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List of massacres in Turkey

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The following is a list of massacres that occurred in Anatolia and the Zagros Mountains (numbers may be approximate, as estimates vary greatly):

Antiquity

[edit]
Name Date Location Deaths Responsible Party Victims Notes
Fall of Miletus 494 BC Miletus Most Milesian men Persian Empire Greeks [1]
Battle of Aegospotami 405 BC Aegospotami 3,000 Sparta Athenian sailors 3,000 Athenian sailors executed
Fall of Sestos 353 BC Sestos All males of Sestos Athens Greeks
Asiatic Vespers 88 BC Asia (Roman province) 80,000–150,000 Mithridates VI of Pontus Romans and Italians [2][3]

Middle Ages

[edit]
Name Date Location Deaths Responsible Party Victims Notes
Nika Revolt January 532 Constantinople 30,000 Byzantine Empire Byzantines About thirty thousand rioters were reportedly killed.[4]
Sack of Amorium August 838 Amorium 30,000–70,000[5] Abbasid Caliphate Byzantines
Battle of Levounion 29 April 1091 Enez tens of thousands[6] Byzantine Empire & Cumans Pechenegs The Pechenegs consisting of 80,000 warriors and their families invaded the Byzantine Empire. Near Enez they were ambushed by a combined Byzantine and Cuman army, fighting soon turned into wholesale slaughter. Warriors and civilians were killed and the Pecheneg people were nearly wiped out.[6]
Siege of Antioch 3 June 1098 Antioch Muslim and Christian population Crusaders Muslim and Christian population
Massacre of the Latins May 1182 Constantinople Uncertain – tens of thousands Byzantine mob Roman Catholics The bulk of the Latin community, estimated at over 60,000 at the time, was wiped out or forced to flee; some 4,000 survivors were sold as slaves to the Turks. The massacre further worsened relations and increased enmity between the Western and Eastern Christian churches, and a sequence of hostilities between the two followed.
Siege of Constantinople (1204) 8–13 April 1204 Constantinople many civilians killed[7] Crusaders Byzantines The city was sacked and looted.
Fall of Constantinople 1453 Constantinople 4,000[8][9] Ottomans Byzantines 4,000 persons of both sexes and all ages were massacred during these days. Moreover, the dwellings and the churches were plundered. Some 30,000 were enslaved.[9]
Siege of Trebizond 1461[10] Trabzon Ottomans Trebizonds

Ottoman Empire

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Before 1914

[edit]
Name Date Location Deaths Responsible Party Victims Notes
Massacres during the Greek War of Independence 1821–1829 Ottoman Empire Unknown Ottoman government Greeks
Massacres of Badr Khan 1840 Hakkari 4,000 Kurdish Emirs of Bhutan, Badr Khan and Nurullah Assyrians Many who were not killed were sold into slavery. 1826 Janissaries massacred by government (link to Auspicious Incident).
Hamidian massacres 1894–1896 Eastern Ottoman Empire 80,000–300,000[11] Ottoman Empire
Hamidiye,
Turkish, Kurdish tribes 		Armenians
Massacres of Diyarbakır (1895) 1895 Diyarbakır Vilayet 25,000 Young Turks and Kurdish irregulars Armenians and Assyrians
Adana massacre April 1909 Adana Vilayet 20,000 local Turkish nationalist activist, conservative reactionary to Young Turk government Armenians
Ethnic cleansing of Turks in Edirne during First Balkan War[12] October 1912-June 1913 Edirne Vilayet 5,000 (excluding Edeköy Massacre)[13] Bulgarian army Turks
Havsa Massacre 1912 Havsa in Edirne Vilayet 10 Bulgarian army Turks Turkish quarter was almost entirely burnt.[14]
Edeköy Massacre November 1912 Edeköy (nowadays Kadıdondurma) in Edirne Vilayet Thousands[15] Bulgarian army Turks Many incidents of torture and robbery.[15]
Destruction of Thracian Bulgarians 1913 Thrace; Bulgarköy, Edirne[16] 60,000[17][18] Young Turk government, Ottoman army Bulgarians

World War I (1914–1918)

[edit]
Name Date Location Deaths Responsible Party Victims Notes
Greek genocide[19][20][21][22] 1917–1922 Ottoman Empire 300,000–900,000 Young Turk government Greeks Reports detail massacres, deportations, individual killings, rapes, burning of entire Greek villages, destruction of Greek Orthodox churches and monasteries, drafts for "Labor Brigades", looting, terrorism and other atrocities.[23][24]
Seyfo[25] 1914–1918 Ottoman Empire and Persia 275,000 Young Turk government and Kurdish tribes Assyrians Denied by the Turkish government.
Armenian genocide 1915–1917 Ottoman Empire 600,000-1,500,000 Young Turk government and Kurdish tribes Armenians The Armenians of the eastern regions of the empire were massacred. The Turkish government currently denies the genocide.[26][27][28] It is the second most publicised case of genocide after the Holocaust.[29]
Massacres in Eastern Anatolia 1914-1918 Eastern Anatolia 128,000-600,000[30] Russian Army and possibly Armenian irregulars Muslim population (Turks and Kurds) According to J. Rummel, 128,000-600,000 Muslim Turks and Kurds were killed (death toll includes death by famine and diseases) by Russian troops and possibly Armenian irregulars during World War I.[30]
Massacres in the Çoruh River valley 1916[31] Çoruh River valley 45,000[31] Cossack regiments Muslim population (Turks and Kurds) During WWI, Russian "General Liakhov, for instance 'accused the Muslims of treachery, and sent his Cossacks from Batum with orders to kill every native at sight, and burn every village and every mosque. And very efficiently had they performed their task, for as we passed up the Chorokh valley to Artvin not a single habitable dwelling or a single living creature did we see.'"[31]
Massacres against Kurdish civilians 1915-1918[32][33] Ottoman Empire 600,000-700,000[34][32][33][35] Assyrian and Armenian irregulars led by Agha Petros Kurds In 1914, the Russians defeated the Ottoman Army. Then using the help provided by the Armenians and Assyrian irregular military forces, they penetrated deep into Anatolia and invaded major Kurdish cities. It is estimated that more than 600,000 Kurds lost their lives between 1915 and 1918.[32][33][34][35]
Urmia Massacres[36] 1918 Ottoman Empire and Persia 140,000-145,000 [37] [38] Assyrian and Armenian forces[38] Kurds and Turks[38] The Muslims living in Khoy, Salmas and Urmia faced massacres committed by Christians (Armenians and Assyrians) during March-April of 1918[39]

Post-World War I (1919–1923)

[edit]
Main article: List of massacres during the Greco-Turkish War (1919–22)
Name Date Location Deaths Responsible Party Victims Notes
Massacre in Marash 1920 Marash, Aleppo Vilayet 5,000–12,000 Turks Armenians [40][41][42]
Kahyaoğlu Farm Massacre [tr] June 11, 1920 Yeşiloba, Adana Vilayet 64+ to ~200 Armenians Turks Report which was given to Mustafa Kemal Pasha included 43 men, 21 women and tens of children. Other estimates are up to 200.[43]
Karadeniz massacre January 28–29, 1921 waters of the Black Sea 15 Kemalists/Committee of Union and Progress (disputed) Communist Party of Turkey

Republic of Turkey (1923–present)

[edit]
Name Date Location Deaths Responsible Party Victims Notes
Diyarbakir massacre 1925 Diyarbakir Province, Elazığ Province 15,200 (206 villages destroyed) Turkish security forces Kurds Part of Deportations of Kurds between 1916 and 1934.[44]
Zilan massacre July 1930 Van Province 5,000–15,000 Turkish security forces Kurds 5,000 women, children, and elderly people were reportedly killed[45]
1934 Thrace pogroms 21 June-4 July 1934 Thrace 1 Local people Jews Over 15,000 Jews had to flee from region[46]
Dersim rebellion Summer 1937-Spring 1938 Tunceli Province 13,806–70,000[47] Turkish security forces Alevi Kurds/Zazas The killings have been condemned by some as an ethnocide or genocide[48][49]
Zini Rift Massacre 6 August 1938 Erzincan Province 95 Turkish security forces Kurds [50][51][52][53]
Muğlalı incident July 1943 Van Province 32 Turkish security forces Kurds 33 Kurdish villagers were extrajudicially executed by General Mustafa Muğlalı for allegedly smuggling livestock, one of them escaped.[54][55][56]
Karahan village massacre October 1944 Van Province 6 Turkish security forces Kurds 6 Kurdish villagers were extrajudicially executed by General Mustafa Muğlalı. This was the second massacre of Muğlalı, with the possibility of more uncovered massacres having been committed.[57]
Istanbul pogrom 6–7 September 1955 Istanbul 13–30[58] Turkish government[59] primarily Greeks, as well as Armenians, Jews The killings are identified as genocidal by Alfred-Maurice de Zayas.[60] Many of the non-Muslim minorities, mostly Greek Christians, forced to leave Turkey. Several churches are demolished by explosives.
Taksim Square massacre May 1, 1977 Taksim Square in Istanbul 34[61]-42[62] Some unidentified armed people Leftist demonstrators, civilians
Beyazıt massacre March 16, 1978 Istanbul 7 Grey Wolves, Turkish deep state (alleged) Leftist university students Cemil Sönmez, Baki Ekiz, Hatice Özen, Abdullah Şimşek, Murat Kurt, Hamdi Akıl and Turan Ören were killed and 41 others were injured by a bomb that was followed by gunfire March 16, 1978.
Ümraniye massacre March 17, 1978 Ümraniye in Istanbul 5 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist Grey Wolves affiliated workers Grey Wolves claim that the victims were badly tortured.[63] Reaction to the aforementioned Beyazıt massacre.
Malatya massacre April 17, 1978 Malatya Province 8 Grey Wolves, Salafists Alevi Turks Grey Wolves and salafists attacked Alevi regions of city after assassination of Hamit Fendoğlu [tr] leaving 8 dead, including 3 children and 100 wounded. 1000 shops were looted and destroyed.[64]
Balgat massacre August 10, 1978 Çankaya, Ankara 5 Grey Wolves Civilians (claimed that they were leftist)
Bahçelievler massacre October 9, 1978 Bahçelievler, Ankara 7[65] Grey Wolves Workers' Party of Turkey member students
Maraş massacre December 19–26, 1978 Kahramanmaraş Province 109[66] Grey Wolves[66] Alevi Kurds
Piyangotepe massacre May 16, 1979 Keçiören in Ankara 7 Grey Wolves Civilians [citation needed]
Adana high school massacre September 19, 1979 Adana Construction Vocational High School 6 Communist Party of Turkey/Marxist–Leninist Grey Wolves affiliated teachers Müslüm Teke, Yılmaz Kızılay, Davut Korkmaz, Ahmet Güleç, Özcan Doruk and Mustafa Karaca were killed by 2 Leftist men. Reaction to the aforementioned Maraş massacre where the Grey Wolves killed more than a hundred civilians.[63][67][68]
Çorum massacre May–July, 1980 Çorum Province 57[69] Grey Wolves Alevi Turks
Ortabağ massacre [tr] January 23, 1987 Uludere in Şırnak Province 8 PKK Civilians [70][71]
Pınarcık massacre June 20, 1987 Pınarcık in Mardin Province 30 JİTEM/PKK (disputed) Civilians
Çevrimli massacre [tr] June 11, 1990 Güçlükonak in Şırnak Province 27 PKK Civilians In the massacre, 27 people were killed, 12 were children and 7 were women. 4 village guards died in clashes with PKK members, 1 PKK member was killed.[72][73][74]
Çetinkaya Store massacre [tr] December 25, 1991 Bakırköy in Istanbul 11 PKK Civilians The PKK attacks a store in the Bakırköy district with Molotov cocktails, resulting in 11 deaths, including 7 women and 1 child.[73][75]
Cevizdalı massacre October 21, 1992 Cevizdalı in Bitlis Province 30 PKK Civilians Cevizdali village of Bitlis was raided during the nighttime, PKK militias killed 30 people, including 8 children, and wounded 20 others. Militias then burned whole the village by the news they received that soldiers are on the way to the village.[76]
Sivas massacre[77]

(aka Madımak massacre)

July 2, 1993 Sivas 35 (+2 perpetrators) Salafists, Grey Wolves Alevi and leftist intellectuals
Başbağlar massacre July 5, 1993 Başbağlar, near Erzincan 33 JİTEM/PKK (disputed)[78] Civilians
Digor massacre [tr] August 14, 1993 Digor, Kars 17 Turkish security forces Kurdish Civilians Opened fire on Kurdish villagers by the Special Operation Department. 17 villagers including 7 children were killed and 63 were injured.[79]
Vartinis massacre October 3, 1993 Vartinis, Muş province 9 Turkish Armed Forces Civilians
Lice massacre October 20–23, 1993 Lice in Diyarbakır Province 30+ Turkish Armed Forces Kurdish Civilians Turkish security forces attacked the town of Lice, destroying 401 houses, 242 shops and massacring more than thirty civilians, and leaving 100 wounded.[80]
Yavi Massacre[81] October 25, 1993 Yavi, Çat, Erzurum Province 38 PKK Civilians
Ormancık massacre January 21, 1994 Ormancık, Savur, Mardin Province 19 PKK Village guards and affiliated civilians The massacre may have been a chemical attack.[82][83]
Kuşkonar and Koçağılı massacre March 23, 1994 Kuşkonar and Koçağılı villages, Şırnak 38[84] Turkish Air Force Kurdish Civilians The government bombed and killed residents of villages who refused to join the government forces. The government spread pictures of dead children in newspapers and blamed the PKK. Turkey was condemned for carrying out the massacre of Kurdish civilians in the ECHR.
Gazi Quarter massacre March 15, 1995 Istanbul and Ankara 23[85] JİTEM, Turkish deep state (alleged) Alevis More than 400 injured[85]
Güçlükonak massacre [tr] February 15, 1996 Güçlükonak in Şırnak province 11 JİTEM Civilians [86][87][88][89]
Blue Market massacre March 13, 1999 Istanbul 13 PKK Civilians [90]
Operation Back to Life December 19, 2000 Turkey 32 Turkish security forces Leftist prisoners Deaths include 30 prisoners and 2 soldiers[91]
Diyarbakır events of March 2006 [tr] March 28–31, 2006 Diyarbakır 14 Turkish security forces Protesters 14 Kurdish civilians including 6 children, 4 of them under the age of 10 were killed by the security forces in protests[92]
Zirve Publishing House massacre April 18, 2007 Malatya 3 Islamists German Christians [93]
Mardin engagement ceremony massacre May 4, 2009 Bilge, Mardin 44[94] Village Guards Civilians Reuters said it was "one of the worst attacks involving civilians in Turkey's modern history", declaring that the scale of the attack had shocked the nation.[95]
Roboski airstrike December 28, 2011 Uludere in Şırnak Province 34[84] Turkish Air Force Kurdish Civilians Warplanes killed who had been involved in smuggling gasoline and cigarettes in the area, villagers during an operation meant to target Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) rebels. The government gave no information about the facts.[96][97][98]
Suruç bombing July 20, 2015 Suruç in Şanlıurfa Province 34 ISIL Socialist Party of the Oppressed member university students
2015 Ankara bombings October 10, 2015 Ankara 109 ISIL Protesters, civilians
Cizre basement massacre February 7, 2016 Cizre, Şırnak +178 Turkish Armed Forces Kurdish Civilians 178 civilians, dozens of them children, some of them as young as 9 were burnt alive in three basements.[99][100] Turkish government reacted to the massacre by calling it "baseless terror propaganda", and covering it up by flattening the ruins and filling the basements up with rubble.[101]
February 2016 Ankara bombing February 17, 2016 Ankara 30 TAK Civilian employees of Turkish Armed Forces and soldiers
March 2016 Ankara bombing March 13, 2016 Ankara 38 TAK Civilians
2016 Atatürk Airport attack June 28, 2016 Atatürk Airport, Istanbul 45 ISIL Civilians
2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt July 15–16, 2016 Turkey (Mainly Istanbul, Ankara, Malatya, Kars and Marmaris) 270–350[102] Peace at Home Council Civilians and soldiers Turkey witnessed the bloodiest coup attempt in its political history on July 15, 2016, when a section of the Turkish military launched a coordinated operation in several major cities to topple the government[103]
2017 Istanbul nightclub attack January 1, 2017 Istanbul 39 ISIS Civilians A gunman opened fire in the Reina Nightclub during New Year celebrations
2021 Konya massacre July 30, 2021 Meram district, Konya Province 7 Mehmet Altun Kurds
[edit]
  • Aftermath of the massacres at Erzurum (1895)
    Aftermath of the massacres at Erzurum (1895)
  • An Armenian town left pillaged and destroyed, during the Adana massacre
    An Armenian town left pillaged and destroyed, during the Adana massacre
  • Photo taken after the Smyrna fire. The text inside indicates that the photo had been taken by representatives of the Red Cross in Smyrna
    Photo taken after the Smyrna fire. The text inside indicates that the photo had been taken by representatives of the Red Cross in Smyrna
  • Armenian woman kneeling beside dead child in field "within sight of help and safety at Aleppo"
    Armenian woman kneeling beside dead child in field "within sight of help and safety at Aleppo"

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Herodotus 6.19.3;
  2. ^ Valerius Maximus 9.2.3; Memnon 22.9.
  3. ^ Plutarch, 24.4.
  4. ^ This is the number given by Procopius, Wars (Internet Medieval Sourcebook.)
  5. ^ Treadgold, Warren T. (1988). The Byzantine Revival, 780–842. Stanford: Stanford University Press. ISBN 0-8047-1462-2.
  6. ^ a b Grumeza, Ion (2010). The Roots of Balkanization: Eastern Europe C.E. 500–1500. University Press of America. p. 35. ISBN 9780761851356.
  7. ^ Claster, Jill N. (2009). Sacred Violence: The European Crusades to the Middle East, 1095–1396. University of Toronto Press. p. 35. ISBN 9781442600584.
  8. ^ Philippides, Marios (2007). Mehmed II the Conqueror and the fall of the Franco-Byzantine Levant to the Ottoman Turks : some western views and testimonies. Tempe, Ariz.: ACMRS/Arizona Center for Medieval and Renaissance Studies. p. 197. ISBN 978-0866983464.
  9. ^ a b Fuller, J.F.C. (1987). A military history of the Western World ([Da Capo Press pbk. ed.]. ed.). New York, N.Y.: Da Capo Press. p. 522. ISBN 0306803046.
  10. ^ William Miller, Trebizond: The last Greek Empire of the Byzantine Era: 1204–1461, 1926 (Chicago: Argonaut, 1969), p. 106
  11. ^ Akçam, Taner. A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide and the Question of Turkish Responsibility. New York: Metropolitan Books, 2006, p. 42. ISBN 0-8050-7932-7.
  12. ^ "Report of the International Commission to inquire into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. [Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Division of Intercourse and Education, Publication No. 4.] (Washington, D. C.: Published by the Endowment. 1914. Pp. 413.)". The American Historical Review. April 1915. doi:10.1086/ahr/20.3.638. ISSN 1937-5239.
  13. ^ Hamza, Jusuf, 1945- (1995). Mladoturskata revolucija vo Osmanskata imperija. Skopje: Logos-a. ISBN 9989-601-21-6. OCLC 40838454.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  14. ^ Report of the International Commission to Inquire Into the Causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. 1914.
  15. ^ a b "Rum çetelerinin karanlıkta kalan soykırımı: Edeköy Katliamı". Sabah (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-10.
  16. ^ "Carnegie Endowment for International peace, Report to inquire into the causes and Conduct of the Balkan Wars. CHAPTER III. Bulgarians, Turks and Servians, 2. Thrace, p.130-131".
  17. ^ Carnegie (1914). Report of the international commission to inquire into the causes and conduct of the Balkan Wars. Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace
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  19. ^ IAGS Resolution on Genocides committed by the Ottoman Empire retrieved via the Internet Archive (PDF), International Association of Genocide Scholars, archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-04-28
  20. ^ "Genocide Resolution approved by Swedish Parliament — full text containing the IAGS resolution and the Swedish Parliament resolution from". news.am. Retrieved 2013-06-24.
  21. ^ Gaunt, David. Massacres, Resistance, Protectors: Muslim-Christian Relations in Eastern Anatolia during World War I. Piscataway, New Jersey: Gorgias Press, 2006.
  22. ^ Schaller, Dominik J; Zimmerer, Jürgen (2008). "Late Ottoman genocides: the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire and Young Turkish population and extermination policies – introduction". Journal of Genocide Research. 10 (1): 7–14. doi:10.1080/14623520801950820. S2CID 71515470.
  23. ^ The New York Times Advanced search engine for article and headline archives (subscription necessary for viewing article content).
  24. ^ Alexander Westwood and Darren O'Brien, Selected bylines and letters from The New York Times Archived 2007-06-07 at the Wayback Machine, The Australian Institute for Holocaust and Genocide Studies, 2006
  25. ^ Travis, Hannibal (2006). ""Native Christians Massacred": The Ottoman Genocide of the Assyrians during World War I". Genocide Studies and Prevention. 1 (3): 327–371. doi:10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055.
  26. ^ "Council of Europe Parliamentary Assembly Resolution". Armenian genocide. Retrieved 25 March 2013.
  27. ^ Ferguson, Niall (2006). The War of the World: Twentieth-Century Conflict and the Descent of the West. New York: Penguin Press. p. 177. ISBN 1-59420-100-5.
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  29. ^ Rummel, RJ (1 April 1998), "The Holocaust in Comparative and Historical Perspective", The Journal of Social Issues, 3 (2)
  30. ^ a b J. Rummel, Rudolph (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. LIT Verlag Münster. pp. 82, 83. ISBN 9783825840105.
  31. ^ a b c Gerwarth, Robert; Horne, John (2012). War in Peace: Paramilitary Violence in Europe After the Great War. Oxford University Press. p. 176. ISBN 9780199654918.
  32. ^ a b c McDowall, David (2021-03-25). A Modern History of the Kurds. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-0-7556-0077-9.
  33. ^ a b c Haner, Murat (2017-09-11). The Freedom Fighter: A Terrorist's Own Story. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-351-59141-6.
  34. ^ a b Blincoe, Robert (1979-06-01). Ethnic Realities and the Church (Second Edition): Lessons from Kurdistan. William Carey Publishing. ISBN 978-0-87808-049-6.
  35. ^ a b Eller, Jack David (1999). From Culture to Ethnicity to Conflict: An Anthropological Perspective on International Ethnic Conflict. University of Michigan Press. p. 160. ISBN 978-0-472-08538-5.
  36. ^ "The Executive Power of the Sabail District Azerbaijan State Pedagogical University New Azerbaijan Party's Sabail District Organization"": url https://westaz.org/storage/postFile/Genocide_of_Azerbaijanis_12-09-2023_11-47-49.pdf". 10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055. doi:10.3138/YV54-4142-P5RN-X055. {{cite journal}}: External link in |title= (help)
  37. ^ The land of Zoroaster | First: Dehghan | Last: Ali | Page: 539
  38. ^ a b c 2021, p. 106
  39. ^ . p. 97 https://westaz.org/storage/postFile/Genocide_of_Azerbaijanis_12-09-2023_11-47-49.pdf. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help)
  40. ^ Levene, Mark (2013). Devastation. Oxford University Press. p. 227. ISBN 9780191505546.
  41. ^ Kerr, Stanley Elphinstone (1973). The Lions of Marash. SUNY Press. pp. 195–196. ISBN 9781438408828.
  42. ^ Un épisode de la tragédie arménienne: le massacre de Marache
  43. ^ YURTSEVER, Cezmi (2015). Katliamın Tanığı Yeşiloba. pp. 4–22.
  44. ^ Üngör, Ugur Ümit (2011), The making of modern Turkey : nation and state in Eastern Anatolia, 1913-1950, Oxford University Press, p. 129, ISBN 9780199603602
  45. ^ Ahmet Kahraman, ibid, pp. 207–208. (in Turkish)
  46. ^ Guttstadt, Corry (2013). Turkey, the Jews, and the Holocaust. Cambridge University Press. pp. 65–66. ISBN 9780521769914. OCLC 870196866.
  47. ^ "Dersim massacre monument to open next month". Today's Zaman. 24 October 2012. Archived from the original on 21 December 2013. Retrieved June 6, 2013.
  48. ^ The Suppression of the Dersim Rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) Archived 2016-01-08 at the Wayback Machine Excerpts from: Martin van Bruinessen, "Genocide in Kurdistan? The suppression of the Dersim rebellion in Turkey (1937–38) and the chemical war against the Iraqi Kurds (1988)", in: George J. Andreopoulos (ed), Conceptual and historical dimensions of genocide. University of Pennsylvania Press, 1994, pp. 141–170.
  49. ^ İsmail Besikçi, Tunceli Kanunu (1935) ve Dersim Jenosidi, Belge Yayınları, 1990.
  50. ^ "1938 Dersim Olayları: 'Zini' gün yüzüne çıkıyor! | Gündem Haberleri". 2015-07-15. Archived from the original on 2015-07-15. Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  51. ^ "Zini Gediği katliamına soruşturma". www.demokrathaber.org (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
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  53. ^ Mynet (28 September 2011). "Zini Gediği Katliamı'na soruşturma". Mynet YurtHaber (in Turkish). Retrieved 2020-03-08.
  54. ^ oran, süleyman arif (2017-12-18). "TEKKEDE ZAMAN Üsküdar'da Rifâî Sandıkçı Dergâhı ve Vukuât-ı Tekâya, Muharrem Varol, İstanbul, Dergah Yay., 2017, 284 s." Sakarya Üniversitesi İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi (SAUIFD). doi:10.17335/sakaifd.349943. ISSN 2146-9806.
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  56. ^ Aras, Ramazan (2013-11-12). The Formation of Kurdishness in Turkey: Political Violence, Fear and Pain. Routledge. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-134-64871-9.
  57. ^ "Muğlalı'nın gizli kalan ikinci 33 Kurşun Katliamı".
  58. ^ Λιμπιτσιούνη, Ανθή Γ. "Το πλέγμα των ελληνοτουρκικών σχέσεων και η ελληνική μειονότητα στην Τουρκία, οι Έλληνες της Κωνσταντινούπολης της Ίμβρου και της Τενέδου" (PDF). University of Thessaloniki. p. 29.
  59. ^ Mills, Amy (2010). Streets of memory : landscape, tolerance, and national identity in Istanbul. Athens: University of Georgia Press. p. 119. ISBN 9780820335735. ...the state-led local violence that shattered neighborhoods across Istanbul in 1955 made ethnic-religious difference visible and divisive as Greeks and other minorities in the city were targeted and their property violated.
  60. ^ Alfred de Zayas publication about the Istanbul Pogrom "The Istanbul Pogrom of 6–7 September 1955 in the Light of International Law - Genocide Studies and Prevention - Volume 2, Number 2 / August 2007 - University of Toronto Press". Archived from the original on 2013-01-28. Retrieved 2013-06-07.
  61. ^ Özcan, Emine (2006-04-28). "1977 1 Mayıs Katliamı Aydınlatılsın". bianet (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2011-08-07.
  62. ^ Mavioglu, Ertugrul; Sanyer, Ruhi (2007-05-02). "30 yıl sonra kanlı 1 Mayıs (4)". Radikal (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2007-09-30.
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