User:Abebenjoe/Sandbox4

For a discussion of all spaceflight programs to date, see History of spaceflight. For a list of key events, seeTimeline of space exploration. For other uses of the term "Space Race", see Space Race (disambiguation).

Space Race
Part of the Cold War
The Space Race closes with the joint Apollo-Soyuz Test Project mission in 1975
Date 4 October 1957–24 July 1975 Location Outer Space
Belligerents
United States	Soviet Union
Commanders and leaders
James E. Webb Robert R. Gilruth Wernher Von Braun Christopher Kraft George Low Thomas O. Paine Samuel C. Phillips	Sergey Korolyov Vladimir Chelomey Vasily Mishin Nikolai Kamanin Valentin Glushko

The Space Race was a technological and ideological competition between the Soviet Union (USSR) and the United States (USA) for supremacy in outer-space exploration during the mid-to-late 20th century. The term refers to a specific period in human history, 1957-1975, and does not include subsequent efforts by these or other nations to explore space. The race involved pioneering efforts to launch artificial satellites, sub-orbital and orbital human spaceflight around the earth, and piloted voyages to the Moon.

The Space Race era during the Cold War, with its origins in the missile-based arms race between these nations that arose just after the end of the Second World War; with both sides capturing advanced German rocket technology and personnel. It was motivated by the desire to display scientific and technological superiority, which translated into military strength. It effectively began with the Soviet launch of theSputnik 1 artificial satellite on 4 October 1957, and concluded with the co-operative Apollo-Soyuz Test Project human spaceflight mission in July 1975 as a symbol of the détente between the USA and USSR. In between, it became a focus of the cultural, technological, and ideological rivalry between the two nations. It provided spin-off benefits including unprecedented increases in education funding, and spending on pure research and development that accelerated technological and scientific advancements. An unintended effect was that it also was partially responsible for the birth of the environmental movement, as this was the first time in history that humans came to see their home-world as it really was – when the first colour pictures from space showed a fragile blue planet bordered by the blackness of space.

Origins

Second World War

The Space Race can trace its origins to Nazi Germany in the 1930s and during the Second World War, as that nation was conducting research into, and finally building, operational ballistic missiles. Starting in the early 1930s, German aerospace engineers started to experiment with liquid-fuelled rockets, with the goal that one day they would be capable of reaching high altitudes and traversing long distances. The head of the German Army's Ballistics and Munitions Branch, Lieutenant Colonel Karl Emil Becker, gathered a small team of engineers, that included Walter Dornberger and Leo Zanssen, to figure out how to use rockets as long-range artillery, to get around the Treaty of Versailles' ban on research and development of long-range cannons. A young engineering prodigy, Wernher von Braun was recruited by Becker and Dornberger to join their secret army program atKummersdorf-Westin 1932. Von Braun had romantic dreams about conquering outer space with rockets, and did not initially see the military value in missile technology.

During the Second World War, General Dornberger was the military head of the army's rocket program, Zanssen became the commandant of thePeenemündearmy rocket centre, and von Braun was the technical director of the ballistic missile program. They would lead the team that built the Aggregate-4 (A-4) rocket, which became the first vehicle to reach outer space during its test flight program in 1942 and 1943. By 1943, Germany began mass producing the A-4 as theVergeltungswaffe 2 (“Vengeance Weapon” 2, or more commonly, V2), a ballistic missile with a 320-kilometre (200 mi) range carrying a 1,130-kilogram (2,490 lb) warhead at 4,000 kilometres per hour (2,500 mph). Its supersonic speed meant there was no defense against it, and little warning on detection by radar. Germany used the weapon to bombard southern England and parts of Allied-liberated western Europe from 1944 until 1945. After the War, the A-4 became the basis of early American and Soviet rocket designs.

At War’s end, American, British, and Soviet scientific intelligence teams competed to capture the German rockets, designs, and engineers. Each of the Allies captured a share of the available members of the German rocket team, but the United States benefited the most with Operation Paperclip, capturing large quantities of complete V2 rockets, recruiting von Braun and most of his engineering team, who later helped develop the American missile and space exploration programs.

Rocket teams assembled

With the German rocket centre at Peenemünde lying in the Soviet zone of occupation, they brought their best aerospace engineers to the eastern part of Germany to see what they could salvage for their use in future weapon systems. The Soviet rocket engineers were led by Sergey Korolyov. He had been involved in space clubs and early Soviet rocket design in the 1930s, but was arrested in 1938 during Joseph Stalin's Great Purge and imprisoned for six years in Siberia. After the war, he became the USSR's chief rocket and spacecraft engineer, essentially the Soviets' counterpart to Von Braun. His identity was kept a state secret throughout the Cold War, and he was identified publicly only as "the Chief Designer." In the west, his name was only officially revealed when he died in 1966.

After almost a year in the area around Peenemünde, Soviet officials moved most of the captured German rocket specialists to Gorodomlya IslandonLake Seliger, about 240 kilometres (150 mi) northwest of Moscow. They were not allowed to participate in Soviet missile design, but were used as problem-solving consultants to the Soviet engineers. They were to help in the following areas: consult on creating a Soviet version of the A-4; work on "organizational schemes"; research in improving the A-4 main engine; development of a 100-ton engine; assistance in the "layout" of plant production rooms; and preparation of rocket assembly using German components. With their help, particullarly Helmut Groettrup's group, Korolyov reverse-engineered the A-4 and built his own version of the rocket, the R-1, in 1948. Later, he developed his own distinct designs, though many of these designs were influenced by the Groettrup Group's G4-R10 design from 1949. The Germans were eventually repatriated in 1951-53.

In America, Von Braun and his team were sent to the United States Army's White Sands Proving Ground, located in New Mexico, in 1945. They set about assembling the captured V2s and began a program of launching them, and instructing American engineers how they worked. These tests led to the first rocket to take photos from outer space, and the first two-stage rocket, the WAC Corporal-V2 combination, in 1949. The German rocket team was moved from Fort Bliss to the Army's new Redstone Arsenal, located in Huntsville, Alabama, in 1950. From here, Von Braun and his team would develope the Army's first operational medium-range ballistic missile, the Redstone rocket, that would, in slightly modified versions, launch both America's first satellite, and the first piloted Mercury space missions. It became the basis for both the Jupiter and Saturn family of rockets.

Cold War

The cold war would become the great engine, the supreme catalyst, that sent rockets and their cargoes far above Earth and worlds away. If Tsiolkovsky, Oberth, Goddard, and others were the fathers of rocketry, the competition between capitalism and communism was its midwife.

William E. Burrows,
This New Ocean, "The Other World Series", p. 147

The former World War II allies, the United States and the Soviet Union, became involved in the Cold War. The Cold War was the continuing state of political conflict, military tension, proxy wars, and economic competition existing after World War II, primarily between the Soviet Union and its satellite states, and the powers of the Western world, particularly the United States.Although the primary participants' military forces never officially clashed directly, they expressed the conflict through military coalitions, strategic conventional force deployments, extensive aid to states deemed vulnerable, proxy wars, espionage, propaganda, a nuclear arms race, and economic and technological competitions, such as the Space Race.

The Cold War can be simplistically seen as a struggle between capitalism and communism. America faced a new uncertainty in the early days of September 1949, when they discovered they no longer held a monopoly on theAtomic Bomb. Their intelligence gathering agencies discovered that the Soviet Union exploded its first atomic bomb, with the consequence that the United States could potentially face a future atomic war, that for the first time could devastate its cities. A new paranoia with communism and its believers swept the nation, called McCarthyism. In this atmosphere of distrust, the United States started an arms race with the Soviet Union that included the race for theHydrogen Bomb and then in inter-contenential strategic bomber to deliver those bombs. With communism spreading through countries like China, Korea, and Eastern-Europe, the American political and popular culture became highly threatened by its new advisory, to the point by the mid-1950s "witch-hunts" were going on through society looking for communist spys. Part of the American reaction to both Soviet's atomic and then hydrogen bomb tests, included maintaining a large Air Force, under the control of the Strategic Air Command (SAC), that employed intercontinental strategic bombers, and medium-bombers based at airbases in Europe and Turkey, close to Soviet airspace, to drop their nuclear bombs

For their part, the Soviet Union had well-founded fears of invasion from the west, as it had been invaded several times in the past thousand years, most recently by the Nazi Germany in 1941. Having suffered at least 27 million casualties during the Second World War, the Soviets were weary of their former ally, the United States, that in the late 1940s, was the sole possessor of atomic weapons, and they had also used these weapons operationally in a time of war, and could do so against them, and lay waste to most of its populated and military centres. Since the Americans had a much larger air force, and offensive strike capability, and the Soviet Union had neither an equivalent air force, nor advance bases near the continental United States, Soviet premier Stalin ordered the development of Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) in 1947, to counter the American threat.

In 1953, Korolyov was given the go-ahead to develop the R-7 Semyorka rocket, basically four G4s mated together with a central sustainer stage. It was successfully tested on 21 August 1957 and became the world's first operational ICBM the following month. It would later be used to launch the first satellite into space, and derivatives would launch all piloted Soviet spacecraft.

The United States, had multiple rocket programs divided amongst the different branches of the American armed services, which meant that each force developed its own ICBM programs. The Air Force initiated ICBM research in 1945 with the MX-774.However, its funding was cancelled and only three partially successful launches were conducted in 1947. In 1951, the Air Force began a new ICBM program called MX-1593, and by 1955 was receiving top-priority funding. The MX-1593 program evolved to become theAtlas-A, with its maiden launch occurring on 11 June 1957, becoming the first successful American ICBM. Its upgraded version, the Atlas-D rocket, would later serve as an operational nuclear ICBM and be used as the orbital launch vehicle forProject Mercury and the remote-controlled Agena Target Vehicle used in Project Gemini.

With the Cold War as the engine for change, a coherent space policy would only evolve in the United States in the late 1950s, due to the competition with Soviets. Korolyov would take much inspiration from the competition as well, achieving many firsts to counter the possibilities that the Americans might beat him to them.

First artificial satellites

On July 29, 1957, in recognition of the 1957-1958 International Geophysical Year, the White House announced that the U.S. intended to launch satellites by the spring of 1958. This became known as Project Vanguard. On July 31, the Soviets announced that they intended to launch a satellite by the fall of 1957.

Sputnik 1 was the size of a large beachball, weighed more than 80 kg and orbited theEarth for more than two months. (Replica pictured)

Explorer 1 model at NASA news conference.

On 4 October 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik 1, the first artificial satellite to orbit the Earth, on Korolyov's R-7 missile, thus beginning the Space Race and making the USSR the first space power. The Soviet government derived great propaganda value from the launch, to boost the morale of its own citizens and claiming to the world proof of the superiority of Sovietcommunism over Western capitalism.

In the meantime, a public and embarrassing Project Vanguard launch failure had occurred at Cape Canaveral. But nearly four months after the launch of Sputnik 1, the United States successfully launched its first satellite, Explorer 1, with an alternate program on an accelerated schedule, becoming the second space power. Explorer 1 flight data confirmed the existence of the radiation belt theorized byJames Van Allen, considered one of the outstanding discoveries of the International Geophysical Year.

Sputnik's success and Vanguard's failure caused such political turmoil in the United States that the period is known as the Sputnik crisis.President Dwight D. Eisenhower's administration quickly enacted several initiatives to address the perceived technical shortcomings in the United States. Within a year, the United States Congress passed legislation creating NASA, as well as theNational Defense Education Act, the most far-reaching federally-sponsored education initiative in the nation's history. The NDEA authorized expenditures of more than $1 billion for a wide range of reforms including new school construction, fellowships and loans to encourage promising students to seek higher education, new efforts in vocational education to meet critical manpower shortages in the defense industry, and a host of other programs. In 1959, NASA initiated Project Mercury to put a man in space.

Apart from their political value as technological achievements, these first satellites had real scientific value. Sputnik helped to determine the density of the upper atmosphere, through measurement from the ground of the satellite's orbital changes. It also provided data on radio-signal distribution in the ionosphere. Pressurized nitrogen, in the satellite's body, provided the first opportunity for meteoroid detection. If a meteoroid penetrated the satellite's outer hull, it would be detected by the temperature data sent back to Earth. Two photometers were on board for measuring solar radiation (ultraviolet and x-ray emissions) and cosmic rays.

Following the Soviet success in sending the first satellite into orbit, the Americans focused their efforts on sending a probe to the Moon. ThePioneer program made several attempts which failed. This was followed by the Ranger program, which succeeded.

The Soviets launched Luna 1 on 4 January 1959, which became the first probe to reach the vicinity of the Moon. The first craft to reach the surface of the Moon was Luna 2, launched on 12 September 1959.

Later, the United States conducted the Lunar Orbiter program to map potential Apollo landing sites, and the robotic Surveyor program achieved soft landings.

Animals in space

Main article: Animals in space

Before sending men into space, both countries took the cautious approach of sending mammals in automated spacecraft first, sending medical instrumentation back to Earth.

The Soviet Union launched the first animal in Earth orbit, the dog Laika (in English, "Barker") on Sputnik 2, November 3, 1957. The dog was not meant to be returned to Earth alive, being given a finite amount of air, food and water planned to run out before the orbit decayed due to atmospheric drag and the craft burned up like a meteor, which it did on April 14, 1958. In October 2002, it was revealed that a malfunction inhibited operation of the temperature control system, and Laika had actually died five to seven hours after launch from overheating and stress.

In 1960, the Soviets orbited the dogs Belka and Strelka and successfully returned them.

The U.S. launched two chimpanzees: Ham sub-orbitally on Mercury-Redstone 2, January 31, 1961; and Enosfor two of three planned orbits on Mercury Atlas 5, November 29, 1961. Both chimps were successfully recovered alive.

First humans in space

The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first human in space when he entered orbit in Vostok 1 on April 12 April 1961, a day now celebrated as a holiday in Russia and in many other Eastern bloc countries. He orbited the Earth for 108 minutes, but not as a pilot. Russian doctors did not know whether a cosmonaut would be disabled by weightlessness, so his manual controls were disabled and ground technicians controlled the craft. The lead architects behind the Vostok 1 mission were the rocket engineers Korolyov and Kerim Kerimov.

Twenty-three days later, Alan Shepard became the first American in space aboard the MercurycapsuleFreedom 7. Though he did not achieve orbit, unlike Gagarin he was the first to exercise manual control of his spacecraft's attitude and retro-rocket firing. The first Soviet cosmonaut to exercise manual control was Gherman Titov in Vostok 2 on 6 August 1961.

On February 20, 1962 John Glenn became the first American to orbit Earth, completing three orbits in Friendship 7. His capability of manual attitude control became crucial when the automatic system failed.

The Soviet Union achieved the first dual piloted flights, Vostok 3 and Vostok 4 on 11–15 August 1962. The two spacecraft came within approximately 6.5 kilometres (4.0 miles) of one another, close enough for radio communication. While this represented a significant technical accomplishment to launch two spacecraft from the same pad in a very short period of time, there was no capability of the spacecraft to maneuver close to each other (within visual range), and over the course of the missions they continued to drift as far as2,850 kilometres (1,770 mi) apart.

The USSR launched the first woman in space, and also the first civilian, Valentina Tereshkova on 16 June 1963 in Vostok 6. Launching a woman was reportedly Koroloyov's idea, but was done purely for propaganda value. Tereshkova was one of a small corps of female cosmonauts who were amateur parachutists, but Tereshkova was the only one to fly. The USSR didn't send another woman into space until 1982, in response to the United States opening their astronaut program to women.

Moon Race

On April 20, 1961, about one week after Gagarin's flight, American President John F. Kennedy sent a memo to Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson, asking Johnson to look into the status of America's space program, and into programs that could offer NASA the opportunity to catch up.Johnson responded about one week later, concluding that the US needed to do much more to reach a position of leadership, and recommending that a piloted moon landing was far enough in the future that it was likely the United States would achieve it first.

Apollo program

Main article: Apollo program

On May 25, Kennedy announced his support for the Apollo program in an address to a special joint session of Congress:

"I believe that this nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the moon and returning him safely to the earth."

He began forming a policy of justification for the Space Race as a vital national security front in the Cold War, which he expressed to the public in his famous September 12, 1962 speech at Rice Stadium where he stated:

The Mariner spacecraft now on its way to Venus is the most intricate instrument in the history of space science. The accuracy of that shot is comparable to firing a missile from Cape Canaveral and dropping it in this stadium between the 40-yard lines. ... For space science, like nuclear science and all technology, has no conscience of its own. Whether it will become a force for good or ill depends on man, and only if the United States occupies a position of pre-eminence can we help decide whether this new ocean will be a sea of peace or a new terrifying theater of war.

On November 21, 1962, Kennedy expressed this even more explicitly in a recorded White House meeting on increases toNASA's budget required for Apollo with Administrator James E. Webb and others:

Everything that we do ought to really be tied into getting onto the Moon ahead of the Russians. ...otherwise we shouldn't be spending this kind of money ...the policy ought to be that this is the top-priority program of the Agency, and one of the two things, except for defense, the top priority of the United States government. ... But we’re talking about thesefantasticexpenditures ...and the only justification for it, ...to do it in this time [then estimated late 1967 or early 1968] or fashion, is because we hope to beat them and demonstrate that starting behind, as we did by a couple years, by God, we passed them.

Meanwhile, the Soviet government was showing ambivalence about human visits to the Moon. Premier Khrushchev wanted neither "defeat" by another power, nor the expense of such a project. In October 1963 he characterized the Soviet Union as "not at present planning flight by cosmonauts to the Moon", while adding that they had not dropped out of the race.

Kennedy proposed joint programs, such as a Moon landing by U.S. and Soviet astronauts and improved weather-monitoring satellites. Khrushchev rejected these ideas, saying he sensed an attempt to steal Russian space technology.

After Johnson became President on Kennedy's death in 1963, his appeal to Kennedy's legacy and continued staunch support kept the Apollo program on track.

USSR secretly accepts

Main article: Soviet Moonshot

In 1964, Korolyov pitched to Khrushchev a "Soyuz L3 complex spacecraft" consisting of a Soyuz 7K-LOK command ship with a piloted Lunniy Korabl (lunar lander), launched by an N1 super heavy launch vehicle. But Khrushchev directed a second team headed byVladimir Chelomey to start building a Soyuz derivative cislunar (looping around the Moon) craft called Zond to be launched on the existing Proton heavy booster, aiming for a planned first piloted flight in 1966.

Zond (Soyuz 7K-L1) circumlunar spacecraft

In October 1964 Khrushchev was ousted, and the new Soviet leadership gave Korolyov the backing for a Moon landing effort and brought all piloted projects back under his direction. This included the Proton-L1/Zond with a first piloted lunar flyby now planned for 1967, and an N1-L3 piloted landing program planned for 1968. All piloted lunar plans were kept highly secret from the US and its western allies for nearly the entire remainder of the Cold War, and have only been brought to light starting in the 1990s.

In 1963-1967, Yuri Gagarin was head of a team of cosmonauts slated for two Soviet flyby and landing piloted moon missions. The first open announcement about this was made by Tereshkova during her visit to Cuba in 1963.

But then Korolyov died on January 14, 1966, of causes which remain uncertain. He had a variety of medical problems, including a kidney disorder brought on by his imprisonment under Stalin.

Human spaceflight's second generation spacecrafts

Voskhod program

Main article: Voskhod programme

As the USSR's principal rocket engineer and designer, Korolyov had planned further, long-term missions for the Vostok spacecraft, and had four Vostoks in various stages of fabrication in late 1963 at his OKB-1 facilities. At this time, the Americans announced their ambitious plans for the Project Gemini flight schedule. This included major advancements in spacecraft capabilities, including a two crew member spacecraft, ability to change orbits, perform anextravehicular activity (EVA), and dock with other spacecraft. This was a major evolution over either the Mercury or Vostok spaceships, and Korolev felt the need to try to beat the Americans to many of these innovations. Korolyov already had begun designing the Vostok's replacement, the next-generation Soyuz spacecraft, a multi-cosmonaut spacecraft that had at least the same capabilities as the Gemini spacecraft. However, Soyuz would not be available for at least three years, and could not be called upon to deal with this new American challenge in 1964 or 1965.Political pressure in early 1964 – that some sources claim was from Khrushchev, other sources claim it was from other Communist Party officials –pushed him to modify his four remaining Vostoks to beat the Americans for new space firsts in size of flight crews, and duration.

Voskhod 1 and Voskhod 2 space capsules

On 12 October 1964, the Chief Designer delivered another Soviet space-first with Voskhod 1's launching, the first multi-crew member space flight, with three cosmonauts in a modified Vostok spacecraft. The USSR further touted another technological achievement by this mission: the first space flight in a shirt-sleeve-environment. However, flying without spacesuits was not due to safety improvements in the spacecraft's environmental systems, but due to its limited cabin space, that did not allow for spacesuits, and exposed the cosmonauts to significant risk in the event of a potentially fatal cabin depressurization. This feat would not be repeated until the Apollo Command Module, which flew in 1968, and was purposely designed from the outset to transport three astronauts in a shirt-sleeve environment while in space.

On 18 March 1965, about a week before the first American piloted Project Gemini space flight, the USSR accelerated the Space Race competition, by launching the two-cosmonaut Voskhod 2 mission with Pavel Belyayev and Alexey Leonov. Voskhod 2's design modifications included the first airlock to allow for extravehicular activity (EVA), also known as a spacewalk. Leonov performed the first-ever EVA as part of the mission. A fatality was narrowly avoided when Leonov's spacesuit expanded in the vacuum of space, preventing him from re-entering the spacecraft. He had to improvise, and perform the potentially fatal partial depressurization of his spacesuit in order to re-enter the airlock. He succeeded in safely re-entering the ship, but he and Belyayev faced further challenges with the spacecraft's atmospheric controls flooding the cabin with 45% pure oxygen, which had to be lowered to acceptable levels before re-entry. The re-entry faced two more challenges: an improperly timed retrorocket firing caused the Voskhod 2 to land386 kilometres (240 mi) off its designated target area, the town of Perm; and, the instrument compartment's failure to detach from the descent apparatus, causing the spacecraft to become unstable during reentry.

Leonid Brezhnev deposed Premier Khrushchev as Soviet government leader in late 1964, and after this flight, ended the technologically deficient Voskhod program, cancelling Voskhod flights 3 through 4. There would be a two-year pause in Soviet piloted space flights, while Voskhod's replacement, the Soyuz spacecraft, continued its design and development.

Project Gemini

Main article: Project Gemini

Focused by the commitment to a moon landing, in January 1962 the US introduced a two-man spaceflight program known asProject Gemini, which would support Apollo by developing the key spaceflight technologies of space rendezvous and docking of two craft, flight durations of sufficient length, and Extra-vehicular Activity (EVA) for extended periods, doing useful work rather than just "walking in space." Although taking a year longer than planned to reach its first flight, Gemini took advantage of the two-year hiatus after Voskhod, enabling the US to catch up with the Soviets's lead in piloted spaceflight and pass them by achieving several significant firsts over the course of ten piloted missions:

• On Gemini 3 (March 1965), astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom and John W. Young became the first to demonstrate ability to change their craft's orbit.
• On Gemini 5 (August 1965), astronauts L. Gordon Cooper and Charles "Pete" Conrad set a record of almost eight days in space, long enough for a piloted lunar mission.
• On Gemini 6A (December 1965), Command Pilot Wally Schirra achieved the first space rendezvous with Gemini 7, actively matching his orbit identically to the other craft and station-keeping at distances as close as1 foot (0.30 metres) and kept station for three orbits.
• Gemini 7 also set a human spaceflight endurance record of fourteen days for Frank Borman and James A. Lovell, which stood until both nations started launching space laboratories in the early 1970s.
• On Gemini 8 (March 1966), Command Pilot Neil Armstrong achieved the first docking between two spacecraft, his Gemini craft and an Agena target vehicle.
• Gemini 11 (September 1966), commanded by Conrad, achieved the first direct-ascent rendezvous with its Agena target on the first orbit, and used the Agena's rocket to achieve an apogee of 742 nautical miles (1,374 km), an earth orbit record never broken as of 18 December 2024 T 06:55 (UTC).
• On Gemini 12 (November 1966), Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin spent over five hours working comfortably in three (EVA) periods, finally proving humans could perform productive tasks outside spacecraft. (This goal proved to be the most difficult to achieve.)

Most of the novice pilots on the early missions would command the later missions. In this way, Project Gemini built up spaceflight experience for the pool of astronauts who would be chosen to fly the Apollo lunar missions.

First space mission deaths

Likely the worst disaster during the Space Race was the R-16 failure in 1960, when improper shutdown and control procedures during hasty on-pad repairs caused the missile's second stage engine to fire straight onto the full propellant tanks in the still-attached first stage. The toxic fuel and fire killed around 100 top Soviet military and technical personnel. In 1967, both nations faced serious challenges that brought their programs to a halt. Both nations had been rushing at full speed on the Apollo and Soyuz programs, without paying due dilligence to growing design and manufacturing problems. The results proved fatal to both pioneering crews.

In the US, the first Apollo mission crew, Command Pilot "Gus" Grissom, Senior Pilot Ed White, and PilotRoger Chaffee, were killed by suffocation in a cabin fire that swept through their Apollo 1 spacecraft during a ground test on 27 January 1967. The fire was probably caused by an electical spark, and grew out of control, fed by the spacecraft's pure oxygen atmosphere that was greater than normal atmospheric pressure. An investigative board detailed design and construction flaws in the spacecraft, and procedural failings including the failure to appreciate the hazard of the pure-oxygen atmosphere, and inadequate safety procedures.All these flaws had to be corrected over the next twenty-two months until the first piloted flight could be made. Mercury and Gemini veteran Gus Grissom had been a favored choice of Deke Slayton, the grounded Mercury astronaut who became NASA's Director of Flight Crew Operations, to make the first piloted landing.

In 1980 it was disclosed that the USSR had covered up the March 23, 1961 death of Soviet cosmonaut Valentin Bondarenkofrom massive third-degree burns in a fire in a high-oxygen isolation test chamber. This revelation subsequently caused some speculation as to whether the Apollo 1 disaster might have been averted had NASA been aware of the incident. Bondarenko was an early Vostok cosmonaut once slated in lieu of Gagarin to make the first piloted flight. The Soviet government literally erased all traces of Bondarenko's existence in the cosmonaut corps upon his death.

Meanwhile, the Soviets were having their own problems with Soyuz development. Engineers are said to have reported 200 design faults to party leaders, but their concerns "were overruled by political pressures for a series of space feats to mark the anniversary of Lenin's birthday." On April 24, 1967, the USSR suffered the death of its first cosmonaut, Colonel Vladimir Komarov, the single pilot ofSoyuz 1. This was planned to be a three-day mission to include the first Soviet docking with an unpiloted Soyuz 2, but his mission was plagued with problems. Immediately, his craft was short of electrical power because only one of two solar panels had deployed. Then the automatic attitude control system began malfunctioning and eventually failed completely, resulting in the craft spinning wildly. Komarov was able to stop the spin with the manual system, which was only partially effective. The flight controllers immediately aborted his mission after only one day and he made an emergency re-entry.

Then a fault in the landing parachute system caused the primary chutes to fail, and the reserve chutes tangled together, causing Komarov to be killed on impact.

Fixing these and other spacecraft faults caused an eighteen-month delay before piloted Soyuz flights could resume, similar to the US experience with Apollo. This, combined with Korolyov's death, led to the quick unraveling of the Soviet Moon landing program. Komarov had been Korolyov's first choice for a landing; now, Gagarin and Aleksei Leonov became the most likely candidates.

Other astronauts died while training for space flight, including four Americans (Ted Freeman, Elliot See, Charlie Bassett, Clifton Williams) all died in crashes of T-38 aircraft. Yuri Gagarin, the first man in space, met a similar death when he crashed in aMiG-15 'Fagot' while training for a Soyuz mission, in 1968. When the US Apollo 15 left the moon, the astronauts left behind a memorial in honor of all the people who had perished during the efforts to reach the moon from both the Soviet Union and the United States. This included the Apollo 1 and Soyuz 1 crews, and astronauts and cosmonauts killed while in training. In 1971, Soyuz 11 cosmonauts Georgi Dobrovolski, Viktor Patsayev, and Vladislav Volkov asphyxiated during reentry. Since 1971, the Soviet/Russian space program has suffered no further losses.

Race to the Moon continues

American Buzz Aldrin during the first moonwalk in 1969

The United States kept on track in 1967 and 1968, fixing the fatal flaws in an improved version of the Block II command module, and proceeding with automated test launches of the Saturn V launch vehicle and Lunar Module lander. Grissom's mission, to checkout the first piloted Apollo spacecraft, was completed by his backup crew commanded by Schirra on Apollo 7, launched on 11 October 1968.

The Soviets also fixed the parachute and control problems with Soyuz, and the next piloted mission Soyuz 3 was launched on 26 October 1968. The goal was to complete Komarov's mission of rendezvous and docking with the un-piloted Soyuz 2. Ground controllers brought the two craft to within200 metres (660 ft) of each other, then cosmonaut Georgi Beregovoi took over control. He got within 1 metre (3.3 ft) of his target, but was unable to dock before expending his maneuvering fuel. The Soviet Zond spacecraft was almost ready for piloted circumlunar missions in 1968, although testing was not yet complete. After a successful flight around the Moon, Zond 4 crashed on March 7, 1968 during its return to Earth. Official announcements said that Zond 4 was an automated test flight which ended with its intentional destruction because its recovery trajectory positioned it over the Atlantic Ocean instead of over the USSR. At the time, the Soyuz 7K-L1/Zond spacecraft was not yet ready for piloted missions after five unsuccessful and partially successful automated test launches: Cosmos 146 on 10 March 1967; Cosmos 154 on 8 April 1967; Zond 1967A 27 September 1967; Zond 1967B on 22 November 22 1967.

The Apollo program then hit another snag: the first piloted Lunar Module (LM) was not ready for orbital tests in time for a December 1968 launch. NASA planners overcame this challenge by changing the mission flight order, delaying the first LM flight to early 1969, and sending Apollo 8 into lunar orbit without the LM in December on a new 'C-prime' mission. Frank Borman, Jim Lovell, and Bill Anders became the first humans to orbit the Moon on 24 December and safely splashed down on December 27.

This mission was in part motivated by intelligence rumors the Soviets might fly a piloted circumlunar Zond flight in late 1968. In September 1968, Zond 5, a Soyuz 7K-L1 spacecraft, with tortoises on board, made a circumlunar flight and returned to Earth, accomplishing the first splashdown in the Soviet space program, in the Indian Ocean. It also scared NASA planners, as it took them several days to figure out that it was only an automated flight, not a piloted flight with cosmonauts, because voice recordings were transmitted from the craft en route to the Moon. On 10 November 1968 another automated test flight of the 7K-L1 spacecraft – Zond 6 – was launched, but this time, it encountered difficulties in its re-entry, and depressurized and deployed its parachute too early, causing it to crash on land, only 16 kilometres (10 mi) from where it was launched six days earlier.

It turned out there was no chance of the piloted circumlunar flight happening due to the unreliability of the Zonds and the successive launch failures of the N1 rocket in 1969, Soviet plans for a piloted landing suffered first delay and ultimately cancellation. A significant setback was the launch pad explosion of the N-1 on 3 July 1969. The rocket hit the pad after an engine shutdown, destroying itself and the launch facility.

While robotic Soviet probes had reached the Moon before any American craft, Neil Armstrong became the first human to set foot on the lunar surface on 20 July 1969 (Eastern Time Zone). Commander of the Apollo 11 mission, Armstrong was accompanied by Command Module Pilot Michael Collins and Lunar Module Pilot Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin in an event watched by over 500 million people around the world. The lunar landing is widely recognized as one of the defining moments of the 20th century, as are Armstrong's words on first touching the Moon's surface: "That's one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind."

The Apollo program followed the first landing with six more attempts through 1972, five of which were successful. A serious Service Module failure on Apollo 13, in April 1970, aborted the landing and placed the crew's lives in jeopardy, but they were able to use the LM as a "lifeboat" and returned to Earth safely.

Earth orbital space stations

The Soviet Union's Salyut 4 space station.

The US Skylab space station.

Having lost the race to the Moon, the USSR decided to concentrate on orbital space stations. They launched six more Soyuz flights after Soyuz 3 in 1969 and 1970, then launched the first space station, the Salyut 1 laboratory designed by Kerim Kerimov, on 19 April 1971. Three days later, the Soyuz 10crew attempted to dock with it, but failed to achieve a secure enough connection to safely enter the station. The Soyuz 11 crew of Vladislav Volkov, Georgi Dobrovolski and Viktor Patsayev successfully docked on 7 June and completed a record 22-day stay. The crew became the second in-flight space fatality during their re-entry 30 June. They were asphyxiated when their spacecraft's cabin lost all pressure, shortly after undocking. The disaster was blamed on a faulty cabin pressure valve, that allowed all the air to vent into space. The crew were not wearing pressure suits, and had no chance of survival once the leak occurred.

Salyut 1's orbit was increased to prevent premature re-entry, but further piloted flights were delayed while the Soyuz was redesigned to fix the new safety problem. The station re-entered on October 11, after 175 days in orbit. The USSR attempted to launch a second Salyut-class station designated DOS (Durable Orbital Station)-2 on 29 July 1972, but a rocket failure caused it to fail to achieve orbit.

The US also had plans to fly a piloted space laboratory as part of the Apollo Applications Program, using Apollo hardware. These originally called for its construction in orbit from a spent Saturn S-IVB rocket stage (used to launch the Apollo craft into earth orbit), but was ultimately pre-fabricated on Earth and launched by the first two stages of the Saturn Vlunar launch vehicle. Named Skylab, it launched on May 14, 1973 after completion of the Apollo lunar program. It weighed169,950 pounds (77,090 kg), was 58 feet (18 m) long by 21.7 feet (6.6 m) in diameter, with a habitable volume of10,000 cubic feet (280 m³).

Skylab suffered a partial failure when its micrometeoroid shield and solar panels erroneously deployed during launch, and high aerodynamic forces ripped off the shield and one of the two solar panels. The shield was also designed to provide thermal protection from sunlight, and the internal temperature rose to dangerous levels. The remaining solar panel did not fully deploy and was not producing power. The launch of the first crew was delayed while a plan was devised to try to salvage the station by freeing the panel and deploying a substitute heat shield.

Charles Conrad, Jr., Paul J. Weitz and Dr. Joseph P. Kerwin, MD were launched aboard Skylab 1 on 25 May successfully accomplished these repairs by EVA and completed a 28-day stay, a new space endurance record. This was successively broken by Skylab 2 (59 days) on 25 September 1973 and Skylab 3 (84 days) on 8 February 1974. Skylab stayed in orbit another five years before re-entering the Earth's atmosphere over the Indian Ocean and Western Australia on 11 July 1979.

After the DOS-2 failure, the USSR attempted to launch four more Salyut-class stations through 1975, with another failure due to an explosion of the final rocket stage, which punctured the station with shrapnel so that it wouldn't hold pressure. While all of the Salyuts were presented to the public as non-military scientific laboratories, some of them were actually covers for military reconnaissance stations.

Military applications

Throughout the Space Race, both nations also developed military space programs in secret, starting with reconnaissance satellites well before the launch of Sputnik 1. The first Soviet photoimaging satellite was the Zenit spy satellite, which Korolyov designed for dual-use and became the Vostok. The US with its Discoverer series, code-named Corona. Discoverer 13 became the first payload recovered from space in August 1960, one day ahead of the first Soviet recovered payload.

Both nations developed major military space programs. In general, the United States took most of these programs only through the design phase, while the Soviet Union built, or even flew, theirs.

1. Supersonic Intercontinental Cruise Missile: Navaho (test program stopped) vs. Buran cruise missile(plan)
2. Small Winged Spacecraft: X-20 Dyna-Soar (mockup) vs. MiG-105 (flight-tested)
3. Satellite Inspection Capsule: Blue Gemini (mockup) vs. Soyuz interceptor (plan)
4. Military Capsule with hatch in heat shield: Gemini B (tested crewless in space) vs. VA TKS, also known as Merkur space capsule (flown crewless as part of TKS)
5. Ferry to Military Space Station: Gemini Ferry (plan) vs. TKS (flown crewless in space, and docked with a Salyut)

The most sophisticated of these piloted programs were military space stations. The USAF developed plans for a Manned Orbiting Laboratory (MOL), which was publicly announced on December 10, 1963. This was to use a modified version of the Gemini capsule as the crew launch and return vehicle, with a hatch cut through the heat shield to provide the astronauts intra-vehicular access to the laboratory. The Air Force chose its own astronaut corps, and flight-tested the heat shield hatch by reusing a Gemini capsule which had flown on the unpiloted Gemini 2 mission. The program proceeded with plans for a first flight in December 1969, but in July of that year President Richard M. Nixon, after being briefed on the capabilities of robotic satellites versus the MOL, decided to direct his Secretary of Defense to cancel MOL, since piloted space reconnaissance wasted resources to keep a crew to maintain the station between picture-taking, while robotic satellites could do the same job much more cost-effectively. Those disappointed USAF astronaut candidates willing to remain astronauts were accepted by NASA into its civilian corps.

The Soviets went as far as developing and flying several piloted military reconnaissance stations which they code-namedAlmaz which they kept secret from the world by masquerading them as the non-military Salyut 2, 3, and 5 stations. These flew from 1973 to 1977, and actually carried a 23mm rapid-fire cannon to defend against imagined US attack. In 1978, the Soviet Ministry of Defence finally reached the same conclusion as the US and canceled the piloted Almaz program, converting it to a heavy unpiloted reconnaissance satellite.

End of the Space Race

The final Space Race crew, ASTP. From left to right: Donald "Deke" Slayton, Thomas Stafford, Vance Brand, Alexey Leonov, andValeri Kubasov.

While the Sputnik 1 launch can clearly be called the start of the Space Race, its end is harder to pinpoint. In May of 1972, President Richard M. Nixon and Soviet Premier Leonid Brezhnev negotiated an easing of relations known as detente, creating a temporary "thaw" in the Cold War. In the American spirit of good sportsmanship after winning the Moon race, and in light of the USSR's willingness to be a bit more open about their (non-military) space projects, the time seemed right for cooperation rather than competition, and the notion of a continuing "race" began to subside.

The two nations planned a joint mission to dock the last US Apollo craft with a Soyuz, known as the Apollo-Soyuz Test Project (ASTP). To prepare, the US designed a docking module necessary for compatibility between Apollo's docking system with the docking system the Soviets used, which allowed any of their craft to dock with any other (e.g. Soyuz/Soyuz as well as Soyuz/Salyut). The module was also necessary as an airlock to allow the men to visit each other's craft with incompatible cabin atmospheres. The USSR used the Soyuz 16 mission in December 1974 to prepare for ASTP.

The joint mission began when Soyuz 19 was launched first on 15 July 1975 at 12:20 UTC, and the Apollo craft was launched with the docking module six and a half hours later. The two craft rendezvoused and first docked on July 17 at 16:19UTC. The three astronauts conducted joint experiments with the two cosmonauts, and the crew shook hands, exchanged gifts and visits in each other's craft.

After the Space Race, the United States began developing a new generation of reusable orbital spacecraft known as the Space Shuttle, while the USSR continued to develop space station technology using their Soyuz vehicle as the shuttle.

Organization, funding, and economic impact

The huge expenditures and bureaucracy needed to organize successful space exploration led to the creation of national space agencies. The United States and the Soviet Union developed programs focused solely on the scientific and industrial requirements for these efforts.

On 29 July 1958, President Eisenhower signed the National Aeronautics and Space Act, establishing the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). When it began operations on 1 October 1958, NASA consisted mainly of the four laboratories and some 8,000 employees of the government's 46-year-old research agency for aeronautics, the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA). While its predecessor, NACA, operated on a US$5 million budget, the NASA budget rapidly accelerated to US$5 billion per year, including huge sums for subcontractors from the private sector. The Apollo 11 Moon landing, the high point of NASA's success, cost an estimated 20 to 25 billion dollars.

The amount spent by U.S. on the space race from 1957 - 1975 is estimated to be about $100 billion in 2004 inflation adjusted dollars.[1]

Lack of reliable statistics makes it difficult to compare U.S. and Soviet Union space spending, especially during the Khrushchev years. However in 1989, the Chief of Staff of the Soviet Armed Services, General M. Moiseyev, reported that the Soviet Union had allocated 6.9 billion rubles (about US$4 billion) to its space program that year. Other Soviet officials estimated that their total human spaceflight expenses totalled about that amount over the entire duration of the programs, with some lower unofficial estimates of about four and half billion rubles. In addition to ambiguity of the figures, such comparisons must also take into account the likely effect of Soviet propaganda, which pursued the goal of making the Soviet Union look strong and of confusing the Western analysis.

Organizational issues, particularly internal rivalries, also plagued the Soviet effort. The Soviet Union had nothing like NASA (the Russian Aviation and Space Agency originated only in the 1990s). Too many political issues in science and too many personal views handicapped Soviet progress. Every Soviet chief designer had to stand for his own ideas, looking for the patronage of a communist official. In 1964, between the various chief designers, the Soviet Union was developing 30 different programs of launcher and spacecraft design. Following the death of Korolyov, the Soviet space program became reactive, attempting to maintain parity with the United States. In 1974 the Soviet Union reorganized its space program, creating theEnergiaproject to duplicate the U.S. Space Shuttle with Shuttle Buran.

The Soviets also operated in the face of an economic disadvantage. Although the Soviet economy was the second largest in the world; the U.S. economy was the largest. Some observers have argued that the high economic cost of the space race, along with the extremely expensive arms race, eventually deepened the economic crisis of the Soviet system during the late 1970s and 1980s and was one of the factors that led to the collapse of the Soviet Union.

Legacy

Advances in technology and education

Technology, especially in aerospace engineering, electronics and telecommunication fields, advanced greatly during this period. The effects of the Space Race however went far beyond rocketry, physics, and astronomy. "Space age technology" extended to fields as diverse as home economics and forest defoliation studies, and the push to win the race changed the very ways in which students learned science.

American concerns that they had fallen so quickly behind the Soviets in the race to space led quickly to a push by legislators and educators for greater emphasis on mathematics and on the physical sciences in American schools. The United States' National Defense Education Act of 1958 increased funding for these goals from childhood education through the post-graduate level. To this day over 1,200 American high schools retain their own planetarium installations, a situation unparalleled in any other country worldwide and a direct consequence of the Space Race.

The scientists fostered by these efforts helped develop for space exploration technologies which have seen adapted uses ranging from the kitchen to athletic fields. Dried fruits and ready-to-eat foods, in particular food sterilisation and package sealing techniques, stay-dry clothing, and even no-fog ski goggles have their roots in space science.

Earthrise, as seen from Apollo 8, December 24, 1968 (NASA)

Today over a thousand artificial satellites orbit earth, relaying communications data around the planet and facilitating remote sensing of data on weather, vegetation, and human movements to nations who employ them. In addition, much of the micro-technology which fuels everyday activities from time-keeping to enjoying music derives from research initially driven by the Space Race.

Even with all the technological advances since the first Sputnik was launched, the former Soviet Union's R-7 Semyorka rocket, that marked the beginning of the space race, is still in use today. It is servicing the International Space Station (ISS) as the launcher for both the Soyuz andProgress spacecrafts, and more notably in terms of the end of the Space Race, ferrying American astronauts to and from the station as well as Russian crews.

The Environmental Movement

An unintended effect was that the Space Race also was partially responsible for the birth of the environmental movement, as this was the first time in history that humans came to see their home-world as it really was – when the first color pictures from space showed a fragile blue planet bordered by the blackness of space. Pictures like Apollo 8's Earthrise, which showed a crescent Earth peeking over the lunar surface, and Apollo 17's The Blue Marble, which for the first-time-ever showed a full circular earth, became iconic to the environmental movement. The first Earth Day, was partially triggered by the Apollo 8 photo. Astronaunts returning from space missions, also made comments about how fragile the Earth looked from space, further fuelling calls for better stewardship of the only home humans have: for now.

References

• Bilstein, Roger E. (1996). Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. Washington: Scientific and Technical Information Branch, National Aeronautics and Space Administration,. ISBN 0160489091.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link)
• Brugess, Colin (2003). Fallen Astronauts: Heroes Who Died Reaching for the Moon. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 0803262124. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
• Burrows, William E. (1998). This New Ocean: The Story of the First Space Age. New York: Random House. ISBN 978-0679445210. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Cornwell, John (2003). Hitler's Scientists: Science, War, and the Devil's Pact. New York: Viking Press. ISBN 0670030759.
• Dallek, Robert (2003). An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917-1963. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. ISBN 0316172383.
• Freni, Pamela (2002). Space for Women: A History of Women With the Right Stuff. Santa Ana, California: Seven Locks Press. ISBN 1931643121. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
• Gainor, Chris (2001). Arrows to the Moon: Avro's Engineers and the Space Race. Burlington, Ontario: Apogee Books. ISBN 1896522831.
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• Hall, Rex (2001). The Rocket Men: Vostok & Voskhod, The First Soviet Manned Spaceflights. New York: Springer–Praxis Books. ISBN 185233391X. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
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• Seamans, Robert C., Jr. (1967-04-05). "Findings, Determinations And Recommendations". Report of Apollo 204 Review Board. NASA History Office. Retrieved 2007-10-07.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
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See also

• Asia's Space Race
• List of spacecraft manufacturers
• Moon Shot
• List of space exploration milestones, 1957-1969
• List of communications satellite firsts
• Spaceflight records
• US space surveillance network tracks objects in space
• Timeline of space exploration
• Timeline of Solar System exploration
• Woods Hole Conference

External links

• Scanned letter from Wernher Von Braun to Vice President Johnson
• "America's Space Program: Exploring a New Frontier", a National Park Service Teaching with Historic Places (TwHP) lesson plan
• Why Did the USSR Lose the Moon Race? from Pravda, 2002-12-03
• Space Race Exhibition at the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum
• TheSpaceRace.com – Mercury, Gemini, and Apollo space programs
• Timeline of the Space Race to the Moon 1960 - 1969
• Shadows of the Soviet Space Age, Paul Lucas
• Chronology:Moon Race at russianspaceweb.com
• Artwork representing the cold war in space