysis by Steyn 1997 found that tooth samples (dental samples being the main kind studied in her piece) were more similar to samples from K2, which had been classed as "Southern African Negro", than San samples.[17]

K2 and Mapungubwe teeth thus probably come from a single population that, although not identical, is broadly similar to the modem 'South African Negro

The reasons for this confusion are manifold. Firstly, the exceedingly small sample size available means results are liable to coincidental bias (ie: a particularly unique set of individuals is taken as representative of the whole).[17] Secondly, craniometric analysis is generally liable to issues of measurement and interpretation; it has long been known that depending on measured criteria and implicated populations, one may read traits 'of' one population into another.[19] Thirdly, many scholars note that the assumption of uniform differentiation between members of Khoisan and Bantu populations through physiological analysis is complicated by the fact that Southern African populations have long been acknowledged to carry mixed traits[20] and to have interacted,[19] and because, as Steyn puts it, "the typological approach, whereby an individual is described by reference to an ideal' individual possessing all the main features of a specific race, is now totally outdated."[17] This does not mean, however, that broad 'cluster' differences cannot be ascertained and worked within, as Rightmire 1970 argued by asserting sufficient criteria could, with a very high level of confidence, discern between its set of analyzed Khoisan and "Southern African Negro" samples,[18] and a similar argument was forwarded in Franklin & Freedman 2006.[21] Even in this case, Rightmire & Merwe 1976 demonstrate that with such differentiation, unexpected finds are not unheard of; their analysis determined one of two burials analyzed for the paper were more comfortably fitted among "Hottentots" than "Bantus", with the best Bantu fit being their Venda samples.[22] In either case, actual genetic analysis of the past two decades (as opposed to physiological analysis inferring genetic relationships) supports notable,[23][24] sometimes even substantial,[25][26] mixture between Khoisan and Southern African Bantu populations in history, that is reflected in modern Khoisan and Bantu peoples. Finally is the very assumption that craniometric OR genetic analysis can by themselves accurately pinpoint ethno-linguistic identities and boundaries of historic peoples, something considered by Brothwell 1963[19] as often problematic, as there exist Khoisan populations with almost entirely 'non-Khoisan' associated ancestry,[25] and some Xhosa samples apparently had a majority non-Xhosa ancestry.[21]

Protected areas

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Main articles: Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area and Mapungubwe National Park

The area is now part of the Mapungubwe National Park, which in turn is contained in the UNESCO Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape and the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area.

South Africa's contribution to the trans-frontier conservation area consists of the Mapungubwe National Park, Venetia Limpopo Nature Reserve, Limpopo Valley Conservancy, Mapesu Private Game Reserve, the proposed Mogalakwena Game Reserve, the Vhembe Game Reserve as well as a number of smaller private farms. The total proposed area will be 256,100 hectares or 53% of the entire Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area.

Botswana's contribution to the Conservation Area consists of the Northern Tuli Game Reserve, covering an area of 71,173 ha. In phase two the area is expected to increase in size with the inclusion of the Central Tuli Farms and the proposed Shashe CCA. In addition, the area roughly extending from the town of Mathathane North to Kobojango and onwards to the Shashe River will also form part of the GMTFCA. In total Botswana's contribution to the TFCA is expected to be 135,000ha, roughly 28% of the total area of the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area. Sentinel Ranch, Nottingham Estate and the Tuli Circle Safari Area make up Zimbabwe's contribution to the GMTFCA. In phase two the Maramani, Machuchuta as well as Hwali Wildlife Management Areas may also be included extending the size of Zimbabwe's contribution to the Greater Mapungubwe Transfrontier Conservation Area to 96,000 hectares or roughly 19%.

Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape

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The Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site on 3 July 2003.[27]

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  • Entrance to Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo Province, South Africa
    Entrance to Mapungubwe National Park, Limpopo Province, South Africa
  • Taken from South Africa, to the left is Botswana and Zimbabwe is on the right. The river running from left to right is the Limpopo River. The river which disappears on the horizon is the Shashe
    Taken from South Africa, to the left is Botswana and Zimbabwe is on the right. The river running from left to right is the Limpopo River. The river which disappears on the horizon is the Shashe
  • Sandstone rock formations typical of Mapungubwe National Park
    Sandstone rock formations typical of Mapungubwe National Park
  • Treetop Boardwalk. All facilities at Mapungubwe National Park are wheelchair-friendly.
    Treetop Boardwalk. All facilities at Mapungubwe National Park are wheelchair-friendly.
  • Mapungubwe Hill viewed from the north
    Mapungubwe Hill viewed from the north
  • The name may derive from the Shona word for Bateleur eagle
    The name may derive from the Shona word for Bateleur eagle
  • An archaeological excavation site at Mapungubwe.
    An archaeological excavation site at Mapungubwe.
  • The Golden Rhinoceros of Mapungubwe
    The Golden Rhinoceros of Mapungubwe

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ Ancient as a time period is relative, and differs among regions. Sources that refer to Mapungubwe as ancient: [1][2][3][4][5]

References

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  1. ^ a b c d e Huffman, Thomas N. (2005). Mapungubwe : ancient African civilisation on the Limpopo. Internet Archive. Johannesburg : Wits University Press. ISBN 978-1-86814-408-2.
  2. ^ Wingfield, Chris; Giblin, John; King, Rachel, eds. (2020). The Pasts and Presence of Art in South Africa: Technologies, Ontologies and Agents. McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research.
  3. ^ Mapungubwe Reconsidered: A Living Legacy: Exploring Beyond the Rise and Decline of the Mapungubwe State. 2015.
  4. ^ Shabalala, Lombuso (2022). Perspective of Mapungubwe Descendants’ Traditional Leaders Concerning Their Traditional Values and Cultural Heritage Preservation. Cultural Sustainable Tourism.
  5. ^ Mathebula, Mantha (2017). "Some notes on the early history of the Tembe, 1280 AD-1800 AD". New Contree (78).
  6. ^ Huffman, page 376
  7. ^ "Mapungubwe National Park - World Heritage Site in South Africa". southafrica.co.za. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
  8. ^ a b Hrbek, page 324
  9. ^ a b Tlou, Setumu (2012). The Kingdom of Mapungubwe: The First Urban Centre and the Capital of the First State in Southern Africa (Report). Limpopo Provincial Government.
  10. ^ Calabrese, John A. (1 December 2000). "Interregional Interaction in Southern Africa: Zhizo and Leopard's Kopje Relations in Northern South Africa, Southwestern Zimbabwe, and Eastern Botswana, AD 1000 to 1200". African Archaeological Review. 17 (4): 183–210. doi:10.1023/A:1006796925891. ISSN 1572-9842.
  11. ^ a b c d Hrbek, page 325
  12. ^ "Origin of Species and Evolution, Wits University Showcase" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 November 2009. Retrieved 10 July 2010.
  13. ^ "Mapungubwe National Park and World Heritage Site: History of the Park". SANParks. Retrieved 17 November 2009.
  14. ^ Whose history counts : decolonising African pre-colonial historiography. Bam, June., Ntsebeza, Lungisile., Zinn, Allan. Stellenbosch [South Africa]. 29 November 2018. pp. 179–199. ISBN 9781928314110. OCLC 1083646254.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  15. ^ A. Duffey 2012. Mapungubwe: Interpretation of the Gold Content of the Original Gold Burial M1, A620. Journal of African Archaeology 10 (2), 2012, pages 175–187.
  16. ^ Henneberg, Maciej; Steyn, Maryana (1994). "Preliminary Report on the Paleodemography of the K2 and Mapungubwe Populations (South Africa)". Human Biology. 66 (1): 105–120. PMID 8157260.
  17. ^ a b c d e Steyn, Maryana (1997). "A Reassessment of the Human Skeletons from K2 and Mapungubwe (South Africa)". South African Archaeological Bulletin. 52 (165): 14–20. doi:10.2307/3888972. JSTOR 3888972. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
  18. ^ a b c d Rightmire, Phillip (1970). "Iron age skulls from Southern Africa re-assessed by multiple discriminant analysis". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 33 (2): 147–167. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330330203. PMID 5473084.
  19. ^ a b c Brothwell, Don R. (1963). "Evidence of Early Population Change in Central and Southern Africa: Doubts and Problems". Man. 63 (132): 101–104. doi:10.2307/2796896. JSTOR 2796896. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
  20. ^ Tobias, Phillip V. (1985). "History of Physical Anthropology in Southern Africa". American Journal of Physical Anthropology. 28 (S6): 1–52. doi:10.1002/ajpa.1330280503.
  21. ^ a b Franklin, Daniel; Freedman, Leonard; Milne; Oxnard (2006). "Geometric morphometric study of population variation in indigenous southern African crania". American Journal of Human Biology. 19 (1): 20–33. doi:10.1002/ajhb.20569. PMID 17160981. S2CID 27439270. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
  22. ^ Rightmire, Phillip (1976). "Two Burials from Phalaborwa and the Association of Race and Culture in the Iron Age of Southern Africa". The South African Archaeological Bulletin. 31 (123): 147–152. doi:10.2307/3887736. JSTOR 3887736. Retrieved 19 August 2023.
  23. ^ Schuster, Stephan; Miller, Webb (2010). "Complete Khoisan and Bantu genomes from southern Africa". Nature. 463 (7283): 943–947. Bibcode:2010Natur.463..943S. doi:10.1038/nature08795. PMC 3890430. PMID 20164927. S2CID 2566995.
  24. ^ Sengupta, Dhriti; Choudhury, Ananyo (2021). "Genetic substructure and complex demographic history of South African Bantu speakers". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 2080. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.2080S. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-22207-y. PMC 8027885. PMID 33828095.
  25. ^ a b Pickrell, Joseph K.; "Patterson, Nick (2012). "The genetic prehistory of southern Africa". Nature Communications. 3: 1143. arXiv:1207.5552. Bibcode:2012NatCo...3.1143P. doi:10.1038/ncomms2140. PMC 3493647. PMID 23072811.
  26. ^ Vincente, Mario; Jakobsson, Mattias (2019). "Genetic Affinities among Southern Africa Hunter-Gatherers and the Impact of Admixing Farmer and Herder Populations". Mol Biol Evol. 36 (9): 1849–1861. doi:10.1093/molbev/msz089. PMC 6735883. PMID 31288264.
  27. ^ "Mapungubwe Cultural Landscape". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 13 June 2023.

Sources

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  • Fouché, L. (1937). Mapungubwe: Ancient Bantu Civilisation on the Limpopo. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 183 pages.
  • Gardner, G.A. (1949). "Hottentot Culture on the Limpopo". South African Archeological Journal. 4 (16): 116–121. doi:10.2307/3886997. JSTOR 3886997.
  • Gardner, G.A. (1955). "Mapungubwe: 1935 – 1940". South African Archeological Journal. 10 (39): 73–77. doi:10.2307/3887555. JSTOR 3887555.
  • Hall, Martin; Rebecca Stefoff (2006). Great Zimbabwe. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 48 pages. ISBN 0-19-515773-7.
  • Hrbek, Ivan; Fasi, Muhammad (1988). Africa from the Seventh to the Eleventh Century. London: UNESCO. pp. 869 pages. ISBN 92-3-101709-8.
  • Huffman, Thomas (2007). Handbook to the Iron Age: The archaeology of pre-colonial farming societies in southern Africa. Scottsville: University of KwaZulu-Natal Press. pp. 504 pages. ISBN 978-1-86914-108-0.
  • Walton, J. (1956). "Mapungubwe and Bambandyanalo". South African Archeological Journal. 11 (41): 27. doi:10.2307/3886782. JSTOR 3886782.
  • Walton, J. (1956). "Mapungubwe and Bambandyanalo". South African Archeological Journal. 11 (44): 111. doi:10.2307/3886587. JSTOR 3886587.
  • Duffey, Sian Tiley-Nel et al. The Art and Heritage Collections of the University of Pretoria.Univ. of Pretoria, 2008.
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