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History

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1775–1799

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George Washington takes command of the Continental Army, c. 1775.

In June 1775, the Continental Congress appointed George Washington as general and commander in chief of the Continental Army during the Revolutionary War.[1][2] At the war's end in 1783, Washington resigned his commission. As this occurred before the establishment of the United States Army in 1784, he is therefore considered never to have held the U.S. Army rank of general.[3][4]

In May 1798, Washington was commissioned as a lieutenant general in the U.S. Army by his successor as president, John Adams, to command the provisional army being raised for the undeclared Quasi-War with France. In March 1799, the United States Congress elevated the lieutenant generalcy to the rank of "General of the Armies of the United States", but Adams thought the new rank infringed on his constitutional role as commander in chief and never made the appointment.[5] Washington died later that year, and the rank lapsed when not mentioned in the Military Peace Establishment Act of 1802.[6] He was promoted posthumously to the rank in 1978, after it was reestablished for him as part of the 1976 United States Bicentennial celebrations.[7]

1866–1941

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Civil War and aftermath

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The Civil War-era generals of the Army (Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan) with President Abraham Lincoln, March 1865.

The rank of General of the Armies was revived in 1866, with the name "General of the Army of the United States" to reward the Civil War achievements of Ulysses S. Grant, the commanding general of the United States Army (CGUSA).[8] As with the prior rank and that of lieutenant general revived for Grant in 1864, the holder was authorized to command the armies of the United States, subject to presidential authority.[9] Grant vacated his commission to become president in March 1869, and the lieutenant general of the Army, William Tecumseh Sherman, was promoted to succeed him as general. The grade was abolished after Sherman's retirement in February 1884, in accordance with legislation passed in 1870.[10][11]

After Sherman's retirement, the ban on new appointments to the grade of general was relaxed twice. In March 1885, Grant was out of office, bankrupt, and dying, so Congress authorized the president to reappoint him to the rank and full pay of general on the retired list.[12][13] Congress made a similar exception in June 1888 to promote the ailing lieutenant general of the Army, Philip Sheridan, by discontinuing the grade of lieutenant general and merging it with the grade of general until Sheridan's death two months later.[14][15]

Since there was only one active duty four-star general in the Army during this period, the grade was interchangeably referred to as "general", "the General", and "the General of the Army", a title not to be confused with the five-star grade of general of the Army created in 1944.[16]

World War I

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The rank flag of General of the Armies John J. Pershing, presented to him in 1922.

In 1917, the rank of general was recreated in the National Army, a temporary force of conscripts and volunteers authorized for the duration of the World War I emergency. To give American commanders parity of rank with their Allied counterparts, Congress allowed the president to appoint two emergency generals in the National Army, specified to be the chief of staff of the Army (CSA), Tasker H. Bliss and later Peyton C. March; and the commander of the American Expeditionary Forces (CG AEF) in France, John J. Pershing.[17] When Bliss reached the retirement age of 64 and demitted office as chief of staff, he was reappointed emergency general by brevet to serve alongside full generals from allied nations as the U.S. military representative to the Supreme War Council.[18]

All emergency grades expired at the end of the war, so in July 1919, eight months after the armistice, President Woodrow Wilson asked Congress to reward March and Pershing by making them both permanent generals, with Pershing senior to March.[19][20] Accordingly, the House Military Affairs Committee reported out two bills to promote Pershing and March to General of the Armies.[21][22] Pershing's promotion was authorized on 3 September 1919, just in time for the secretary of war to hand him his new commission when he returned from Europe.[23] Congress and Pershing both opposed March's promotion, having clashed with him during the war, so his bill failed to pass and he reverted to major general alongside Bliss when their emergency grades expired on 30 June 1920.[24][25] Both were restored to their wartime ranks of general on the retired list in 1930.[26]

Interwar

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Pershing succeeded March as Army chief of staff in the permanent grade of general, and served from 1921 to 1924.[27][28] The grade lapsed with his retirement, leaving the rank of major general as the highest available grade in the peacetime Army, and his two-star successors, John L. Hines and Charles P. Summerall, perpetually outranked by their four-star Navy counterpart, the chief of naval operations.[29] The temporary rank of general was reauthorized for the chief of staff in 1929, elevating Summerall.[30] In 1940, special legislation advanced Hines to general on the retired list as the only living former chief of staff never to wear four stars.[31]

1941–1991

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World War II and aftermath

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General Omar Bradley was promoted to general in 1945 as a one-time personal honor, with full active-duty pay for life.

The United States entered World War II on 7 December 1941 with one Army general authorized – George Marshall, who began serving as Army chief of staff on 1 September 1939.[32] Legislation enacted in 1933 and amended in 1940 allowed the president to appoint officers of the Regular Army, the Army's professional military component, to higher temporary grades in time of war or national emergency.[33] As with the National Army emergency generals, these appointments expired after the end of the war, although postwar legislation allowed officers to retire in their highest active-duty rank.[34] On 19 December 1941, the Senate confirmed Douglas MacArthur to be the first temporary general in the Army of the United States, the reconstituted draft force, as he fought the Japanese invasion of the Philippines.[35][36]

Temporary four-star officers were appointed sparingly over the next two years, including three Army generals. Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed temporary general in February 1943, to command Allied forces in North Africa and later Europe;[37] Henry H. Arnold in March 1943, as commanding general of Army Air Forces and member of the Joint Chiefs of Staff;[38] and Joseph W. Stilwell in August 1944,[39] as commander of the China Burma India Theater and chief of staff to Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. Marshall, MacArthur, Eisenhower, and Arnold were further promoted to the temporary five-star grade of general of the Army in December 1944, made permanent in March 1946.[40][41]

Additional temporary generals, augmented by the Officer Personnel Act of 1947, were appointed to command postwar occupation forces in Germany and Japan, as well as the stateside Army commands. Omar Bradley, who had commanded the Twelfth Army Group — the bulk of American forces on the Western Front — also received a permanent promotion to general as a one-time personal honor, with full active-duty pay for life.[42] This was superseded by Bradley's promotion to general of the Army while serving as the first chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, in 1950.[41][43] By the official termination of the World War II national emergency in April 1952, the Army had eight four-star generals.[44][45]

Officer Personnel Act era (1947–1979)

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General James A. Van Fleet (left), seen here in December 1953 shaking hands with Korean general Song Yo-chan, was among the first temporary four-star generals appointed under the Korean War emergency.

The modern grade of general was established by the Officer Personnel Act (OPA) of 1947, which authorized the president to designate positions of importance and responsibility to carry the grade ex officio, subject to Senate consent. The OPA consolidated general and flag officer appointment procedures from prior legislation into a single positive law, and is the forerunner to modern four-star appointment procedures under Title 10 of the United States Code, which was codified in 1956.[34][46]

  • It renewed presidential authority to appoint temporary generals in excess of the Army's peacetime grade cap during national emergencies, if the Senate was willing to confirm and fund them.[49] This authority was first exercised during the Korean War emergency to promote three Army generals to temporary four-star grade, including James A. Van Fleet, the commanding general of Eighth Army in Korea.[50][51] It forms the basis of Section 527 of Title 10 today.[52]
  • It included the first percentage caps on the number of four-star officers — for the Army, 3.75 percent of all general officers on active duty (25 percent of the 15 percent who could be above the grade of major general).[53] When the caps were lifted during the Korean War emergency, the services still adhered closely to them to appease the Senate committees that held confirmation power. The Army remained well below the caps until the late 1970s, giving it room to designate ad hoc four-star positions for existing generals to smooth transitions between jobs or to retirement, like with Lyman Lemnitzer in 1969.[54][56]
  • It gave the Army its first up-or-out promotion system, eliminating officers after a maximum number of years in each grade. Temporary generals with the permanent grade of major general were retired after five years in permanent grade, or after 35 years of active commissioned service, whichever was later, unless extended to age 60 by the secretary of the Army.[57][58] Up to 10 officers holding temporary grades above major general could be retained until the age of 64.[59] It forms the basis of Sections 636 and 1253 of Title 10 today.[60][61]

Escalating global commitments during the Cold War created more Army four-star generals, both at home and abroad. Besides the statutory chief and vice chief of staff, Army generals led stateside commands for combat deployment (CG FORSCOM) and training and doctrinal development (CG TRADOC), and had a monopoly over the joint commands overseeing global crisis response (USCINCRED), U.S. forces in Latin America and the Caribbean (USCINCSO), and the Vietnam War (COMUSMACV). Outside the national chain of command, the NATO supreme commander in Europe (SACEUR) was consistently an Army general apart from the period of 1953 to 1956.[62]

The appointments of four-star officers in excess of grade caps persisted until 1976, when the National Emergencies Act terminated all existing national emergencies effective 14 September 1978.[63] At the height of the Vietnam War in 1971, the Army had 17 four-star generals.[64] By 1981, it had only nine four-star generals.[65]

Defense Officer Personnel Management Act era (from 1980)

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Senior Army officers attend the 1983 Army Commander's Conference. Among the attendees are Generals Richard E. Cavazos and Roscoe Robinson Jr. the first Hispanic and African-American four-star generals in the Army.

The Defense Officer Personnel Management Act (DOPMA) of 1980 standardized four-star appointments across all services, replacing the previous service-specific mechanisms that the Officer Personnel Act of 1947 streamlined but did not attempt to unify. It ended the practice of appointing four-star officers to grades that they held personally regardless of assignment, and cemented Senate confirmation for all four-star promotions, reassignments, and retirements.[66]

Aside from what the OPA had already instituted:

  • Senate confirmation for retirements

This era also saw some firsts. Roscoe Robinson Jr. became the first African-American four-star general in the Army, and Richard E. Cavazos as the first Hispanic Army general.











https://www.armed-services.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Kane_01-24-18.pdf

The Army had been authorized 7 four-star generals for positions within the service by the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2010 (2010 NDAA), and employed 6 in 2017: the chief and vice chief of staff (CSA, VCSA); the commanding generals of Forces Command (FORSCOM), Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), and Army Materiel Command (AMC); and the Army component commander in the Pacific (USARPAC).[67][68] The remaining slot was used to establish Army Futures Command (AFC) in 2018.[69]

In July 2020, the three-star Army component commander in Europe, Christopher G. Cavoli, was nominated for a fourth star even though the Army was already using all 7 of its institutional four-star authorizations. The Senate confirmed him anyway, and he was promoted in October, giving the Army 8 service-specific four-star generals, which the 2021 NDAA ratified in December by allocating one more general to the Army and reducing the joint four-star pool to compensate.[70][71]

By the end of 2020, the Army had 18 four-star generals on active duty, exceeding the 17 four- and five-star generals it had at the end of World War II (including the Army Air Forces) or the 17 four-star generals it had at the height of the Vietnam War, its previous peaks.[69][71][72] The Army had won an unusually high number of joint-duty assignments to the competitive positions of chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, chief of the National Guard Bureau, and combatant commanders of U.S. Africa Command (USAFRICOM), U.S. Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), or U.S. Special Operations Command (USSOCOM); the expected position of commander of U.S. forces in Korea, traditionally an Army command; the unlikely positions of combatant commander of U.S. Transportation Command (USTRANSCOM) or U.S. Space Command (USSPACECOM), traditionally Air Force or Space Force commands; and the unrepeatable positions of final commander of U.S. forces in Afghanistan and chief operating officer of Operation Warp Speed, the federal government's COVID-19 vaccine development and delivery program.[73][74] Four years later, the Army held none of these positions except that of USSOCOM commander and commander of U.S. forces in Korea, adding only the commanders of USEUCOM and U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM), for a total of 12 four-star generals by the end of 2024.[75]

Modern era

[edit]

Within the Army, the chief of staff (CSA) and vice chief of staff (VCSA) are four-star generals by statute. Since World War II, the commanders of the Army formations in Europe (USAREUR) and East Asia (FECOM/USFK) have been designated four-star generals by reason of importance. Other designated four-star Army commands have included the various training, readiness, and materiel organizations.

The Army also competes with the other services for a number of joint four-star positions, the most prestigious of which are the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff (CJCS) and the NATO supreme allied commander in Europe (SACEUR).[76] Other joint four-star positions have included unified combatant commanders; certain NATO staff positions; and the wartime theater commanders in Vietnam (MACV), Iraq (MNF-I), and Afghanistan (ISAF/RS).

George A. JoulwanCarl W. StinerGordon R. SullivanWilliam G. T. Tuttle Jr.Edwin H. Burba Jr.John W. FossColin L. PowellRobert W. RisCassiH. Norman SchwarzkopfCrosbie E. SaintArthur E. Brown Jr.Louis C. MenetreyFrederick F. Woerner Jr.Louis C. Wagner Jr.James J. LindsayJoseph T. Palastra Jr.Carl E. VuonoJack N. MerrittFred K. MahaffeyJohn Galvin (soldier)Robert C. KingstonRichard H. ThompsonWilliam J. LivseyMaxwell R. ThurmanWallace H. NuttingPaul F. GormanWilliam R. Richardson (general)Roscoe Robinson Jr.Robert W. SennewaldRichard E. CavazosGlenn K. OtisDonald R. KeithVolney F. WarnerJohn A. Wickham Jr.Edward C. MeyerRobert M. ShoemakerDonn A. StarryJohn R. GuthrieSam S. WalkerJohn W. Vessey Jr.Frederick J. Kroesen Jr.William A. KnowltonGeorge S. BlanchardJohn R. Deane Jr.John J. HennesseyBernard W. RogersMelvin ZaisRichard G. StilwellWilliam E. DePuyWalter T. Kerwin Jr.Alexander M. Haig Jr.Donald V. BennettGeorge V. Underwood Jr.Michael S. DavisonFrank T. MildrenHenry A. Miley Jr.Frederick C. WeyandLewis B. HersheyJohn H. MichaelisJohn L. ThrockmortonWilliam B. RossonFerdinand J. ChesarekGeorge R. MatherBruce Palmer Jr.Berton E. Spivy Jr.Ben HarrellAndrew J. GoodpasterJames K. WoolnoughRalph E. Haines Jr.James H. PolkTheodore J. ConwayCharles H. Bonesteel IIIDwight E. BeachRobert W. Porter Jr.Creighton W. Abrams Jr.William C. WestmorelandHarold K. JohnsonFrank S. Besson Jr.Hugh P. HarrisHamilton H. HowzeTheodore W. ParkerAndrew P. O'MearaJohn K. WatersRobert J. WoodPaul L. Freeman Jr.Barksdale HamlettEarle G. WheelerPaul D. HarkinsPaul D. AdamsGuy S. Meloy Jr.James F. CollinsHerbert B. PowellJames E. MooreClark L. RuffnerCharles D. PalmerCarter B. MagruderClyde D. EddlemanBruce C. ClarkeHenry I. HodesGeorge H. DeckerCortlandt V.R. SchuylerWillard G. WymanIsaac D. WhiteWilliston B. PalmerLyman L. LemnitzerAnthony C. McAuliffeJohn E. DahlquistWilliam M. Hoge Jr.Charles L. BolteMaxwell D. TaylorJohn R. HodgeAlfred M. GruentherJames Van FleetJohn E. HullWalter Bedell SmithMatthew B. RidgwayWade H. HaislipJ. Lawton CollinsLucius D. ClayJonathan M. Wainwright IVCourtney H. HodgesGeorge S. Patton Jr.Thomas T. HandyOmar N. BradleyCarl A. SpaatzMark W. ClarkGeorge C. KenneyJacob L. DeversJoseph T. McNarneyBrehon B. SomervellWalter KruegerJoseph W. StilwellHenry H. ArnoldDwight D. EisenhowerGeorge C. Marshall Jr.Malin CraigDouglas MacArthurGulf WarVietnam WarKorean WarCold WarWorld War II

Abnormal appointments

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References

[edit]
  1. ^ Ford 1905, pp. 89–92.
  2. ^ On at least one occasion, Washington styled himself "Captain-General and Commander in Chief of the Forces of the Thirteen United Colonies", in his proclamation on the occupation of Boston on 21 March 1776. Chase (ed.) (1985), pp. 501–502.
  3. ^ Bell 2013, pp. 1, 6–8.
  4. ^ "Washington Never a General of U.S. Army; Rank Created for Him, but Not Conferred". The New York Times. 2 February 1936. p. N8.
  5. ^ Act of March 3, 1799 (1 Stat. 752). Andrews, C. C., ed. (1856). "Lieutenant General Scott's Case". Official Opinions of the Attorneys General of the United States. Vol. VII. Washington, D.C.: Robert Farnham. pp. 422–424.
  6. ^ Act of March 16, 1802 [Military Peace Establishment Act] (2 Stat. 133). "45 U.S. Officers Outrank George Washington". The New York Times. 27 September 1953. p. 27.
  7. ^ Kleber, Brooks E. (June 1978). "Washington is Now No. 1: The Story Behind a Promotion". Army. pp. 14–15.
  8. ^ "Army Pay — Retired General (4 Comp. Gen. 317)". Decisions of the Comptroller General of the United States. Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1925. p. 317.
  9. ^ Acts of March 3, 1799 (1 Stat. 752), and July 25, 1866 (14 Stat. 223).
  10. ^ Act of July 15, 1870 (16 Stat. 318).
  11. ^ Warner 1964, p. 443.
  12. ^ Act of March 3, 1885 (23 Stat. 434).
  13. ^ Chernow 2017, pp. 938–939.
  14. ^ Act of June 1, 1888 (25 Stat. 165).
  15. ^ Bell 2013, p. 24.
  16. ^ Rives, F.; Rives, J.; Bailey, George A. (1871). Congressional Globe and Appendix: Third Session, Forty-First Congress: Part I, Congressional Globe. Washington, D.C.: Office of the Congressional Globe. pp. 67–70.
  17. ^ Acts of May 18, 1917 (40 Stat. 76), and October 6, 1917 (40 Stat. 410).
  18. ^ Act of March 1, 1869 (15 Stat. 281). "Rank Of General For Bliss And March; Former Gets Brevet Title for Services Abroad — Latter Becomes Chief of Staff". The New York Times. 21 May 1918. p. 6.
  19. ^ "Wants The Highest Rank For Pershing". The New York Times. New York City. 19 July 1919. p. 5.
  20. ^ Supplement to the Messages and Papers of the Presidents, Covering the Second Term of Woodrow Wilson, March 4, 1917, to March 4, 1921. Bureau of National Literature. 1921. p. 8761.
  21. ^ "Report No. 185". House Reports (Public), 66th Congress, 1st Session. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1919.
  22. ^ "Report No. 186". House Reports (Public), 66th Congress, 1st Session. Vol. 1. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1919.
  23. ^ Act of September 3, 1919 (41 Stat. 283) "Names Pershing To Permanent Rank". The New York Times. New York City. 4 September 1919. p. 3.
  24. ^ Smythe, Donald (1981). "The Pershing-March Conflict in World War I". Parameters. XI (4): 60.
  25. ^ "March to Lose Two Stars on June 30; Going Back to Rank of Major General". The New York Times. 23 June 1920. p. 13.
  26. ^ Act of June 21, 1930 (46 Stat. 793).
  27. ^ Bell (2013), pp. 186.
  28. ^ The Comptroller General of the United States ruled in 1924 that the offices of "general" (as referred to in the Act of June 4, 1920 [National Defense Act Amendments] (41 Stat. 760) that provided for the peacetime army), "General of the Army of the United States", and "General of the Armies of the United States" were all the same grade held by Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and now Pershing, who was therefore entitled to the annual pay of $13,500 and other privileges set for Sherman in 1870, including the right to retire at full pay and allowances. "Army Pay—Retired General (4 Comp. Gen. 317)". Decisions of the Comptroller General of the United States. Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1925. p. 317.
  29. ^ Acts of June 4, 1920 [National Defense Act Amendments] (41 Stat. 762), June 10, 1922 [Joint Service Pay Act] (42 Stat. 629), and February 23, 1929 (45 Stat. 1255). Military Laws of the United States, 1949, pp. 41, 65, 219. "Report No. 1547: Equalize Rank of Officers in Positions of Great Responsibility in the Army and Navy". House Reports (Public), 70th Congress, 1st Session. Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1928.
  30. ^ Since the Navy, in fact, had four admirals—the chief of naval operations and the commanders in chief of the United States Fleet, Battle Fleet, and Asiatic Fleet—the Army asked in 1928 to have four generals: the chief of staff and the commanding generals of the Panama Canal Department, Hawaiian Department and Philippine Department. Only the increase in rank for the chief of staff was approved. Act of February 23, 1929 (45 Stat. 1255). "Report No. 1547: Equalize Rank of Officers in Positions of Great Responsibility in the Army and Navy". House Reports (Public), 70th Congress, 1st Session. Vol. 4. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1928.
  31. ^ Act of June 15, 1940 [Private Law 76-379] (54 Stat. 1286). "John L. Hines Made Full General Under a Special Act of Congress". The Cumberland News. 10 June 1940. p. 1.
  32. ^ Bell 2013, p. 186.
  33. ^ The relevant provisions were amendments to Section 127(a) of the National Defense Act of 1916. In 1940, the authorization, initially applying only to wartime, was extended to national emergencies. Acts of June 15, 1933 (48 Stat. 161), and September 9, 1940 (54 Stat. 875).
  34. ^ a b c Act of August 7, 1947 [Officer Personnel Act of 1947] (61 Stat. 886, 61 Stat. 887, 61 Stat. 888)
  35. ^ "Conscription Order #1" (Document). U.S. National Archives Record Group 165, College Park, Maryland: Office of the War Department, Records of the Personnel Division (G-1). 1941.{{cite document}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
  36. ^ Hearing Before the Committee on Military Affairs, United States Senate, Seventy-Seventh Congress, First Session, in Connection with the Nomination and the Confirmation of Douglas MacArthur as a General. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1942.
  37. ^ Bell 2013, p. 130.
  38. ^ Boyne, Walter (1 September 1997). "Hap". Air and Spaces Force Magazine. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
  39. ^ Special Orders No. 190 (August 9, 1944, OMPF p. 70); in "Official Military Personnel File for Joseph W. Stilwell".
  40. ^ Acts of December 14, 1944 (58 Stat. 802) and March 23, 1946 (60 Stat. 59).
  41. ^ a b "How many U.S. Army five-star generals have there been and who were they?". U.S. Army Center of Military History. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  42. ^ Procedurally, Bradley's promotion was among a slate of permanent four-star promotions for the Army, Navy, and Air Force, to balance the same promotions granted to the Marine Corps and Coast Guard commandants during World War II, Alexander Vandegrift and Russell R. Waesche. Acts of March 23, 1946 (60 Stat. 59) and June 26, 1948 (62 Stat. 1052)
  43. ^ Act of September 18, 1950 [Private Law 81-957] (64 Stat. A224).
  44. ^ Truman, Harry S. (28 April 1952). "Termination of the National Emergencies Proclaimed on September 8, 1939, and May 27, 1941". Truman Library. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
  45. ^ The eight four-star Army generals on active duty on 28 April 1952, by seniority within rank, were:
  46. ^ Act of August 10, 1956 (70A Stat. 1).
  47. ^ The Army chief of staff retained statutory four-star grade, as authorized in 1929; the other four vacancies were left undefined. Report No. 640, House of Representatives, 80th Congress, 1st Session: Army and Navy Promotion Bill. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 23 June 1947. pp. 11–14.
  48. ^ "10 U.S.C. § 525 – Distribution of commissioned officers on active duty in general officer and flag officer grades". United States Code. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
  49. ^ Hearings Before Committee on Armed Services of the House of Representatives on Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval and Military Establishments, 1951, Eighty-Second Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1951. p. 117.
  50. ^ Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Officer Grade Limitations of the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, Eighty-Fourth Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 9 March 1955. pp. 46, 48. Hearings Before Committee on Armed Services of the House of Representatives on Sundry Legislation Affecting the Naval and Military Establishments, 1951, Eighty-Second Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1951. p. 117.
  51. ^ Eisenhower Papers, Vol. 12, Pt. 2, Ch. 3, No. 230: To Joseph Lawton Collins (19 June 1951). pp. 363–366.
  52. ^ 10 U.S.C. § 527 - Authority to suspend sections 523, 525, and 526.
  53. ^ Act of August 7, 1947 [Officer Personnel Act of 1947] (61 Stat. 887)
  54. ^ Lemnitzer was detailed as a special assistant to the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff with the grade of general for two months to finish debriefing after stepping down as Supreme Allied Commander Europe (SACEUR) in 1969. Memorandum for the President: Retention of General Lyman L. Lemnitzer (June 11, 1969, OMPF (299741_021a.pdf), p. 650); in "Official Military Personnel File for Lyman L. Lemnitzer". Corddry, Charles W. (23 January 1964). "Retirement, Then Immediate Recall Of Lemnitzer Bared After 4 Months". The Town Talk. p. 4.
  55. ^ Binder 1997, pp. 307, 340–343.
  56. ^ Lemnitzer had previously been retained beyond the maximum retirement age of 64 by retiring in 1964 and being immediately recalled to active duty for five years.[55]
  57. ^ Act of August 7, 1947 [Officer Personnel Act of 1947] (61 Stat. 902, 61 Stat. 903)
  58. ^ Rostker 1993, p. 3.
  59. ^ Act of August 7, 1947 [Officer Personnel Act of 1947] (61 Stat. 904)
  60. ^ 10 U.S.C. § 636 - Retirement for years of service: regular officers in grades above brigadier general and rear admiral (lower half).
  61. ^ 10 U.S.C. § 1253 - Age 64: regular commissioned officers in general and flag officer grades; exceptions.
  62. ^ "Senior officials in the NATO military structure, from 1949 to 2001" (PDF). North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 February 2009.
  63. ^ Acts of September 14, 1976 [National Emergencies Act] (90 Stat. 1255)
  64. ^ House Armed Services Committee Report No. 92-5: Subcommittee No. 2 Hearings on H.R. 6483; and Subcommittee No. 2 Hearings and Full Committee Consideration of H.R. 7500. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1971. pp. 2229–2238.
  65. ^ Pike, Otis (11 April 1981). "U.S. Military Bloated With Brass". The Salt Lake Tribune. p. 19.
  66. ^ Such an authority was used from 1953 to 1955 until dropped in favour of standard promotions at the request of Senate Armed Services. Hearing Before the Subcommittee on Officer Grade Limitations of the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, Eighty-Fourth Congress, First Session. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 9 March 1955. pp. 46, 48, 50, 61.
  67. ^ Cite error: The named reference 123_Stat_2273 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  68. ^ Harrington et al. (2018), pp. 52–53, 229, 232, 237, 240–241, 247.
  69. ^ a b Cox, Matthew (28 August 2020). "The Army Now Has the Most 4-Star Generals on Duty Since World War II". Military.com.
  70. ^ Cite error: The named reference NDAA_FY2021 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  71. ^ a b Judson, Jen (8 October 2020). "US Army Europe and US Army Africa to merge as commander pins on fourth star". Defense News.
  72. ^ "Annex B (General/Flag Officer Strengths, 1945 to 1967)". Report on General/Flag Officer Requirements (PDF). Washington, D.C.: Officer Personnel Study Group, Officer Career Development Division, Directorate of Compensation and Career Development, Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense (Manpower and Reserve Affairs). 1 March 1968. House Armed Services Committee Report No. 92-5: Subcommittee No. 2 Hearings on H.R. 6483; and Subcommittee No. 2 Hearings and Full Committee Consideration of H.R. 7500. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 1971. p. 2237.
  73. ^ "DoD Key Leadership Charts" (PDF). Organizational Policy and Decision Support, Office of the Director of Administration and Management, Office of the Secretary of Defense. 1 June 2021.
  74. ^ Army Materiel Command (AMC) commanding general Gustave F. Perna delayed his retirement by one year to serve as chief operating officer of Operation Warp Speed. He turned over command of AMC on July 2, 2020, and retired from the Army on July 2, 2021. Tyler, Samantha (16 December 2020). "Materiel enterprise puts people first in 2020". The Redstone Rocket. Griffin, Riley; Wingrove, Josh (28 June 2021). "Perna Retiring From Covid Task Force as U.S. Response Shifts". Bloomberg News.
  75. ^ Even U.S. Southern Command was due to turn over to a Navy admiral, leaving only 11 Army generals.
  76. ^ "Did you know... how many SACEURs continued their military careers in other posts after leaving SHAPE?", Supreme Headquarters Allied Powers Europe, retrieved 8 December 2021

Bibliography

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