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"Ancient bronze plaque showing horseman with prominent cheekbones and full beard, from Troitskosavsk,Transbaikalia.", similar to the Xiongnu statue of Huo Qubing.[2]
Bronze plaque in form of a man. Ordos type, 3rd–1st c. BCE. OA 1922.6-1.20 [2]Museum notice for OA 1922.6-1.20. "Bronze plaque from the Ordos region, showing a man of Europoid stock with wide open eyes and moustache".[3]
"The Karasuk culture is a Late Bronze Age culture that succeeded the Andronovo culture in southern Siberia (late second millenium BC.). Karasuk people were farmers who practiced metallurgy on a large scale. They produced a realistic animal art, which probably contributed to the development of the later Scytho-Siberian animal art style. The Karasuk culture was replaced by the early Iron Age Tagar culture (1rst millenium BC.) which Xourished in Khakassia (southern part of the Krasnoyarsk Krai) producing an art of animal motifs related to that of the Scythians of southern European Russia. On the Yenisey River, the Tagar culture was replaced by the Tashtyk culture, dating from the 1rst to fourth century AD."
in Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (16 May 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 395–410. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID19449030. S2CID21347353.
Moreover, the south Siberian tribes under study (Andronovo, Karasuk, Tagar) have been described as exhibiting pronounced Europoid features (Kozintsev et al. 1999; Lebedynsky 2003; Moiseyev 2006). (p. 405)
(p. 406):
S18 Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin – European
S19 Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin – European
(p.408, on Tocharians): "Two hypotheses have been offered by archaeologists to account for the origins of these Bronze Age people believed to have spoken an Indo-European language called Tocharian and depicted as possessing red or blonde hair, long noses and blue or green eyes: the “steppe hypothesis” and the “Bactrian oasis hypothesis”. Proponents of the latter assert that settlement of the Xinjiang came from sedentary based population of the Oxus civilisation found in Uzbekistan, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, whereas proponents of the “steppe hypothesis” maintain that the Tarim region experienced a colonization attributed to Afanasievo and Andronovo populations who migrated to Xinjiang from the Altai–Minusinsk regions north of the Tarim Basin (Hemphill and Mallory 2004). Our results corroborate the “steppe hypothesis”."
Andronovo culture phenotypes (Keyser, Christine; Bouakaze, Caroline; Crubézy, Eric; Nikolaev, Valery G.; Montagnon, Daniel; Reis, Tatiana; Ludes, Bertrand (16 May 2009). "Ancient DNA provides new insights into the history of south Siberian Kurgan people". Human Genetics. 126 (3): 406. doi:10.1007/s00439-009-0683-0. PMID19449030. S2CID21347353.):
S07 Brown Blue or brown eye, dark brown hair, fair or medium skin Asian
S08 Brown – Asian
S09 Blue Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin European
S10 – Blue or brown eye, brown hair European
S11 Blue – European
S13 – Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin European
S14 Brown Blue or brown eye, brown hair, fair or medium skin European
S15 Blue – European
S16 Blue Blue or brown eye, blond or light brown hair, fair or medium skin European
An 8th century BCE deerstone, Arzhan village (next to Arzhan 1). Expedition of L. S. Marsadolov, 1989. State Hermitage Museum, St Petersburg, 2830/23.[7]
"What strongly distinguishes the Turks is of course their language, as strange for other Muslims, Persians, Kurds and Arabs as for Christians, Orientals, Greeks and Latins. This language, with its sounds that are appreciated in different ways, is that of the military and political elite of Egypt, Syria and Iraq. It is spoken by everyone in Seljuk and Turkoman Anatolia; and Turkophones in the Near East are often criticized for speaking Arabic and Persian very poorly, when they are not completely ignorant of these languages. (...) The sultans of Egypt Kalâwun, Katbugâ or Barsbay had only a summary knowledge of Arabic. Some Mamluks communicated only through an interpreter, others took decades to learn the language of their subjects, and most spoke with a strong accent and many Turkish expressions."[8]
Near-contemporary depiction of Sultan Baybars, of Kipchak origin
A probable near-contemporary depiction of Sultan Baybars, of Kipchak origin:[9] enthroned ruler and attendants in the Baptistère de Saint Louis (1320–1340).[9]
While the Afanasievo culture was present in the Altai and western and central Mongolia, elements of a distinct neolithic culture were present in eastern Mongolia.[10]
Neolithic stone amulet, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000–3000 BCE
The attribution of these petroglyphs to the Afanasievo culture is supported by stratigraphy as well as stylistic similarities between the line patterns on the petroglyphs and those on known Afanasievo ceramics.
"The Khuroogiin Uzuur (Хуроогийн узуур) petroglyphs are applied to the surface of basalt boulders and rock outcrops of several hills along the right bank of the Khoyt Tamir River. Their most ancient layer is represented, first of all, by images of ungulates: goats and rams, horses, bulls." "The most important find is the image of a horse, the body of which is completely covered with an ornament consisting of several rows of parallel inclined lines located at an angle to each other in the form of a “herringbone” or “fish bones” (Fig. 1, 2). Such an ornament, first of all, reveals an analogy with the decor of the Afanasievo ceramics of the Eneolithic era of Central Asia, for which it is the most widespread and traditional (Fig. 1, 3–5)." "The connection of the monument with the Afanasievo culture of Mongolia is probable." in [11]
Jewish notables from the Bible, depicted in Akhtala Monastery.
The Fresco depicting "Muslims" in the Akhtala Complex:
"The Jewish details from the Gospel accounts have been translated into the language of Muslim motifs. This was more comprehensible for the 13th-century inhabitant of the Caucasus and aroused an acute, specific and unequivocally negative response. The traditional Jewish headwear of the high priests were transformed into elaborate turbans, the scrolls open in front of them contain something similar to Arabic script, while the Jew in the background of «Christ before Pilate» is shown as a Seljuk Turk with a shaven chin, long moustaches and a cap that recall the fez." p.393
Also remove from Haghpat Monastery article, where it is mis-attributed to that monastery.
The Yanglang culture (杨郎青铜文化, 6th–3rd century BCE) is an early archeological culture of northwestern China, mainly identified by burial grounds in the southern part of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, and in the adjacent Qingyang County of eastern Gansu. The culture is named after the Bronze culture Yanglang cemetery (杨郎墓地), excavated in 1989 in Guyuan, Ningxia.[14] Other sites are the Pengbao cemetery (彭堡墓地) and Wang Dahu cemetery (王大户墓地). These sites are characterized by Chinese archaeology as belonging to the "Northern Bronze cultures of the Spring and Autumn Period" (春秋战国北方青铜文化), related to the Xirong (西戎) people. The famous Majiayuan site is considered as representative of the end of the Yanglang culture.[15]
The Yanglang culture is thought to have been directly or indirectly connected to the Saka (Scythian) culture, with suggestions of direct prenetration of Saka groups into North China.[15] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[16][15][17] In particular, the decorated chariots and many artifacts have strong resemblance with Saka objects from the Issyk-kul kurgan.[18]
Gold belt plaques in animal style found in Majiayuan M4, Gansu.[19]
Gold plate in the form of walking feline found in Majiayuan M3, Gansu.[19] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[20][21]
(p. 201) "Wall paintings of Tocharian speakers depict these individuals as possessing red or blond hair, long noses, blue or green eyes, and wearing broadswords inserted in scabbards hanging from their waists."[23]
"Genetically the Tocharians Tarim originated from the afanasievo culture, but with the contribution of other populations such as bmac, Baikal HG and Yellow farmer, this gene influx was received from these populations during the Bronze and Iron Ages." Genetics reference: [24]
The miniatures represent typical Central Asian people, thickset with large round heads.[33] They also provide rare depictions of the contemporary military of the Seljuk period, and may have influenced other known depictions of Turkic Seljuk soldiers.[34] All depicted costumes and accoutrements are contemporary to the artist, in the 13th century CE.[26] The miniatures constitute the first known example of illustrated Persian-language manuscript, dating from the pre-Mongol era, and are useful in studying weapons of the period.[26][35] Particularly, metal face masks and chainmail helmets in Turkic fashion, and armor with small metal plates connected through straps, large round shields (the largest of them called "kite-shields") and long teardrop shields, armoured horses are depicted.[26] The weapons and armour types depicted in the miniatures were common in the Middle East and the Caucasus in the Seljuk era.[26]
Rabī cuts his adversary in half. Battle scene, in Varka and Golshah, mid-13th century Seljuk Anatolia.
Rabi wounds Varqa in the thigh. Varka and Golshah, mid-13th century Seljuk Anatolia
Rabi, armoured with lamellar Jawshan cuirass and mail hauberk beneath his tunic, armed with long single-edged sword and large round shield. Supported by infantrymen with kite-shaped shields
Details from the Warqah wa Gulshāh manuscript
Reference for military outfits and equipment in the Seljuk Empire. "The magnificently illustrated manuscript of Warqah wa-Gulshāh, now in the
Topkapı Library, is particularly varied in its illustrations of fighting skills and combat techniques. Like the candlestick, its illustrations are widely thought to be in a style stemming from the early thirteenth century, though the precise dating and provenance of the manuscript remains a matter of debate. According to Alan Safani, the name of the presumed artist, ʿAbd al-Muʾmin of Khoy (a town north of Lake Urmia in northwestern Iran), has been identified on one page. The manuscript can fairly be described as a product of a Seljuq artistic milieu, but whether this was Azerbaijan, Iran, or Anatolia remains unknown."[36]
Copper Alloy Fals of Sulayman Khan, Ani mint, (1339–1343)Silver Dirham of Anushirwan, Ani mint, 747 H (1346–1347).
> Coinage at the time of Zakarid Armenia:
"According to the results of the archaeological excavations carried out in the city of Ani, it was understood that gold, silver and bronze coins were minted in the mints by Mahmud Ghazan Khan, Olcaytu Sultan Muhammad Khan, Suleiman Khan and Anushirwan during the Ilkhanid period, starting with the Seljuk Sultan Melikshah".[37]
More detailed ref needed [4]Strayer, Joseph, ed. (1982). Dictionary of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1. New York : Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 485. ISBN978-0-684-19073-0. The degree of Armenian dependence on Georgia during this period is still the subject of considerable controversy. The numerous Zak'arid inscriptions leave no doubt that they considered themselves Armenians, and they often acted independently.
Coinage of Jalal al-Din Mangubarni, minted in Tiflis, Georgia, 1226–1230
Jalal al-Din Mangburni ruled over most of Georgia and Armenia in 1225-1230.
"King Giorgi Lasha, wounded in battle, died in 1223 and was succeeded by his sister Rusudan (1223-1245). In the third year of her reign, Georgia was invaded by Turkmen tribes under the Khwarazm shah, Jalal al-Din. When the commander of the Georgian army, Ioanne Mkhargrdzeli, was defeated at Garni, the roads to Gandja, Kars, Lori, and Tbilisi were open to the conquering shah, who ruled eastern Georgia and much of Armenia until 1230."[38]
The Georgian army in 1254 was about 90.000 men. "Worst of all was qalani, or conscription, which, after the 1254 census, was set at one soldier per nine registered male householder. The Georgian army could field 90,000 men, which puts the population of Georgia and Christian Armenia then at around two and a half million."[39]IA
Role of Sargis I Jaqeli, of the hereditary principate of Samtskhe, who became de facto independent of the kings of Georgia under the protectorate of the Ilkhanate in 1268.
"In the lower register of the south wing, four feudal lords are represented full size, turning to the left (east) to Sabas the Purified, who is depicted standing in an arched aedicule. St. Sabas' figure is executed with iconographical accuracy. (...) The noblemen in front of Saba are members of a powerful feudal family, the Jaqeli. The closest one to Sabas is a white-bearded old man in a church garment. He has a small black hat and is dressed in a long robe and a cloak. He is identified by the accompanying inscription as Sargis Jaqeli (d. 1285), who took monastic vows with the name Sabas. Behind him stands a middle-aged man dressed as a noble holding a church in his hand. This is Beka Jaqeli ( ca. 1240-1306 ), the son of Sargis-Sabas, the mandaturtukhutsesi (chief of police) of the Georgian king. The church he holds in his hand is St. Sabas in Sapara, which he is presenting to St. Sabas. Next to Beka Jaqeli are depicted his sons: Sargis II (governor of Samtskhe 1306-34) and Kvarkvare I (governor of Samtskhe 1334-61)."[41] Full relevant text visible here
"Thus construction of the church of St. Sabas in Sapara was financed by Beka I Jaqeli, and the architect was Parezasdze ( Pareza's son ), who " built the church from its foundations." It was constructed at the end of the thirteenth century."[42]
About the costumes of Khutlubuga and Beka I Jaqeli: "This court dress is identical to that worn by his contemporaries across the region, among them the Georgian nobleman Beka Jaqeli, who built a major church at Sapara monastery in Samtskhe, southern Georgia, about 1300 (fig. 4.6). This painting survives in much better condition than that at Haghpat, and reveals the finery of the court robes at this time: the gold hem of the caftan with tiraz bands on the sleeves (adorned in Kufic); the embroidered undertunic visible at both neck and knees; the heavy adornment of the boots and fur lining of the broad-rimmed cap." in Eastmond, Antony (1 January 2021). Monumental Painting and the Role of Images in Armenia under the Mongols. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. pp. 42–43. ISBN978-1588397379.
These clothes are similar to the fashion of the courtiers as the Mongol court in Tabriz, as they appear in the Great Mongol Shahnamah:
"Many of the courtiers in the Great Mongol Shahnamah, made in Tabriz in the 1330s, wear similar dress. Melville 2002, figs 45, 51"[46] Melville text: [5]
They are wearing a Mongol "cloud collar" around the neck, decorated with pearls, in the style of the Ilkhanate". See "So, the Mongolian court dresses were also decorated with pearl embroidery in the 13th and 14th centuries. That is evidenced by the cloud collars decorated with pearl embroidery on the portraits of the Georgian princely family Djakeli from St. Saba in Sapara Monastery, 1285–1306. (fig.
23), of Ilkhanate origin." in [47] Original in Serbian:[48] See also IA R. G. Suny, The Making of the Georgian Nation, Bloomington 1994, 41, 44, 46–48, 52. See also [49]
Cloud collar "His costume incorporates a curvilinear "cloud collar" around its neckline, which was introduced to Iran by the Mongols and became fashionable in the fifteenth century."[50]
House of Charelidze, Fresco from Sori, Georgia, 14th century
In 1278 the Duchy of Racha was abolished by King David VI Narin during his war against the Mongols. In the mid-14th century, the duchy was restored under the rule of the Charelidze family.[51]
"The paintings at Haghpat were the second set of works at the monastery to change the visual environment of its worshipers. Just before the paintings were commissioned, the monastery had been given another new work of art, a khachkar, which had been commissioned for Khutlu-Buga’s father, Sadun, in 1273 (fig. 4.7). (...) Sadun’s khachkar stands out from most by the inclusion of figural imagery overlying the traditional symbol of the cross, which now becomes a field for a complex narrative that combines the depiction of the Crucifixion with the Descent from the Cross. (...) The phenomenon of figural khachkars was short lived, and only four such examples are known, all dating from the final decades of the thirteenth century. Like the figural paintings, these khachkars seem to reflect new ideas and artistic forms entering traditional Armenian spaces from an outside source." in Eastmond, Antony (1 January 2021). Monumental Painting and the Role of Images in Armenia under the Mongols. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. p. 43. ISBN978-1588397379.
"Illustrations of the biblical Genesis scenes are preserved in a few Georgian manuscripts. These are: Jruchi Psalter, 13th-15th cc. (H-1665); Tetrosani Psalters, 17th c. (H-75); Zhamn-Gulani from Kanchaeti, 1674, (H-1452); Psalter 17th c. (H-2078); these manuscripts are preserved in the National Center of Manuscripts of Georgia".[52]
Jalal al-Din "In March 1226 he captured and pillaged the capital, Tiflis, massacring its population. (...) The conquest of Tiflis by Jalal al-Din was just one episode in a wider context; he poured a mass of troops and civilians (14,000, according to the author of the Georgian chronicle) into the eastern borders of the Caucasus, specifically in the region of Ganja, which was devastated." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 710. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
In 1245, Arghun Aqa divided the vilayet of Georgia into eight dumnas, each supporting 10,000 Mongol soldiers, and ruled by Georgian nobles. > follows details of the dumnas and their appointed rulers in IA Rayfield, Donald (2012). Edge of empires : a history of Georgia. London : Reaktion Books. pp. 126–127. ISBN978-1-78023-030-6.
"The Mongols organized Caucasia into five vilayets (provinces): Georgia (Gurjistan), Greater Armenia, Shirvan, Arran, and Mughan. Georgia was divided into eight tümen. Greater Armenia was composed of “quasi-independent” Armenian principalities, and included the territories of Sasun and Vaspurakan, with Karin/Erzurum at the center." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 714. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
"As stated above, the whole of Caucasia was divided into five provinces, and one of these, Gurjistan (Georgia), was divided to eight tümen, namely eight districts capable of each providing 10,000 men to the Mongol army. Of these tümen, five were Georgian and three were Armenian. (...) The vilayet of Gurjistan was run by the Georgian Crown, which now depended directly upon the Great Khan and governed it through the
Zaka’arid princes (ishkhans) who commanded the tümen. The rest of Greater Armenia was administered, on behalf of the Great Khan, by
a Mongol governor, who could be a general (tamghachi), or, below him, a darughachi (or basqaq), who also exercised wide powers." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 717. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
The Davids "Lasha’s son was crowned king in the Svetitskhoveli Cathedral and sent to the Great Khan’s camp in Qaraqorum to obtain official recognition. David Ulu was held in the Mongol capital for five years, and there he met his cousin, David Narin. Güyük nominated David Ulu as king of the Georgians, and Narin as his coruler. Thus Georgia found itself with two sovereigns who ruled together for a while." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 715. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
Churches "Fiscal exemption was an instrument that the Mongols used regularly as an incentive to insure the church’s collaboration." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 718. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
Baghdad 1264 "Prince Zak’are, son of Shahanshah, participated in the operations against Baghdad in 1258 and the Armenian aristocracy was fully involved as well. Eastern Christianity embraced the conquest of Baghdad by Hülegü’s army as divine revenge.70 The Mongols massacred the Muslim population of the city but spared the Christians.71 Hülegü gave the palace of the Dawadar (vice chancellor) to the Nestorian patriarch Makhika. Kirakos describes the fall of Baghdad in joyful terms and states that all the oriental Christians were exulting because after 647 years the “Muslim tyranny” had finally ended." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 720. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
"The new policy of Abaqa Ilkhan corresponded with the decline of the influence, at court, of the Armenian Zak’arian family, who failed
to collect the required amount of taxes. On the other hand, the Artsrunids – one of the oldest Armenian noble families, which had its own district in Vaspurakan – increased its influence. Sadun Artsruni (d. 1284) was the military commander of Awag Zak’arian and had fought with the Mongol army in Syria." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 721. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
"The paintings were a pious gift, and like Char’s gifts to Goshavank‘, they commemorated an individual. However, this donor chose to be memorialized by a portrait rather than by a text (fig. 4.5). They were commissioned by the nobleman Khutlu-Buga, who is named in Armenian. He is depicted wearing a red caftan with elaborate hems and cuffs and tiraz bands on the sleeves; a crown; and calf-length boots. This court dress is identical to that worn by his contemporaries across the region, among them the Georgian nobleman Beka Jaqeli, who built a major church at Sapara monastery in Samtskhe, southern Georgia, about 1300. This painting survives in much better condition than that at Haghpat, and reveals the finery of the court robes at this time: the gold hem of the caftan with tiraz bands on the sleeves (adorned in Kufic); the embroidered undertunic visible at both neck and knees; the heavy adornment of the boots and fur lining of the broad- rimmed cap."[56]
These clothes are similar to the fashion of the courtiers as the Mongol court in Tabriz, as they appear in the Great Mongol Shahnamah:
"Many of the courtiers in the Great Mongol Shahnamah, made in Tabriz in the 1330s, wear similar dress. Melville 2002, figs 45, 51"[58] Melville text: [8]
Nature of rule "The Arab and Persian sources, however, offer a very different version: Choban’s death and the progressive disintegration of the Ilkhanate produced an inexorable weakening of George’s power and the king was never able to reacquire the lost territories. The Armenian colophons confirm this reconstruction. If, until 1323, George V is described as the king of Georgia and Great Armenia, only a few years later he is awarded the sole title of king of Georgia. From 1332, the name of the sovereign definitively disappears from the Armenian sources. In the late 1330s, Georgia still paid tribute to the ilkhans, but the amount was much lower than had been paid previously.111 According to the Persian Qazw¯nı (ı 1281–1349) – who wrote a geographical survey in 1339–1340 – Georgia paid the Ilkhanid treasury 1,202,000 dinars in 1336." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. p. 725. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
Currency
"In the first half of the fourteenth century, there were two active mints in eastern Georgia: one in Tiflis (Tbilisi) and another in Kahezia, near the border with Shirvan. The currency issued by the two institutes, of which an almost uninterrupted series is preserved – from the Ilkhanate of Abu Said to the mid-fourteenth century – is identical to that issued by Ilkhanid mints in the same period. If George V had achieved independence from the ilkhans, he would never have issued coins in the name of the Mongols. Thus, in the mid-fourteenth century, Tiflis and eastern Georgia were strictly subjects of the Ilkhanate." in Pubblici, Lorenzo (2023). "Georgia and the Caucasus". The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 725–726. ISBN978-1-107-11648-1.
Rat'i Surameli, Duke of Javakheti and Kartli, wearing a sharbush and a front-opening qaba with tiraz, slightly before 1186, Vardzia, southern Georgia, Inv. No. 5246-262.[59]
Georgian warrior icon from Saint Catherine Monastery, Mount Sinai, second half of 13th century.[60]
Georgian soldiers with Mongol bow equipement.
"Beginning with the second third of the thirteenth century, the military equipment and combat style of the Georgians changed under the inluence of the Mongols: the bow was added to the obligatory military equipment. Despite this, the lance remained the basic weapon, losing its old significance only in the latter half of the eighteenth century. Note 68: Mamuka Tsurtsumia, “Sinas mtis tsminda mkhedrebi” [Warrior Saints of Mount Sinai], Kartvelologia 12 (2008), 13–44, p. 32) in Tsurtsumia, Mamuka (1 January 2014). "Couched Lance and Mounted Shock Combat in the East: The Georgian Experience". Journal of Medieval Military History, vol. XII: 93."
"It is interesting that in his recent works, Folda mentions the Mongolian influence in the painting of Sergi's icon, which, in his opinion, is expressed in the oriental style in a quiver and the saint's cloak decorated with chin-taman three points arranged in a triangle" (...) "The most correct opinion should be Lucy-Anna Hunt, who directly says that St. Sergi's Mongol-type quiver should refer to the Mongols and their allied Eastern Christians. Georgians under the influence of Mongolian weapons used just such a quiver with arrows pointing upwards. The Arabic military work written in question-and-answer form "Complete Tips for Training in Military Work" (Nihayat al-Su'l wa'l Umnia fi Ta'lim a'mal al-Furusia)143 provides us with interesting information. About the quiver worn by Georgians: 144 "Question: How to learn about dangers in the dark or in the fog, during poor vision?" Answer: Take a quiver with the arrowheads pointing up, like the Georgians use, and empty it. Put it on the ground, put your head down and you will hear the sound of feet or hooves." In one of the best military treatises of the Islamic East of the Middle Ages, the mention of the box-shaped, funnel-shaped Georgian quiver with arrowheads pointing upwards is very significant, it provides the best argument for our hypothesis and confirms that Georgian equipment was well known in the Arab East. On the icons of Sinai, the quiver is hung on the right side of the girdle, by means of a strap inserted into the two holes of the side bone plates. This method is similar to the Mongolian method, when the quiver was hung with belts embedded in a bone plate, but with the difference that the quiver was attached to the belt in two places. It is no coincidence that M. Gorelik St. Sergi's quiver is included in the list of Mongolian quiver of the 12th-14th centuries. Even in the later era, Georgians hung the quiver with belts on the right side (Fig. 18).": Tsurtsumia, Mamuka (1 January 2008). "სინას მთის წმინდა მხედრები. Warrior Saints from Sinai". ქართველოლოგია (Kartvelian studies), 12: 339-341.
Georgian warriors icon from Saint Catherine Monastery, Mount Sinai, second half of the 13th century.[61]
"This distinct cultural region, often called the "Northern Zone" of China, comprises the interlocking desert, steppe, and forest regions from Heilongjiang and Jilin in the east to Xinjiang in the West."[64]
"It was during the Bronze Age that a distinct northern culture merged. During the latter part of the Shang dynasty (ca. 1200-1050 B.C.), northern China already featured a clearly discernible cultural complex undeniably distinct from that of the Central Plain (Zhongyuan 中原). This Northern Complex cannot be regarded as a single culture; rather different communities shared similar inventory of bronze objects across a wide area. This inventory allows us to establish borad connections with bronze civilizations of North Asia, West Asia, and China." [65]
"Connections between the Northern Zone and South Siberia, in particular the Karasuk and Tagar cultures, are beyond doubt, and it is safe to say that the evolution of pastoral cultures in northern China, while displaying an original and distinctive history, was not an isolated phenomenon." [66]
"Stuart Piggott was the first to draw attention to the similarity of the Shang chariots to the chariot from Lchashen in Armenia, and now this idea has been developed in works by Chinese authors. The main difference in these chariots is the large number of spokes. It is significant that, at the same time, chariots with a large number of spokes appeared in the Karasuk Culture of southern Siberia. On the Karasuk petroglyphs, they have 7, 14 and 17 spokes. In the same period, on the northern periphery of the Shang civilization, the so-called Northern Complex formed, which reflects the Shang interactions with the Karasuk Culture. The similarity of the Shang chariots with the chariot from Lchashen in Armenia may be explained by the fact that the Karasuk Culture was formed as a result of the influence of alien tribes on the local Andronovo substrate. There are many inclusions in the culture with parallels in the Transcaucasia and Iran." [67]
Difficulty in associating with "foreign people" known from Chinese records: "Countless efforts to identify some of die alien peoples (Xianyun 猃狁, Rong 戎, Qiang 羌, and Di 狄 in particular) that figure prominently in pre-Han written records with pastoral nomadic cultures have so far failed to yield firm results." [68]
Spread of iron to China: "Iron metallurgy is likely to have spread in the Northern Zone before its general appearance in the Central Plain, with iron objects found in Xinjiang in the ninth century B.C. and in Inner Mongolia and the northeast by no later than the mid-seventh century B.C."[69]
" In 307 B.C. King Wuling of Zhao, influenced by the nomads, introduced cavalry into his army."[70]
1) The Second Millenium B.C.
"At this early stage the frontier appears to have been a broad belt of cultural transition between the Shang civilization and the bronze cultures of Central Asia and South Siberia. Though northern peoples displayed different cultural traits, such as distinct ceramic objects, burial customs, habitations, and economic structures, certain characteristic elements, such as bronze weapons, became widely adopted throughout the Northern Zone, and this common metallurgical culture was different and independent from that of the Central Plain.[71]
Characteristic weapons are in bronze, especially daggers, knives, axes, mirrors, and a "bow-shaped" object.[72]
"At this early stage the Animal Style is expressed in the Northern Zone mainly in the form of ornamental animal heads in the round attached to the end of knife handles and dagger hilts."[73]
2) Western Zhou to Early Spring and Autumn (ca. 1000-650 B.C.)
Bronze dagger with motifs of horses from the Xiaoheishigou Site, Upper Xiajiadian culture, early 8th Century BCE. Inner Mongolia Museum.[75][76]
Motif of four horses in Animal style (Hilt of bronze dagger, early 8th Century BCE).[75]
3) Mid-Spring and Autumn to Early Warring States (ca. 650-350 B.C.)
Prelude to the rise of the Xiongnu.
"This period witnessed the appearance of fully developed steppe pastoral nomads who may be regarded as the cultural ancestors of the Xiongnu and can be termed "early nomadic." "[77]
"The Saka culture in Xinjiang, the Shajing culture in Gansu, the Ordos complex in Inner Mongolia, and the Upper Xiajiadian culture of Liaoning, all point to a transition from mixed agropastoral to predominantly or exclusively pastoral nomadic cultures. "[78]
John (Yovhannēs), Bishop of Mavleon, then Archbishop of Sis (1259-).[81] He was a younger half-brother of King of Cilician ArmeniaHethoum I (ruled 1226-1270). Father was Constantine of Baberon, mother was named Biatr. He appears as an older man ordaining a deacon in his "Gospel Book of the Archbishop John" (1289) The bottom of his tunic displays an ornate Chinese dragon.[82]Reference
"Archbishop John, the youngest half-brother of King Hetum I, appears as an old man ordaining a deacon in this Gospel Book made for his own use. The hem of his tunic displays an ornate Central Asian Chinese dragon motif from Mongol-controlled lands. The dragon and the fleur-de-lis on his earlier portrait in the Marshal Oshin Gospel Book exemplify Cilicia’s role as a major conduit of trade between the East and West under the Pax Mongolica."[81]Reference
He was one of the two scribes of his own Gospel, the "Gospel Book of Archbishop John", which he completed in 1289, in the first year of the reign of King Hetoum II.[81]
Georgian costumes: Kalandia, Giorgi (Historian, Tbilisi University) (2023). The history of Georgian fashion(PDF). Tbilisi, Georgia: The Art Palace of Georgia (Ministry of Culture, Sport and Youth of Georgia). ISBN978-9941-8-4862-9.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
Restore Shalva Jaqeli with portrait. Also add French article Jaqeli geneology.
Gagik I Artsruni "the figure of King Gagik stands out on the west façade, presenting the model of his church to Christ".[84] " In 910, in the battle of Jknavačaṙ, the armies of Amir Yūsuf and Gagik Arcruni defeated the Bagratid king Smbat I (890–914), Gagik’s uncle, who surrendered himself to Yūsuf, and in 914 was tortured to death and crucified in public in the former capital Duin, the residence of the Arab amirs of that period."[84] "In the portrait of King Gagik on the west façade his robe is decorated with plump birds resembling quails" (...) "The symbol of the quail and of similar birds within decorative circles was often depicted in Sasanian textiles,13 which for a long time had a major influence on Islamic, as well as on the Armenian and Georgian cultures."[84] "Connections between modern Islamic costumes and King Gagik’s mantle have been observed by Georgette Cornu, who suggests that Gagik’s robe can be a siqlāṭūn. Siqlāṭ or siqlāṭūn was one of the high-quality, one-color, silk fabrics produced in Baghdad, Tabaristan, Isfahan, Nishapur, Alexandria,19 as well as in Muslim Spain."[84]
Seated Gagik[85] with his sons : "Gagik is shown feasting with his two sons."[86]
Create Hamazasp I Artsruni [fr] (died 786 against the Arabs) "Hamazasp and Sahak (d. 786): Armenian noblemen of the House of Artsruni who were executed after refusing to convert to Islam Hārūn al-Rashīd (r. 170–93/786–809)"[87]
Discussion of "Iranian Huns" in Dokumente Zur Geschichte Der Iranischen Hunnen In Baktrien Und Indien - VOL IV by Göbl, R. 1967 (Internet Archive), as referenced in Encyclopaedia Iranica (Huns) (with apparently wrong 1978 date)
Cavalrymen on an inlaid brass tray made by Ahmad Ibn Husayn al-Mawsili.Cavalrymen on an inlaid brass tray made by Aḥmad Ibn Ḥusayn al-Mawṣilī for the Rasūlid Sultan Dāwūd of Yemen, Mamlūk Egypt, c.1300–20 AD (Metropolitan Museum of Art, Edward C. Moore Collection, inv. 91.1.602, New York, USA.[10]
^Chernykh, Evgeny (30 December 2008). "The "Steppe Belt" of stockbreeding cultures in Eurasia during the Early Metal Age". Trabajos de Prehistoria. 65 (2): 91, Fig 18. doi:10.3989/tp.2008.08004.
^Balivet, Michel (2002). "Un peuple de l'An Mil: les Turcs vus par leurs voisins". Année mille, an mil (in French). Presses universitaires de Provence. p. 39. ISBN978-2-8218-8285-0.
^ abcShulga, P.I.; Shulga, D.P. (2020). "THE CULTURES OF THE EARLY IRON AGE IN CHINA AS A PART OF THE SCYTHIAN WORLD"(PDF). МАИАСП. 12. doi:10.24411/2713-2021-2020-00004. Until recently, the Yanglang culture was practically unknown to archaeologists in the postSoviet area. It did not attract "Western" researcher's attention although the materials were published there (Bunker 1997: 41—46). The situation changed after elite burials at the Majiayuan burial ground of the 3rd — 2nd centuries BCE excavation. A peculiar Animal style from Majiayuan gave rise to ideas about its indirect links with Saka culture. There were even suggestions about groups of Saka masters penetration into North China. There, these masters allegedly created wonderful decorations in Majiayuan and Xinchuangtou (M30) (Kang 2018: 410). The position of Wu Xiaolong seems to be more balanced; he pointed to the Yanglang culture funeral rite and animal style characteristic features which are clearly visible in Majiayuan (Gansu sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo 2014; Yang, Linduff 2013; Xiaolong 2013). To date, the Yanglang culture is the most representative Scythian culture of the 6th — 3rd centuries in North China. Only there elite burials (Majiayuan) have been identified, and all the "triad" components are present: Animal style, weapons and horse harness. Most of the known Yanglang culture burial grounds are located in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region southern part, as well as in adjacent Qingyang County of Gansu eastern part.
^Hillenbrand 2021, p. 208 harvnb error: no target: CITEREFHillenbrand2021 (help) "The earliest illustrated Persian manuscript, signed by an artist from Khuy in north-west Iran, was produced between 1225 and 1250, almost certainly in Konya. (Cf. A. S. Melikian-Chirvani, ‘Le roman de Varqe et Golsâh’, Arts Asiatiques XXII (Paris, 1970))"
^Cite error: The named reference IR was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
^Ettinghausen, Richard (1977). Arab painting. New York : Rizzoli. p. 91, 92, 162 commentary. ISBN978-0-8478-0081-0. The two scenes in the top and bottom registers (...) may be strongly influenced by contemporary Seljuk Persian (...) like those in the recently discovered Varqeh and Gulshah (p.92) (...) In the painting the facial cast of these Turks is obviously reflected, and so are the special fashions and accoutrements they favored. (p.162, commentary on image from p.91)
^Waley, P.; Titley, Norah M. (1975). "An Illustrated Persian Text of Kalīla and Dimna Dated 707/1307-8". The British Library Journal. 1 (1): 42–61. ISSN0305-5167. JSTOR42553970. A unique Seljùq manuscript in the Topkapi Sarayi Museum Library (Hazine 841) (fig. 7). This manuscript, the romance Varqa va Gulshah, probably dates from the early thirteenth century . The figures in the miniatures with the typical features of Central Asian people are squat and thickset with large round heads. They are to be seen again in a more sophisticated form in the so-called Turkman style miniatures produced in Shiraz c. 1460 – 1502 under the patronage of another dynasty of Turkman invaders.
^Вулета), Tatjana Vuleta (Татјана (1 January 2014). "The Cloud Collars from Lesnovo". Patrimonium.MK 12: 181 and Fig.23. the cloud collars decorated with pearl embroidery on the portraits of the Georgian princely family Djakeli from St. Saba in Sapara Monastery, 1285–1306. (fig.23), of Ilkhanate origin.
^Vuleta, Tatjana (1 January 2014). "The Cloud Collars from Lesnovo". Patrimonium.MK Periodical for Cultural Heritage- Monuments, Restoration, Museums - (Publishing supported by The Ministry of Culture of the Republic of Macedonia). 7: 157–184.
^ abTsurtsumia, Mamuka (1 January 2008). "სინას მთის წმინდა მხედრები. Warrior Saints from Sinai". ქართველოლოგია (Kartvelian studies), 12: 341-342, 346. As already mentioned, Mongolian-type bows were widespread in Georgia from the second half of the 13th century. II1665 David's miniatures clearly show a composite bow with a middle plate seam and a massive insert at the ends, which is depicted on the Sinai icons of St. It is similar to Sergi's bow (Fig. 20). Bow Case (Khilifa). Some information is also provided by the bow of the holy warriors dressed in the sable and placed in its nest; It is during the Mongol period that such (half-bow) shaped shalits spread, where, unlike the earlier ones, bows already stretched or prepared for combat are placed. Georgians, since the arrival of the Mongols, used this type of bow nest, which can be clearly seen on the miniature of David ( Fig. 18).
^Rawson 2020, p. Fig.13, "However, a group of chance finds of animal-headed ornaments in the same style, along with a large bronze knife with a ram (or ibex) head, have come from the Ömnögovi and Övörkhangai regions, which overlap with the Tevsh area (Fig. 13a). These strongly-formed heads all have eyes shaped as short tubes (Erdenechuluun and Erdenebaatar 2011). Many other knives from the Mongolian region (Fig. 13c) have parallels found in the Arc (Fig. 14d). Thus, it seems reasonable to suggest that some knives, such as the one with a stag head at Huayuanzhuang (Fig. 8d), may be copies of or have associations with metalwork from southern Mongolia." Warning: These are chance finds, and have not been directly related to Ulaanzuukh culture burials. They only come from a region where Tevsh culture is also known.. sfn error: no target: CITEREFRawson2020 (help)
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The Yuezhi, with Xiongnu territory and main polities of Asia in 200 BCE
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References
These references will appear in the article, but this list appears only on this page.
Astvatsankal Monastery (Gavit and muqarnas vault with oculus)
Horomos Mausoleum of Aruits (composite)
Harichavank
Gochavank gavit
Ivane color
A colophon from 1292 mention Amir Hasan I and Mongol rule:
{{quote|This book was written in the Armenian calendar year 741 (= 1292), under the rule of the oppresser, of strange appearance and ruthless, which is called Tatar, of the impious race of Cathay, who invaded the whole world because of our sins. And they are so ruthless and cruel that brother kills brother and father kills son, but God's punishment will come.
And this year, because of our sins, divine wrath fell upon Christians, since the cursed people of Muhammad arose from Egypt, came and took possession of the impregnable Horomklay, patriarchal seat, by means of war machines and took prisoner the Catholikos Stephanos and every consecrated object, and destroyed that land and exterminated all the Christians with the sword and slavery, up to Teodosiopoli and, apart from Ani, destroyed the whole country.
This book was written in the region called Vayoc Jor, in the hermitage called Alaw, under the protection of the Mother of Jesus and of Saint George and of other saints, under the priestly guidance of the province of Stepannos, benevolent and philanthropist, and under the government of the sons of the glorious prince of princes Pros, Papak' and Amir Hasan.
And I, the vardapet Mateos, by order and with the support of Amir Hasan, I built the premises of this monastery inhabited by monks, I built the church and zamatun. But this year an indelible pain came, since the prince of princes (isxanac isxan) Amir Hasan passed to Christ with death, and the whole world fell into mourning and sadness, Armenians, Georgians, Abkhaz and Romeans. And he, although he was called "prince
of the princes", was actually inseparable from the kings, all from the good news and the fame of him, so much so that both the distant people sobbed and groaned than those nearby. But he left as lieutenant his son, who he is called Eacci, endowed with all the virtues of his father, who is the Lord May Jesus be preserved for a long time in honor and glory, amen [...]|Colophon of Xalbakeank.[1]
Saladin began his military carreer in the army of Nur ad-Din, during the Zengid conquest Egypt in 1163–1169.[2]
The Tesinsky culture was a culture of the Minusinsks basin, from the 1st century BCE to the 1st century CE.[3] The Tesinsky culture was at the junction between the Tagar culture and the culture of the Xiongnu and the Xianbei, and artistic evolutions can be traced to that period.[4]
"Mais, al-Jāḥiẓ fait allusion ici aux étrangers de façon générale et non pas aux Turcs. Il est encore moins évident que le gouverneur soit un Turc quand on lit comment Ibn Butlān décrivait les esclaves turques au XIe siècle :
«À la peau claire, les femmes turques sont pleines de grâce et d’animation. Elles ont de petits yeux mais séduisants. Elles sont costaudes et elles ont tendance d’être petites de taille. Il n’y a que très peu de grandes femmes entre elles.» p.350
IDENTITY AND ARTIFACTS ON THE NORTH CENTRAL AND NORTHEASTERN FRONTIER DURING THE PERIOD OF STATE EXPANSION IN THE LATE SECOND AND THE EARLY FIRST MILLENNIUM BCE (Cambridge)
The Emergence and Expansion of Bronzes in the Northern Zone of China (Springer Link)
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c.
Zhang, Fan; Ning, Chao; Scott, Ashley (11 November 2021). "The genomic origins of the Bronze Age Tarim Basin mummies". Nature. 599 (7884): 256–261. doi:10.1038/s41586-021-04052-7. Such mummies have now been found throughout the Tarim Basin, among which the earliest are those found in the lowest layers of the cemeteries at Gumugou (2135–1939 bc), Xiaohe (1884–1736 bc) and Beifang (1785–1664 bc) (Fig. 1, Extended Data Fig. 1 and Extended Data Table 1). These and related Bronze Age sites are grouped within the Xiaohe archaeological horizon on the basis of their shared material culture (...) The EMBA individuals from the eastern Tarim sites of Xiaohe and Gumugou (Tarim_EMBA1) form a tight cluster close to pre-Bronze Age central steppe and Siberian individuals who share a high level of ancient North Eurasian (ANE) ancestry
Golden woman of Taksai (Fig.5) Figure 6: Golden man of Baigetobe Andreeva, Petya V. (23 February 2023). "Glittering Bodies: The Politics of Mortuary Self-Fashioning in Eurasian Nomadic Cultures (700 BCE – 200 BCE)". Fashion Theory. 27 (2): 175–204. doi:10.1080/1362704X.2021.1991133.
Khayutina, Maria (2013). Qin: the eternal emperor and his terracotta warriors (1. Aufl ed.). Zürich: Neue Zürcher Zeitung. p. cat. no. 314. ISBN978-3-03823-838-6.
Establishment of a Khanate on the Yenesei river in 840 CE (would be the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate), by defeated the Uyghur Khanate. With the Mongol invasions, were displaved from Siberia to today's Kyrgystan. Conversion to Sunni Islam in the 16th–17th century. 1700s: fell under the weak control of the Kokand Khanate. Vassal state of the Russian Empire from 1868. [18]
From 840, creation of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate, between the Yenesei and Orkhon river, agains the Uyghur Khanate. Central Asia's most powerful state ("Great Kyrgyz") between 840 and 925. Destruction of the original Yenesei Kyrgyz Khanate by the Mongol invasions from 1218. Resettled in the Tian Shan and Xianjiang areas. The Kyrgiz were Conquered by the Four Oirat in 16th century. Became independent from Oirat rule in 1510, and established a Kyrgiz Khanate in 1514 ("In 1510, the Kyrgyz threw off Oirat rule and established a Kyrgyz Khanate in 1514."). Invasion by the "Kalmyks" (?) in 1683–1685... this would be the Dzungar Khanate rather. Followed Kyrgyz dispersion in Xinjiang and Central Asia. Returned to the Tian Shan region after the defeat of the Dzungar Khanate by the Qing Empire in 1758. Lived there under Chinese rule. Kyrgyz diplomatic ties with Russia in 1775. 1830s: a Kyrgyz tribe backed by the Khanate of Kokand conquered all the other Kyrgyz tribe, establishing Uzbek Kokand rule. Entrenchement of Islam as a consequence. 1854: one Kyrgyz trive appeals for Russia protection, so that the Russians built a fort at Pishpek. 1867: placement under Russian protection, againt Kokand. 1870: Kyrgyz revolt against Kokand, Russian invasion and destruction of Kokand. Followed by Kyrgyz jihad against Russian domination, but submission to Russian rule in 1876... Russification and influx of colonists ensued. [19]
Independence from Mongol rule in 1510. Defeat against the Kalmuks (Dzungar Khanate) in the 17th century, Qing dynasty (18th century), and Uzbeks (Kokand Khanate) 18–19th century (intermittently 1710–1876). Four major wars against the Uzbeks in 1845–1873. Russian protection and invasion in 1876. [20]
Establishment of the Yenisei Kyrgyz Khaganate (6–13th century). Destruction of the Uyghur Empire in 840 CE. Defeat by the Khitan Khanate in the 10th century and the Mongol in the 13th, and resettlement in the Tian Shan region. Fell under Chagatai rule. Independence (from the Golden Horde??) in 1510. Invasion by the Dzungar Khanate in 1685. Subjects of the Qing after the defeat of the Dzungars to the Qing in 1758. Then domination by the Kokand Khanate and resistance... [21]
Independence from the Chagatai in 1510, but conquered by the Dzungars in the 1680s.[22]
"Kyrgyz beks" for History of Civilization in Central Asia [24], but also "Kyrgyz Khans": "In particular, there are episodes in the epic Manas concerning the celebration of funerals of the Kyrgyz khan" (p.118) "allies of the Kyrgyz khans in their struggle against foreign conquerors" (p.113)
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Arzhan-2 daggers and knives (Prince and Princess).jpg)
Neolithic stone amulet, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000–3000 BCE
Neolithic necklace, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000–3000 BCE
Neolithic necklace, Dornod, Mongolia, 4000–3000 BCE
Neolithic stone microblades
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), with contemporary cultures in the 6th–5th century BCE![Gold belt plaques in animal style found in Majiayuan M4, Gansu.[19]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Gold_belt_plaques_found_in_Majiayuan_M4%2C_Gansu.jpg/149px-Gold_belt_plaques_found_in_Majiayuan_M4%2C_Gansu.jpg)
Gold belt plaques in animal style found in Majiayuan M4, Gansu.[19]![Gold plate in the form of walking feline found in Majiayuan M3, Gansu.[19] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[20][21]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Gold_plate_in_the_form_of_walking_feline_found_in_Majiayuan_M3%2C_Gansu.jpg/170px-Gold_plate_in_the_form_of_walking_feline_found_in_Majiayuan_M3%2C_Gansu.jpg)
Gold plate in the form of walking feline found in Majiayuan M3, Gansu.[19] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[20][21]![Majiayuan tomb figurines.[22]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Majiayuan_tomb_figurines.jpg/170px-Majiayuan_tomb_figurines.jpg)
Majiayuan tomb figurines.[22]![Gold belt plaques in animal style found in Majiayuan M4, Gansu.[19]](/wiki/File:Gold_belt_plaques_found_in_Majiayuan_M4,_Gansu.jpg)
![Gold plate in the form of walking feline found in Majiayuan M3, Gansu.[19] The animal style of the funeral artifacts in particular connects it to the world of the steppes.[20][21]](/wiki/File:Gold_plate_in_the_form_of_walking_feline_found_in_Majiayuan_M3,_Gansu.jpg)
![Majiayuan tomb figurines.[22]](/wiki/File:Majiayuan_tomb_figurines.jpg)
Rabī cuts his adversary in half. Battle scene, in Varka and Golshah, mid-13th century Seljuk Anatolia.
Rabi wounds Varqa in the thigh. Varka and Golshah, mid-13th century Seljuk Anatolia
Rabi, armoured with lamellar Jawshan cuirass and mail hauberk beneath his tunic, armed with long single-edged sword and large round shield. Supported by infantrymen with kite-shaped shields
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![St Saba's Church in Sapara Monastery was built by Beka I Jaqeli.[44]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Sapara_monastery_1.jpg/120px-Sapara_monastery_1.jpg)
Sapara Monastery, Jaqeli mural.
Zarzma monastery was mainly built by Beka I Jaqeli.![Beka I Jaqeli (ruled 1285–1306), with cloud collar of Ilhanid origin.[45]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Portrait_Beka_I_Jaqeli.jpg/99px-Portrait_Beka_I_Jaqeli.jpg)
![St Saba's Church in Sapara Monastery was built by Beka I Jaqeli.[44]](/wiki/File:Sapara_monastery_1.jpg)
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![Beka I Jaqeli (ruled 1285–1306), with cloud collar of Ilhanid origin.[45]](/wiki/File:Portrait_Beka_I_Jaqeli.jpg)
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![Scaling of fortress walls under cover of archers (Ms H1667), 12th century.[53]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Scaling_of_fortress_walls_under_cover_of_archers._Second_Tetraevangelion_of_Jruchi_%28Ms_H1667%29%2C_fragment_of_folio_186v.jpg/120px-National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Scaling_of_fortress_walls_under_cover_of_archers._Second_Tetraevangelion_of_Jruchi_%28Ms_H1667%29%2C_fragment_of_folio_186v.jpg)
Scaling of fortress walls under cover of archers (Ms H1667), 12th century.[53]![Besieging a city (Ms H1667), 12th century.[54]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Besieging_a_city_with_a_traction_trebuchet_is_crudely_represented._Second_Tetraevangelion_of_Jruchi_%28Ms_H1667%29%2C_f._111r.jpg/120px-National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Besieging_a_city_with_a_traction_trebuchet_is_crudely_represented._Second_Tetraevangelion_of_Jruchi_%28Ms_H1667%29%2C_f._111r.jpg)
Besieging a city (Ms H1667), 12th century.[54]![Psalter H1665, dating from the 2nd half of the 14th century.[55]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Guard_throwing_a_rounded_stone_at_the_assailants._Psalter_H1665%2C_fragment_of_folio_212v.jpg/79px-National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Guard_throwing_a_rounded_stone_at_the_assailants._Psalter_H1665%2C_fragment_of_folio_212v.jpg)
Psalter H1665, dating from the 2nd half of the 14th century.[55]
Psalter, manuscript H1665![Scaling of fortress walls under cover of archers (Ms H1667), 12th century.[53]](/wiki/File:National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Scaling_of_fortress_walls_under_cover_of_archers._Second_Tetraevangelion_of_Jruchi_(Ms_H1667),_fragment_of_folio_186v.jpg)
![Besieging a city (Ms H1667), 12th century.[54]](/wiki/File:National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Besieging_a_city_with_a_traction_trebuchet_is_crudely_represented._Second_Tetraevangelion_of_Jruchi_(Ms_H1667),_f._111r.jpg)
![Psalter H1665, dating from the 2nd half of the 14th century.[55]](/wiki/File:National_Centre_of_Manuscripts_Guard_throwing_a_rounded_stone_at_the_assailants._Psalter_H1665,_fragment_of_folio_212v.jpg)
![Rat'i Surameli, Duke of Javakheti and Kartli, wearing a sharbush and a front-opening qaba with tiraz, slightly before 1186, Vardzia, southern Georgia, Inv. No. 5246-262.[59]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rat%27i_Surameli%2C_Duke_of_Javakheti_and_Kartli%2C_wearing_a_sharbush_and_a_front-opening_qaba_with_tiraz%2C_slightly_before_1186%2C_Vardzia%2C_southern_Georgia%2C_Inv._No._5246-262.jpg/86px-thumbnail.jpg)
Tsotne Dadiani with his parents
Shergil Dadiani, Khobi, 13th century.![Rat'i Surameli, Duke of Javakheti and Kartli, wearing a sharbush and a front-opening qaba with tiraz, slightly before 1186, Vardzia, southern Georgia, Inv. No. 5246-262.[59]](/wiki/File:Rat%27i_Surameli,_Duke_of_Javakheti_and_Kartli,_wearing_a_sharbush_and_a_front-opening_qaba_with_tiraz,_slightly_before_1186,_Vardzia,_southern_Georgia,_Inv._No._5246-262.jpg)
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![Georgian warriors icon from Saint Catherine Monastery, Mount Sinai, second half of the 13th century.[61]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Saint_Sergius_and_Saint_Bacchus%2C_from_Saint_Catherine_Monastery%2C_Mount_Sinai%2C_second_half_of_the_13th_century.jpg/82px-Saint_Sergius_and_Saint_Bacchus%2C_from_Saint_Catherine_Monastery%2C_Mount_Sinai%2C_second_half_of_the_13th_century.jpg)
Georgian warriors icon from Saint Catherine Monastery, Mount Sinai, second half of the 13th century.[61]![Georgian horsemen with Mongol quivers.[62]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Georgian_Illumination_perhaps_from_Psalters_MS_H-1665_Georgian_Cavalry.jpg/83px-Georgian_Illumination_perhaps_from_Psalters_MS_H-1665_Georgian_Cavalry.jpg)
Georgian horsemen with Mongol quivers.[62]![David meeting with Jonathan, with Mongol-style quiver and bowcase. H1665, 83. 182v. National Manuscript Center.[63]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/David_meeting_with_Jonathan._H1665%2C_83._182v._National_Manuscript_Center.jpg/86px-David_meeting_with_Jonathan._H1665%2C_83._182v._National_Manuscript_Center.jpg)
David meeting with Jonathan, with Mongol-style quiver and bowcase. H1665, 83. 182v. National Manuscript Center.[63]![Georgian fighter shooting a composite bow. H1665, p. 199v. National Manuscript Center.[63]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Siege_of_Shechem%2C_Death_of_Abimelech._Fighter_shooting_a_composite_bow_with_a_wide_frontal_plate_in_the_middle_and_a_massive_horn_insert_at_the_ends._David_H1665%2C_p._199v._National_Manuscript_Center_%28detail%29.jpg/85px-thumbnail.jpg)
Georgian fighter shooting a composite bow. H1665, p. 199v. National Manuscript Center.[63]![Georgian warriors icon from Saint Catherine Monastery, Mount Sinai, second half of the 13th century.[61]](/wiki/File:Saint_Sergius_and_Saint_Bacchus,_from_Saint_Catherine_Monastery,_Mount_Sinai,_second_half_of_the_13th_century.jpg)
![Georgian horsemen with Mongol quivers.[62]](/wiki/File:Georgian_Illumination_perhaps_from_Psalters_MS_H-1665_Georgian_Cavalry.jpg)
![David meeting with Jonathan, with Mongol-style quiver and bowcase. H1665, 83. 182v. National Manuscript Center.[63]](/wiki/File:David_meeting_with_Jonathan._H1665,_83._182v._National_Manuscript_Center.jpg)
![Georgian fighter shooting a composite bow. H1665, p. 199v. National Manuscript Center.[63]](/wiki/File:Siege_of_Shechem,_Death_of_Abimelech._Fighter_shooting_a_composite_bow_with_a_wide_frontal_plate_in_the_middle_and_a_massive_horn_insert_at_the_ends._David_H1665,_p._199v._National_Manuscript_Center_(detail).jpg)
Battle of al-Buqaia (1163)
Battle of al-Buqaia (1163)
Louis VII returning from the Crusades
Karasuk culture knives
Shang period Yinxu knives
Karasuk culture bronze rein holders
Shang bronze rein holders, ca. 11th century B.C.![Dagger with an animal head from Bayankhongor Province (Tevsh culture) and jingle-head knife from Zavkhan Province, Mongolia.[74]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Dagger_with_an_animal_head%2C_Tevsh_culture_from_Bayankhongor_Province%2C_Mongolia._Jingle-head_knife_from_Zavkhan_Province%2C_Mongolia.png/91px-Dagger_with_an_animal_head%2C_Tevsh_culture_from_Bayankhongor_Province%2C_Mongolia._Jingle-head_knife_from_Zavkhan_Province%2C_Mongolia.png)
Dagger with an animal head from Bayankhongor Province (Tevsh culture) and jingle-head knife from Zavkhan Province, Mongolia.[74]
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![Dagger with an animal head from Bayankhongor Province (Tevsh culture) and jingle-head knife from Zavkhan Province, Mongolia.[74]](/wiki/File:Dagger_with_an_animal_head,_Tevsh_culture_from_Bayankhongor_Province,_Mongolia._Jingle-head_knife_from_Zavkhan_Province,_Mongolia.png)
![Bronze dagger with motifs of horses from the Xiaoheishigou Site, Upper Xiajiadian culture, early 8th Century BCE. Inner Mongolia Museum.[75][76]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Bronze_Dagger%2C_Early_8th_Century_BC_%2819646452120%29.jpg/120px-Bronze_Dagger%2C_Early_8th_Century_BC_%2819646452120%29.jpg)
Bronze dagger with motifs of horses from the Xiaoheishigou Site, Upper Xiajiadian culture, early 8th Century BCE. Inner Mongolia Museum.[75][76]![Motif of four horses in Animal style (Hilt of bronze dagger, early 8th Century BCE).[75]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Bronze_Dagger%2C_Early_8th_Century_BC_%28Animal_style_horse_motifs%29.jpg/120px-Bronze_Dagger%2C_Early_8th_Century_BC_%28Animal_style_horse_motifs%29.jpg)
Motif of four horses in Animal style (Hilt of bronze dagger, early 8th Century BCE).[75]![Bronze dagger with motifs of horses from the Xiaoheishigou Site, Upper Xiajiadian culture, early 8th Century BCE. Inner Mongolia Museum.[75][76]](/wiki/File:Bronze_Dagger,_Early_8th_Century_BC_(19646452120).jpg){kind=small}
![Motif of four horses in Animal style (Hilt of bronze dagger, early 8th Century BCE).[75]](/wiki/File:Bronze_Dagger,_Early_8th_Century_BC_(Animal_style_horse_motifs).jpg)
![An elk from Longqu (龙渠乡), Zhangye, Shajing culture, 475–221 BCE.[79] Shajing culture.[80]](//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Warring_States_Bronze_Ornamental_Deer_%2810095546815%29.jpg/120px-Warring_States_Bronze_Ornamental_Deer_%2810095546815%29.jpg)
Ornament in the Shape of a Stag, Northeast China, 6th century BCE.
Finial with Wild Ram, Northeast China, 7-6th century BCE.
Short Sword and Sheath with Animal Motifs, Northeast China, 7-6th century BCE.
Harness Jingle with Mounted Hunters, Northeast China, 7-6th century BCE.![An elk from Longqu (龙渠乡), Zhangye, Shajing culture, 475–221 BCE.[79] Shajing culture.[80]](/wiki/File:Warring_States_Bronze_Ornamental_Deer_(10095546815).jpg)
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"the figure of King Gagik stands out on the west façade, presenting the model of his church to Christ".[84] " In 910, in the battle of Jknavačaṙ, the armies of Amir Yūsuf and Gagik Arcruni defeated the Bagratid king Smbat I (890–914), Gagik’s uncle, who surrendered himself to Yūsuf, and in 914 was tortured to death and crucified in public in the former capital Duin, the residence of the Arab amirs of that period."[84] "In the portrait of King Gagik on the west façade his robe is decorated with plump birds resembling quails" (...) "The symbol of the quail and of similar birds within decorative circles was often depicted in Sasanian textiles,13 which for a long time had a major influence on Islamic, as well as on the Armenian and Georgian cultures."[84] "Connections between modern Islamic costumes and King Gagik’s mantle have been observed by Georgette Cornu, who suggests that Gagik’s robe can be a siqlāṭūn. Siqlāṭ or siqlāṭūn was one of the high-quality, one-color, silk fabrics produced in Baghdad, Tabaristan, Isfahan, Nishapur, Alexandria,19 as well as in Muslim Spain."[84]
[85] with his sons 
: "Gagik is shown feasting with his two sons."[86]
"Hamazasp and Sahak (d. 786): Armenian noblemen of the House of Artsruni who were executed after refusing to convert to Islam Hārūn al-Rashīd (r. 170–93/786–809)"[87]
in Drake Boehm, Barbara; Holcomb, Melanie (2016). Jerusalem, 1000-1400: every people under Heaven, [Published in conjunction with "Jerusalem 1000-1400: Every People Under Heaven," on view at The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, from September 26, 2016, through January 8, 2017]. New York : New Haven: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Distributed by Yale University Press. p. 207. ISBN 978-1588395986.
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Map of the Artuqids ( ) and surrounding polities
Kingdom of Georgia (1184-1230)
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._AH_564-589_(1169-1193_CE)_%C3%86_Dirham_(30.1mm,_13.28_g,_6h)._Without_mint-name._Dated_AH_586_(AD_1190-91)._Sultan_sitting_facing,_cross-legged,_on_high-backed_throne_(obverse).jpg)
