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Timeline of space exploration

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about highlighting milestones in space exploration. For a comprehensive list of all events, see Timeline of Solar System exploration.

This is a timeline of space exploration which includes notable achievements, first accomplishments and milestones in humanity's exploration of outer space.

This timeline generally does not distinguish achievements by a specific country or private company, as it considers humanity as a whole. See otherwise the timeline of private spaceflight or look for achievements by each space agency.

Pre-20th century

[edit]
Date Event leading to space exploration Country Researcher(s) Ref(s).
1610 First telescopic observation of the night sky: discovery of the Galilean moons, lunar craters and the phases of Venus. Venice Galileo Galilei
1668 First reflecting telescope. England Isaac Newton
1781 First telescopic discovery of planet (Uranus). Great Britain William Herschel
1801 First discovery of asteroid (Ceres). Sicily Giuseppe Piazzi
1813 First exposition of the rocket equation based on Newton's third law of motion: Treatise on the Motion of Rockets. UK William Moore
1840 First clear telescopic photograph of another world: the Moon. United States John William Draper
1845 First proper observation of other galaxies which are termed "whirlpool nebulae". UK William Parsons
1861 A Journey Through Space makes first proposal of using rockets for space flight. UK William Leitch
1895 First proposal of space elevator. Russia Konstantin Tsiolkovsky

1900–1956

[edit]
Date Mission success Country Mission name Ref(s).
1903 Publication of Exploration of the Universe with Rocket-Propelled Vehicles[1] that showed physical space exploration was theoretically possible, including the Tsiolkovsky rocket equation, multi staged rockets and using liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen in liquid propellant Russia Konstantin Tsiolkovsky [2]
1914 Goddard files for and is subsequently awarded U.S. patents on multistage and liquid-fueled rockets. United States Robert H. Goddard
1917 First observation of an extrasolar planet (exoplanet) round Van Maanen 2 although it is not recognised as such at the time. Netherlands Adriaan van Maanen
1919 Goddard's widely influential paper "A Method of Reaching Extreme Altitudes" discussed solid- and liquid-fueled rocketry. United States Robert H. Goddard
15 December 1923 Die Rakete zu den Planetenräumen ("By Rocket into Planetary Space") self-published after its rejection as a doctoral thesis. Germany Hermann Oberth
1924 Society for Studies of Interplanetary Travel founded. USSR Members include Konstantin Tsiolkovsky, Friedrich Zander, Yuri Kondratyuk
16 March 1926 Goddard launches the first liquid-fueled rocket. United States Robert H. Goddard
1927 Verein für Raumschiffahrt (Society for Space Travel) formed; it includes many top European rocket scientists. Germany  
1927 Завоевание межпланетных пространств (The Conquest of Interplanetary Space) discusses rocket mechanics and orbital effects including the gravitational slingshot. USSR Yuri Kondratyuk
1928 Das Problem der Befahrung des Weltraums – der Raketen-Motor (The Problem of Space Travel – The Rocket Motor) discusses space travel and its potential uses for scientific experiments. Germany Herman Potočnik
January 1933 British Interplanetary Society founded. UK Philip E. Cleator
April 1933 First detection of radio waves from an astronomical object. United States Karl Jansky
September 1933 Establishment of the Soviet rocket research lab Reactive Scientific Research Institute (RNII) by combining the Group for the Study of Reactive Motion (GIRD) with the Gas Dynamics Laboratory (GDL). USSR Key people Sergei Korolev & Valentin Glushko [3]
20 June 1944 First spaceflight in history.

First human-made object in space (later defined as above the Kármán line).

Germany (Wehrmacht) V-2 rocket (MW 18014)
October 1945 Article in Wireless World, "Extra-Terrestrial Relays — Can Rocket Stations Give Worldwide Radio Coverage?" makes first discussion of geostationary satellites as a means of communication. UK Arthur C. Clarke
10 May 1946 First space research flight (cosmic radiation experiments). United States captured and improved V-2 rocket
24 October 1946 First pictures of Earth from 105 km (65 mi). United States V-2 [4][5]
20 February 1947 First animals in space (fruit flies). United States V-2 [4][6]
24 February 1949 First two-stage liquid-fueled rocket, that sets a record altitude of 244 miles (393 km) (WAC Corporal missile mounted onto a V-2 rocket). United States Bumper-5
14 June 1949 First mammal in space (Albert II, a rhesus monkey).

First primate in space.

United States V-2
22 July 1951 First dogs in space (Dezik and Tsygan).

First living organisms to fly in space and safely return.

USSR Soviet space dogs [7]
20 September 1956 First rocket to pass the thermopause and enter the exosphere. At 682 miles (1,098 km) altitude and 3,335 miles range, the 3-stage Jupiter-C breaks both records and achieves MACH 18 velocity. United States Jupiter-C [8][9]

1957–1959

[edit]
For the milestones relevant to the Space Race only, see Timeline of the Space Race.
Date Mission achievements Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
4 October 1957 First artificial satellite.
First human-made signals from space. 		USSR Sputnik 1
3 November 1957 First mammal in orbit, the dog Laika. USSR Sputnik 2
31 January 1958 Confirmed existence of the Van Allen radiation belt. USA (ABMA) Explorer 1
17 March 1958 First use of solar power in space.
The oldest artificial object still in space. 		USA (NRL) Vanguard 1
4 January 1959 First rocket to reach Earth escape velocity.

First spacecraft to attempt to impact the Moon's surface.
First artificial object in heliocentric orbit.
First detection of solar wind.

USSR Luna 1
17 February 1959 First weather satellite. USA (NRL) Vanguard 2
7 August 1959 First photograph of Earth from Earth orbit. USA (NASA) Explorer 6
13 September 1959 First spacecraft to impact another celestial body (the Moon).
First delivery of national pennants to a celestial body. 		USSR Luna 2
4 October 1959 First photos of another world from space: the far side of the Moon.

First gravity assist.

USSR Luna 3

1960–1969

[edit]
For the milestones relevant to the Space Race only, see Timeline of the Space Race.
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
March 1960 First solar probe. USA (NASA) Pioneer 5
19 August 1960 First plants and animals to return alive from Earth orbit. USSR Sputnik 5
25 September 1960 First rocket engine fired in space. USA (NASA) Pioneer P-30 [10]
31 January 1961 First hominidae in space (chimpanzee Ham).

First tasks performed in space.

USA (NASA) M-R 2
12 February 1961 First launch from Earth orbit of upper stage into a heliocentric orbit.
First mid-course corrections.
First spin-stabilisation. 		USSR Venera 1
12 April 1961 First human spaceflight (Yuri Gagarin).
First human-crewed orbital flight. 		USSR Vostok 1 [11][12]
5 May 1961 First human-piloted space flight (Alan Shepard).
First human-crewed suborbital flight. 		USA Freedom 7
19 May 1961 First planetary flyby (within 100,000 km of Venus – no data returned). USSR Venera 1
6 August 1961 First crewed space flight lasting over twenty four hours by Gherman Titov, who is also the first to suffer from space sickness. USSR Vostok 2
7 March 1962 First orbital solar observatory. USA (NASA) OSO-1
26 April 1962 First spacecraft to impact the far side of the Moon. USA (NASA) Ranger 4 [13]
11 August 1962 First dual crewed spaceflight.
First communication between two crewed space vehicles in orbit.
First person to float freely in microgravity. 		USSR Vostok 3 and Vostok 4
18 August 1962 First auroral research rocket launched into the ionosphere.
Norway 		Ferdinand 1
November 1962 First Mars flyby (11,000 km) but contact was lost. USSR Mars 1
14 December 1962 First planetary flyby with data returned (Venus).

First successful planetary science mission.

USA (NASA) Mariner 2 [14]
16 June 1963 First woman in space (Valentina Tereshkova). USSR Vostok 6
19 July 1963 First reusable crewed spacecraft (suborbital). USA (NASA) X-15 Flight 90
12 October 1964 First multi-person crew (3) in orbit. USSR Voskhod 1
18 March 1965 First space walk/extra-vehicular activity (Alexei Leonov). USSR Voskhod 2
March 1965 First crewed spacecraft to change orbit. USA (NASA) Gemini 3
14 July 1965 First flyby of Mars (returned pictures). USA (NASA) Mariner 4 [15]
14 July 1965 First photographs of another planet from deep space (Mars). USA (NASA) Mariner 4 [15]
15 December 1965 First orbital rendezvous (parallel flight, no docking). USA (NASA) Gemini 6A/Gemini 7
3 February 1966 First soft landing on another world (the Moon).
First photos from another world. 		USSR Luna 9 [16]
1 March 1966 First impact into another planet (Venus). USSR Venera 3
16 March 1966 First orbital docking between two spacecraft. USA (NASA) Gemini 8/Agena target vehicle
3 April 1966 First artificial satellite around another world (the Moon). USSR Luna 10
23 August 1966 First picture of Earth from another astronomical object (the Moon).

First probe to map the Moon.

USA Lunar Orbiter 1 [17]
8 May 1967 First polar orbit around the Moon. USA Lunar Orbiter 4 [18]
July 1967 First photos of the Lunar south pole. USA Lunar Orbiter 4 [18]
30 October 1967 First automated (crewless) docking. USSR Cosmos 186/Cosmos 188
17 November 1967 First liftoff from another celestial body (the Moon). USA Surveyor 6 [19]
September 1968 First animals and plants to leave Earth orbit and travel to and around the Moon.

First lunar spacecraft to be recovered successfully.

USSR Zond 5 [20]
7 December 1968 First orbital ultraviolet observatory. USA (NASA) OAO-2
21 December 1968 First human excursion beyond low Earth orbit.

First in-person observations of Earth from a distance.
First Trans-Earth injection.

USA (NASA) Apollo 8 [21]
24 December 1968 First human flight to another celestial body (the Moon) and to enter its gravitational influence. USA (NASA) Apollo 8 [21]
January 1969 First docking between two crewed spacecraft in Earth orbit.

First crew exchange in space.

USSR Soyuz 4 and Soyuz 5
January 1969 First spacecraft to parachute in Venus's atmosphere, lost contact before landing. USSR Venera 5
23 May 1969 First docking of two crewed spacecraft around another celestial body.

First lunar mission to include a lunar landing module.

USA (NASA) Apollo 10 [22]
20 July 1969 First human on another celestial body (the Moon).

First words spoken from another world.

USA (NASA) Apollo 11 [23]
21 July 1969 First space launch from another celestial body.

First sample return from another celestial body.

USA (NASA) Apollo 11 [23]
19 November 1969 First rendezvous on the surface of a celestial body.

First meet up between human explorers and a robotic spacecraft in space (on the Moon).

USA (NASA) Apollo 12/Surveyor 3 [24]

1970–1979

[edit]
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
14 April 1970 Farthest distance from Earth traveled by humans. USA (NASA) Apollo 13 [25][note 1]
24 September 1970 First automatic sample return from the Moon. USSR Luna 16
17 November 1970 First rover on another celestial body (the Moon).

First lunar rover.

USSR Lunokhod 1
12 December 1970 First X-ray orbital observatory. USA (NASA) Uhuru
15 December 1970 First soft landing on another planet (Venus).
First signals from another planet. 		USSR Venera 7
19 April 1971 First space station. USSR Salyut 1
June 1971 First crewed orbital observatory. USSR Orion 1
30 July 1971 First motor vehicle on another celestial body (Lunar Roving Vehicle). USA (NASA) Apollo 15 [28]
14 November 1971 First spacecraft to orbit another planet (Mars). USA (NASA) Mariner 9
27 November 1971 First spacecraft to impact another planet (Mars). USSR Mars 2
2 December 1971 First soft landing on Mars.
First signals from Martian surface.
First photograph from Martian surface. 		USSR Mars 3
3 March 1972 First spacecraft on a trajectory out of the solar system.

First spacecraft to use all-nuclear electrical power (SNAP-19 RTGs).

USA (NASA) Pioneer 10 [29]
15 July 1972 First spacecraft to enter the asteroid belt.

First spacecraft beyond the orbit of Mars.

USA (NASA) Pioneer 10 [29]
15 November 1972 First orbital gamma ray observatory. USA (NASA) SAS 2
3 November 1973 First mission sent to study Mercury. USA (NASA) Mariner 10 [30]
3 December 1973 First flyby of Jupiter.

First spacecraft beyond the Inner Solar System.

USA (NASA) Pioneer 10 [29]
January 1974 First spacecraft to return data on a long-period comet. USA (NASA) Mariner 10 [30]
5 February 1974 First mission to explore two planets in a single mission (Mercury and Venus).
First photograph of Venus from space.

First use of solar wind for spacecraft orientation.

USA (NASA) Mariner 10 [30]
29 March 1974 First flyby of Mercury. USA (NASA) Mariner 10 [30]
21 Sept. 1974 First spacecraft to flyby the same planet multiple times (Mercury). USA (NASA) Mariner 10 [30]
15 July 1975 First multinational crewed mission. USSR USA (NASA) Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
20 October 1975 First spacecraft to orbit Venus. USSR Venera 9
22 October 1975 First successful photos from the surface of another planet (Venus). USSR Venera 9
20 July 1976 First successful photos and soil samples from the surface of Mars. USA (NASA) Viking Lander
26 January 1978 First real time remotely operated ultraviolet orbital observatory. USA (NASA)
ESA
UK (SERC) 		International Ultraviolet Explorer
20 November 1978 First spacecraft to orbit the Sun at Lagrange 1. USA (NASA) ISEE-3/ICE [31]
4 December 1978 First extended (multi-year) orbital exploration of Venus (from 1978 to 1992). USA (NASA) Pioneer Venus Orbiter
5 March 1979 Jupiter flyby (closest approach 349,000 km)
Encounters with five Jovian moons.
Discovery of volcanism on Io. 		USA (NASA) Voyager 1
1 September 1979 First flyby of Saturn.

First photograph of Titan from deep space.

USA (NASA) Pioneer 11

1980–1989

[edit]
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
12 November 1980 Saturn flyby (closest approach 124,000 km), close encounter of Titan and encounters with a dozen other moons. USA (NASA) Voyager 1
12 April 1981 First reusable crewed orbital spacecraft (Space Shuttle). USA (NASA) STS-1
1 March 1982 First Venus soil samples

First sound recording of another world (Venus).

USSR Venera 13
10 June 1982 First spacecraft to conduct a deep survey of Earth's magnetic tail. USA (NASA) ISEE-3/ICE [31]
19 August 1982 First mixed gender crew aboard space station, and first woman, Svetlana Savitskaya, on space station. USSR Salyut 7
1982 First plants grown in space (Arabidopsis). USSR Salyut 7 [32][33]
25 January 1983 First Infrared orbital observatory. USA (NASA)
UK (SERC)
Netherlands (NIVR) 		IRAS
13 June 1983 First spacecraft beyond the orbit of Neptune.

First spacecraft beyond all Solar System planets.

USA (NASA) Pioneer 10 [29]
7 February 1984 First untethered spacewalk (Bruce McCandless II). USA (NASA) STS-41-B
25 July 1984 First spacewalk by a woman (Svetlana Savitskaya). USSR Salyut 7
11 June 1985 First balloon deployed on another planet (Venus). USSR Vega 1
11 September 1985 First spacecraft to flyby a comet (21P/Giacobini-Zinner).[note 2] USA (NASA) ISEE-3/ICE [31]
24 January 1986 First spacecraft to flyby Uranus. USA (NASA) Voyager 2 [34]
19 February 1986 First consistently inhabited long-term research space station. USSR Mir
13 March 1986 First close up observations of a comet (Halley's Comet, 596 kilometers). ESA Giotto
July 1988 First suspected detection of an exoplanet (Gamma Cephei Ab).[note 3] Canada Astronomers Bruce Campbell, Gordon Walker and Stephenson Yang. [35]
8 August 1989 First astrometric satellite. ESA Hipparcos
25 August 1989 First spacecraft to flyby Neptune.

First spacecraft to study all four of the solar system's giant planets at close range.

USA (NASA) Voyager 2 [34]
18 November 1989 First orbital cosmic microwave observatory. USA (NASA) COBE

1990–1999

[edit]
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
14 February 1990 First photograph of the whole Solar System (Family Portrait). USA (NASA) Voyager 1 [36]
24 April 1990 First telescope designed to be repaired in space. USA (NASA)
ESA 		Hubble Space Telescope [37]
2 July 1990 First time a spacecraft coming from deep space uses the Earth for a gravity-assist manoeuvre. ESA Giotto [38]
21 October 1991 First asteroid flyby (951 Gaspra closest approach 1,600 km). USA (NASA) Galileo
1992 First confirmed observation of an exoplanet. Canada
Poland 		Aleksander Wolszczan & Dale Frail
8 February 1992 First polar orbit around the Sun.

First mission to survey the space environment above and below the poles of the Sun.

USA (NASA)
ESA 		Ulysses [39]
13 September 1992 First spacecraft to map Venus in its entirety. USA (NASA) Magellan [40]
22 March 1995 Record longest duration spaceflight to date (437.7 day by Valeri Polyakov). Russia (FKA) Mir
7 December 1995 First orbit of Jupiter. USA (NASA) Galileo
7 December 1995 First spacecraft to enter the atmosphere of a gas giant (Jupiter). USA (NASA) Galileo's atmospheric entry probe [41]
1995 First laser communication from space. Japan (JAXA, NICT) ETS-VI [42]
12 February 1997 First orbital radio observatory. Japan (ISAS) HALCA
4 July 1997 First operational rover on another planet (Mars). USA (NASA) Mars Pathfinder / Sojourner
17 September 1997 First spacecraft to use aerobraking to enter orbit (Martian orbit). USA (NASA) Mars Global Surveyor [43]
20 November 1998 First multinational space station.
Largest artificial object built in space to date. 		Russia (FKA)
USA (NASA)
Europe (ESA)
Japan (JAXA)
Canada (CSA) 		International Space Station

2000–2009

[edit]
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
14 February 2000 First orbit of an asteroid (433 Eros). USA (NASA) ESA NEAR Shoemaker
12 February 2001 First landing on an asteroid (433 Eros). USA (NASA) NEAR Shoemaker
November 2001 First laser communication in space between two objects. ESA FranceFrance (CNES) Artemis, SPOT 4 [44]
17 May 2004 First amateur spaceflight. USA (CSXT) CSXT GoFast [45]
1 July 2004 First orbit of Saturn. USA (NASA) ESA Italy (ASI) Cassini–Huygens
8 September 2004 First sample return beyond lunar orbit (solar wind). USA (NASA) Genesis
14 January 2005 First landing in the outer Solar System (Titan).

First landing on a moon other than Earth's Moon.

ESA USA (NASA) Italy (ASI) Cassini–Huygens
January–February 2005 First confirmed cryovolcano (Enceladus). ESA USA (NASA) Italy (ASI) Cassini–Huygens [46]
4 July 2005 First spacecraft to impact a comet (Tempel 1). USA (NASA) Deep Impact
19 November 2005 First asteroid ascent (25143 Itokawa).
First interplanetary escape without separating and discarding the landing gear. 		Japan (JAXA) Hayabusa
15 January 2006 First sample return from a comet (81P/Wild). USA (NASA) Stardust [47]
3 January 2007 First confirmed lakes on the surface of another celestial body (lakes of Titan). USA (NASA) ESA Italy (ASI) Cassini–Huygens [48][49]
25 May 2008 First spacecraft to photograph another spacecraft landing on another celestial body (Phoenix, on Mars). USA (NASA) Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter [50]
8 November 2008 First discovery of lunar water in the form of ice.[note 4] India (ISRO) Chandrayaan-1 [51][52]
6 March 2009 First space telescope designated to search for Earth-like exoplanets. USA (NASA) Kepler Mission [53]
August 2009 First images of the structures in the rings of a planet (rings of Saturn). USA (NASA) ESA Italy (ASI) Cassini–Huygens [54][55]

2010–2019

[edit]
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
20 May 2010 First solar sail. Japan (JAXA) IKAROS [56]
13 June 2010 First sample return from an asteroid (25143 Itokawa). Japan (JAXA) Hayabusa
25 August 2010 First spacecraft to orbit one of the Moon's Lagrange point (L2). USA (NASA) ARTEMIS-P1 [57]
22 October 2010 First spacecraft to orbit the Moon's Lagrange 1 point. USA (NASA) ARTEMIS-P2 [57]
18 March 2011 First orbit of Mercury. USA (NASA) MESSENGER
16 July 2011 First orbit of an object in the asteroid belt (4 Vesta). USA (NASA) Dawn
6 August 2012 First use of a sky crane to land on another celestial body (Mars). USA (NASA) Mars Science Laboratory [58]
25 August 2012 First spacecraft to leave the heliosphere.

First spacecraft in interstellar space.

USA (NASA) Voyager 1 [59]
January 2013 First laser communication with a lunar satellite. USA (NASA) Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter [60]
10 September 2014 First spacecraft to orbit a comet nucleus (67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko). ESA Rosetta [61]
12 November 2014 First soft landing on a comet (67P/Churyumov–Gerasimenko). ESA Philae [62]
6 March 2015 First flyby and orbit of a dwarf planet (Ceres).
First spacecraft to orbit two separate celestial bodies. 		USA (NASA) Dawn [63]
July 2015 First flyby of an object beyond Neptune (Pluto and its moons).

First flyby in the Kuiper belt.

First flyby of a trans-neptunian object.
Last original encounter with one of the nine major planets recognized before 2006.

USA (NASA) New Horizons [64]
10 August 2015 First food grown in space eaten (lettuce). USA (NASA) Japan (JAXA) International Space Station [65]
14 September 2015 First observation of gravitational waves. LSC – EGO LIGO – Virgo [66][67]
23 November 2015 First propulsive landing of a rocket after sending something into space (suborbital). USA (Blue Origin) New Shepard 2 [68]
21 December 2015 First propulsive landing of an orbital rocket. USA (SpaceX) Falcon 9 first-stage landing tests
16 April 2016 First inflatable space habitat.[note 5] USA (Bigelow Aerospace) BEAM [69]
15 September 2017 First spacecraft to enter the atmosphere of Saturn. USA (NASA) ESA Italy (ASI) Cassini–Huygens [70]
19 October 2017 First known interstellar object detected passing through the Solar System. USA (Haleakalā Observatory) Oumuamua
21 September 2018 First operational rover on an asteroid (162173 Ryugu). Japan (JAXA) Hayabusa2 [71]
1 December 2018 First recorded sounds from Mars. USA (NASA) InSight [72]
1 January 2019 First flyby of a classical Kuiper belt object (486958 Arrokoth).

First flyby of a contact binary.

First spacecraft to make two different flybys in the Kuiper belt.

USA (NASA) New Horizons [73]
3 January 2019 First soft landing on the far side of the Moon.

First germination of seeds on another celestial body.

China China (CNSA) Chang'e 4 [74]
3 January 2019 First lunar rover (Yutu-2) traversing the far side of the Moon. China China (CNSA) Chang'e 4 [75]
10 April 2019 First direct photograph of a black hole and its vicinity. USA (NASA) Event Horizon Telescope [76]

Since 2020

[edit]
Date Mission success Country/organization Mission name Ref(s).
6 April 2021 First confirmed quake on another planet (marsquake). USA (NASA) InSight [77]
19 April 2021 First aerodynamically powered flight on another celestial body (Mars). USA (NASA) Ingenuity [78]
20 April 2021 First in situ resource utilization.

First production of oxygen on another celestial body (Mars).

USA (NASA) MOXIE [79][80]
14 December 2021 First spacecraft to fly through the atmosphere of a star (the Sun's corona). USA (NASA) Parker Solar Probe [81]
25 December 2021 Launch of the largest space telescope to date. USA (NASA) ESA Canada (CSA) James Webb Space Telescope [82]
26 September 2022 First asteroid measurably deflected by a spacecraft.

First spacecraft to make contact with an asteroid moon (impact on Dimorphos).

USA (NASA) DART [83]
23 August 2023 First landing at the lunar south polar region. India (ISRO) Chandrayaan-3 [84]
14 March 2024 First successful demonstration of in space propellant transfer USA (SpaceX) Starship flight test 3 [85]
06 June 2024 First successful instance of both stages of a launch vehicle returned for a controlled landing USA (SpaceX) Starship flight test 4 [86]
25 June 2024 First samples returned from the far side of the Moon. China China (CNSA) Chang'e 6 [87]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The record was set because the Moon was nearly at its furthest from Earth during the mission. Apollo 13's unique free return trajectory caused it to go approximately 100 kilometers (60 mi) further from the lunar far side than other Apollo lunar missions, but this was a minor contribution to the record.[26] A reconstruction of the trajectory by astrodynamicist Daniel Adamo in 2009 records the furthest distance as 400,046 kilometers (248,577 mi) at 7:34 pm EST (00:34:13 UTC). Apollo 10 holds the record for second-furthest at a distance of 399,806 kilometers (248,428 mi).[27]
  2. ^ Soviet spacecraft Vega 1 and Vega 2 and ESA spacecraft Giotto all made a flyby of Halley's Comet the year after, in 1986.
  3. ^ Although the discovery was retracted in 1994, and not confirmed until 2002.
  4. ^ On December 3, 1996 (prior to 2008), the US Department of Defense announced that Clementine data suggested evidence of ice at the lunar south pole. However, the discovery was not confirmed and Clementine data might have been misinterpreted.
  5. ^ The reason why it is BEAM (2016) rather than Genesis I (2006) is that BEAM was specifically designed for human habitation and was attached to the ISS, while Genesis I and Genesis II (2007) were technology demonstration prototypes for future space habitats.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Russian title Issledovaniye mirovykh prostranstv reaktivnymi priborami (Исследование мировых пространств реактивными приборами)
  2. ^ Siddiqi, Asif (2000). Challenge to Apollo : the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945-1974 (PDF). Washington, D.C.: National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div. p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2008. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
  3. ^ Chertok, Boris (31 January 2005). Rockets and People (Volume 1 ed.). National Aeronautics and Space Administration. p. 9. Archived from the original on 28 April 2022. Retrieved 24 July 2022.
  4. ^ a b "Chronology: Cowboys to V-2s to the Space Shuttle to lasers". Wsmr.army.mil. Archived from the original on 13 October 2014. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  5. ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2014-02-21. Retrieved 2013-01-17.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  6. ^ "Part 1". History.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 25 January 2008. Retrieved 4 August 2017.
  7. ^ Siddiqi, Asif (2000). Challenge to Apollo: The Soviet Union and the Space Race, 1945–1974 (PDF). NASA. p. 95.
  8. ^ "The Space Review: Old Reliable: The story of the Redstone". www.thespacereview.com. Archived from the original on 2023-06-02. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  9. ^ "The United States Army | Redstone Arsenal Historical Information". history.redstone.army.mil. Archived from the original on 2023-08-03. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
  10. ^ "Able 5A (Pioneer P-30) | Pioneer P-30". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2023-02-04. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  11. ^ "Yuri Gagarin and Vostok 1, the First Human Spaceflight". Planetary Society. Archived from the original on 10 July 2022. Retrieved 10 July 2022.
  12. ^ "Yuri Gagarin: Who was the first person in space?". BBC. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 13 July 2022.
  13. ^ "Discussion". Space Policy. 14 (1): 6. 1998-02-01. Bibcode:1998SpPol..14....5.. doi:10.1016/S0265-9646(97)00038-6.
  14. ^ "In Depth | Mariner 02". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  15. ^ a b "In Depth | Mariner 04". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2019-04-15. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  16. ^ "Luna 9". NASA. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2024.
  17. ^ "In Depth | Lunar Orbiter 1". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2018-11-15. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  18. ^ a b "In Depth | Lunar Orbiter 4". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  19. ^ "In Depth | Surveyor 6". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2020-02-17. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  20. ^ "NASA - NSSDCA - Spacecraft - Details". nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov. Archived from the original on 2019-06-29. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  21. ^ a b "In Depth | Apollo 8". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  22. ^ "In Depth | Apollo 10". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  23. ^ a b "In Depth | Apollo 11". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  24. ^ "In Depth | Apollo 12". NASA Solar System Exploration. Archived from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2023-02-04.
  25. ^ Glenday 2010, p. 13.
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