Laz grammar
| Laz people |
|---|
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Laz is a Kartvelian language. It is sometimes considered as a southern dialect of Zan languages, the northern dialect being the Mingrelian language.
Today, the area where Laz is spoken stretches from the village Sarpi of Khelvachauri district in Georgia to the village Kemer of Rize province in Turkey. Laz is spoken also in Western Turkey in the villages created by Laz muhajirs in 1877–1878. In Georgia, out of Sarpi, the Laz language islets were also in Abkhazia, but the fate of them is obscure at present.
Laz is divided into three dialects: Khopa-Chkhala, Vitze-Arkabe and Atina-Artasheni. Dialectical classification is mainly conditioned by phonetic characteristics. More specifically, the crucial point is the reflexes of the Kartvelian phoneme [qʼ], which is maintained only in the Khopa-Chkhala dialect but has different reflections in Vitze-Arkabe and Atina-Artasheni dialects (see below).
Phonology and writing system
[edit]Vowels
[edit]Laz vowel inventory consists of five sounds: a, e, i, o, u.
| front | back | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| nonlabial | labial | ||
| high | i [i] | u [u] | |
| mid | e [ɛ] | o [ɔ] | |
| low | a [ɑ] | ||
Consonants
[edit]The consonant inventory of Laz varies among the dialects. A full set of sounds is present in the Khopa-Chkhala dialect, while the Vitze-Arkabe and Atina-Artasheni dialects lost glottalized uvular q.
| labial | dental | alveolar | velar | uvular | laryngeal | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| nasals | m ⟨m⟩ | n ⟨n⟩ | ||||||
| stops | voiced | b ⟨b⟩ | d ⟨d⟩ | ɡ ⟨g⟩ | ||||
| voiceless | aspirated | p ⟨p⟩ | t ⟨t⟩ | k ⟨k⟩ | ||||
| glottalized | pʼ ⟨p̌⟩ | tʼ ⟨t̆⟩ | kʼ ⟨ǩ⟩ | qʼ ⟨q⟩ | ||||
| affricates | voiced | d͡z ⟨ž⟩ | d͡ʒ ⟨c⟩ | |||||
| voiceless | aspirated | t͡s ⟨ʒ⟩ | t͡ʃ ⟨ç⟩ | |||||
| glottalized | t͡sʼ ⟨ǯ⟩ | t͡ʃʼ ⟨ç̌⟩ | ||||||
| fricatives | voiced | v ⟨v⟩ | z ⟨z⟩ | ʒ ⟨j⟩ | ɣ ⟨ğ⟩ | |||
| voiceless | f ⟨f⟩ | s ⟨s⟩ | ʃ ⟨ş⟩ | x ⟨x⟩ | h ⟨h⟩ | |||
| liquids | l ⟨l⟩ | r ⟨r⟩ | ||||||
| glides | j ⟨y⟩ | |||||||
Phonological processes
[edit]Uvular q sound change
[edit]Glottalized uvular q is preserved only in the Khopa-Chkhala dialect before the vowels and the consonants v and l. This sound is also evidenced after glottalized stops and affricates in several words, such as p̌qorop (I love smb./sth.); ǩqorop (I love you); t̆qubi (twins), ǯqv-/ǯqvin- (to reconcile); ç̌qint̆i (fresh-soft and unripe). But in the most of cases *t̆q → t̆ǩ; *ǯq → ǯǩ; *ç̌q → ç̌ǩ.
In the Vitze-Arkabe dialect, in the neighborhood of consonants *q → ǩ (exception is the verb ovapu ← *oqvapu "to be"). In the word-initial prevocalic and in the intervocalic positions *q → ∅.
In Atina-Artasheni dialect:
- in word-initial prevocalic position q → ∅. E.g. *qoropa → oropa "love", *qona → ona "cornfield" etc.
- in intervocalic position *q → y/∅. E.g. *loqa → *loʔa → loya/loa "sweet", *luqu → *luʔu → luu "cabbage" etc.
- word-initial qv → ǩv/v. E.g. qvali → ǩvali/vali "cheese, *qvaci → ǩvaci/vaci "testicle" etc.
- intervocalic qv → y. E.g. *oqvapu → oyapu "to be/become", *iqven → iyen "s/he will be/become" etc.
- in all other cases q → ∅
Regressive assimilation
[edit]The most common types are:
- regressive voicing:
- s → z
- t → d
- k → g
- ş → j
- ç → c
- p → b
- regressive devoicing:
- b → p
- g → k
- regressive glottalization
- b → p̌
- p → p̌
- g → ǩ
Dissimilative deletion of consonant
[edit]In some morphological contexts featuring two consonants n split only with a vowel, the former can be deleted. miqonun → miqoun (I have {an animate object}), iqvasinon → iqvasion (s/he will be), mulunan → *muluan → mulvan (they are coming).
Another dissimilation, presumably sporadic, occurs in deǩiǩe → deiǩe (minute); note also that the Arabic source of this word دقيقة daqīqa contains a uvular [q], and as above uvulars are unstable in Laz.
Intervocalic reduction of r
[edit]This process is evidenced in the Khopa-Chkhala and Vitze-Arkabe dialects, where in intervocalic position facultatively r → y → ∅.
Palatalization of velars
[edit]In the Atina-Artasheni dialect, the velars followed by the front vowels e and i and the glide y transform to alveolar affricates:
- g → c
- ǩ → ç̌
- k → ç
Alphabet
[edit]
Laz is written in a Georgian script or in the Latin script (as used in Turkish, but with specific Laz extensions).
| Georgian (Mkhedruli) | Latin (Turkey) | Latin (rare) | IPA |
|---|---|---|---|
| Orthographic alphabets | Transcriptions | ||
| ა | a | a | ɑ |
| ბ | b | b | b |
| გ | g | g | ɡ |
| დ | d | d | d |
| ე | e | e | ɛ |
| ვ | v | v | v |
| ზ | z | z | z |
| თ | t | t | t |
| ი | i | i | i |
| კ | ǩ, or kʼ | ḳ | kʼ |
| ლ | l | l | l |
| მ | m | m | m |
| ნ | n | n | n |
| ჲ | y | y | j |
| ო | o | o | ɔ |
| პ | p̌, or pʼ | ṗ | pʼ |
| ჟ | j | ž | ʒ |
| რ | r | r | r |
| ს | s | s | s |
| ტ | t̆, or tʼ | ṭ | tʼ |
| უ | u | u | u |
| ფ | p | p | p |
| ქ | k | k | k |
| ღ | ğ | ɣ | ɣ |
| ყ | q | qʼ | qʼ |
| შ | ş | š | ʃ |
| ჩ | ç | č | t͡ʃ |
| ც | ʒ, or з [1] | c | t͡s |
| ძ | ž, or zʼ | ʒ | d͡z |
| წ | ǯ, or зʼ [1] | ċ | t͡sʼ |
| ჭ | ç̌, or çʼ | č’ | t͡ʃʼ |
| ხ | x | x | x |
| ჯ | c | ǯ | d͡ʒ |
| ჰ | h | h | h |
| ჶ | f | f | f |
Grammatical cases
[edit]Laz has eight grammatical cases: nominative, ergative, dative, genitive, lative, ablative, instrumental and almost extinct adverbial.
| Marker | |
|---|---|
| Nominative | -i/-e |
| Ergative | -k |
| Dative | -s |
| Genitive | -iş |
| Lative | -işa |
| Ablative | -işe |
| Instrumental | -ite |
| Adverbial | -ot |
Example of adjective declension
[edit]| Marker | Stem: mcveş- ("old") | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -i | mcveş-i |
| Ergative | -k | mcveş-i-k |
| Dative | -s | mcveş-i-s |
| Genitive | -iş | mcveş-iş |
| Lative | -işa | mcveş-işa |
| Ablative | -işe | mcveş-işe |
| Instrumental | -ite | mcveş-ite |
| Adverbial | -ot | mcveş-ot |
Example of noun declension
[edit]| Marker | Stem: ǩoç- ("man") | |
|---|---|---|
| Nominative | -i | ǩoç-i |
| Ergative | -k | ǩoç-i-k |
| Dative | -s | ǩoç-i-s |
| Genitive | -iş | ǩoç-iş |
| Lative | -işa | ǩoç-işa |
| Ablative | -işe | ǩoç-işe |
| Instrumental | -ite | ǩoç-ite |
| Adverbial | -ot | n/a |
Nouns
[edit]As in other South Caucasian languages, Laz distinguishes two classes of nouns and classifies objects as:
- 'Intelligent' entities. Respective interrogative is mi? (who?)
- 'Non-intelligent' entities. Respective interrogative is mu? (what?)
Noun classification scheme
[edit]| Concrete | Abstract | ||
| Animate | Inanimate | ||
| Human and "sentient" beings (e.g. God, deities, angels) | Animals | Inanimate physical entities | Abstract objects |
| Intelligent | Non-Intelligent | ||
| mi? ("who?") | mu? ("what?") | ||
Numerals
[edit]The Laz numerals are near identical to their Megrelian equivalents with minor phonetic differences. The number system is vigesimal like in Georgian.
Cardinal numbers
[edit]Almost all basic Laz cardinal numbers stem from the Proto-Kartvelian language, except ar(t) (one) and eči (twenty), which are reconstructed only for the Karto-Zan chronological level, having regular phonetical reflexes in Zan (Megrelo-Laz) and Georgian. The numeral šilya (thousand) is a Pontic Greek loanword and is more commonly used than original Laz vitoši.
Laz cardinal numbers compared to Megrelian, Georgian and Svan
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | Svan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | ar(t) | arti | erti | ešxu |
| 2 | jur/cur | žiri/žəri | ori | yori |
| 3 | sum | sumi | sami | semi |
| 4 | otxo | otxi | otxi | oštxw |
| 5 | xut | xuti | xuti | woxušd |
| 6 | anşi | amšvi | ekvsi | usgwa |
| 7 | şkvit | škviti | švidi | išgwid |
| 8 | ovro | ruo | rva | ara |
| 9 | çxoro | čxoro | cxra | čxara |
| 10 | vit | viti | ati | ešd |
| 11 | vitoar | vitaarti | tertmeṭi | ešdešxu |
| 12 | vitojur | vitožiri | tormeṭi | ešdori |
| 13 | vitosum | vitosumi | cameṭi | ešdsemi |
| 14 | vitotxo | vitaantxi | totxmeṭi | ešdoštx |
| 15 | vitoxut | vitoxuti | txutmeṭi | ešdoxušd |
| 20 | eçi | eči | oci | yerwešd |
| 21 | eçidoar | ečdoarti | ocdaerti | yerwešdiešxu |
| 30 | eçidovit | ečdoviti | ocdaati | semešd |
| 40 | jurneçi | žaarneči | ormoci | woštxuešd |
| 50 | jurneçidovit | žaarnečdoviti | ormocdaati | woxušdešd |
| 60 | sumeneçi | sumoneči | samoci | usgwašd |
| 70 | sumeneçidovit | sumonečdoviti | samocdaati | išgvidašd |
| 80 | otxoneçi | otxoneči | otxmoci | arašd |
| 90 | otxoneçidovit | otxonečdoviti | otxmocdaati | chxarašd |
| 100 | oşi | oši | asi | ašir |
| 101 | oşi do ar | ošarti | aserti | ašir i ešxu |
| 102 | oşi do jur | ošžiri | asori | ašir i yori |
| 110 | oşi do vit | ošviti | asati | ašir i ešd |
| 200 | juroşi | žiroši | orasi | yori ašir |
| 500 | xutoşi | xutoši | xutasi | woxušd aršir |
| 1000 | şilya/vitoşi | antasi | atasi | atas |
| 1999 | şilya çxoroş
otxoneçdovit̆oçxoro |
antas čxoroš
otxonečdovitočxoro |
atas cxraas
otxmocdacxrameṭi |
atas čxara ašir
chxarašd chxara |
| 2000 | jurşilya | žiri antasi | ori atasi | yori atas |
| 10000 | vit şilya | viti antasi | ati atasi | ešd atas |
Ordinal numbers
[edit]Ordinal numbers in Laz are produced with the circumfix ma-...-a, which, in contrast with Megrelian, may be extended with suffix -n. The circumfix ma-...-a originates from Proto-Kartvelian and has regular phonetical equivalents in Georgian (me-...-e) and Svan (me-...-e)
Ordinal numbers' derivation rule
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | Svan |
|---|---|---|---|
| ma-NUMBER-a(ni) | ma-NUMBER-a | me-NUMBER-e | me-NUMBER-e |
Laz ordinal numbers compared to Megrelian, Georgian and Svan
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | Svan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1st | maartani | ṗirveli | ṗirveli | manḳwi |
| 2nd | majura(ni) | mažira | meore | merme |
| 3rd | masuma(ni) | masuma | mesame | meseme |
| 4th | maotxa(ni) | maotxa/mantxa | meotxe | meuštxwe |
| 5th | maxuta(ni) | maxuta | mexute | meuxušde |
| 6th | maanşa(ni) | maamšva | meekvse | meusgwe |
| 7th | maşkvita(ni) | maškvita | mešvide | meyšgwide |
| 8th | maovra(ni) | maruo | merve | meare |
| 9th | maçxora(ni) | mačxora | mecxre | meyčxre |
| 10th | mavita(ni) | mavita | meate | meyšde |
| 11th | mavitoarta(ni) | mavitaarta | metertmeṭe | meyšdešxue |
| 12th | mavitojura(ni) | mavitožira | metormeṭe | meyšdore |
| 13th | mavitosuma(ni) | mavitosuma | mecameṭe | meyšdseme |
| 14th | mavitotxa(ni) | mavitaantxa | metotxmeṭe | meyšdoštxe |
| 15th | mavitoxuta(ni) | mavitoxuta | metxutmeṭe | meyšdoxušde |
| 20th | maeça(ni) | maeča | meoce | meyerwešde |
| 21st | eçidomaarta(ni) | ečdomaarta | ocdameerte | |
| 30th | ečidomavita(ni) | ečdomavita | ocdameate | mesemešde |
| 40th | majurneça(ni) | mažaarneča | meormoce | meuštxuešde |
| 50th | jurneçidomavita(ni) | žaarnečdomavita | ormocdameate | meuxušdešde |
| 60th | masumeneça(ni) | masumoneča | mesamoce | meusgwešde |
| 70th | sumeneçidomavita(ni) | sumonečdomavita | samocdameate | meyšgwidešde |
| 80th | maotxoneça(ni) | maotxoneča | meotxmoce | mearašde |
| 90th | otxoneçidomavita(ni) | otxonečdomavita | otxmocdameate | mečxarašde |
| 100th | maoşa(ni) | maoša | mease | meašire |
| 101st | oşmaarta(ni) | ošmaarta | asmeerte | |
| 102nd | oşmajura(ni) | ošmažira | asmeore | |
| 110th | oşmavita(ni) | ošmavita | asmeate | |
| 200th | majuroşa(ni) | mažiroša | meorase | meyorašire |
| 500th | maxutoşa(ni) | maxutoša | mexutase | meuxušdašire |
| 1000th | maşilya(ni)/mavitoşa(ni) | maantasa | meatase | meatase |
Fractional numbers
[edit]The fractional numbers' derivation rule in Laz and Megrelian is akin to Old Georgian and Svan.
Fractional numbers' derivation rule
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | Svan | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old | New | |||
| na-NUMBER-al/or | na-NUMBER-al/or | na-NUMBER-al | me-NUMBER-ed | na-NUMBER-al/ul |
Laz fractional numbers compared to Megrelian, Georgian and Svan
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | Svan | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Old | New | ||||
| whole | mteli | teli | mrteli | mteli | tel |
| half | gverdi | gverdi | naxevari | naxevari | xənsga |
| 1/3 | nasumori | nasumori | nasamali | mesamedi | nasemal |
| 1/4 | naotxali | naotxali/naantxali | naotxali | meotxedi | naoštxul |
| 1/5 | naxutali | naxutali | naxutali | mexutedi | naxušdal |
| 1/6 | naanşali | naamšvali | naekvsali | meekvsedi | nausgwul |
| 1/7 | naşkvitali | naškvitali | našvidali | mešvidedi | nayšgwidal |
| 1/8 | naovrali | naruali | narvali | mervedi | naaral |
| 1/9 | naçxorali | načxorali | nacxrali | mecxredi | načxaral |
| 1/10 | navitali | navitali | naatali | meatedi | naešdal |
| 1/11 | navitoartali | navitaartali | natertmeṭali | metertmeṭedi | naešdešxul |
| 1/12 | navitojurali | navitožirali | natormeṭali | metormeṭedi | naešdoral |
| 1/20 | naeçali | naečali | naocali | meocedi | nayerwešdal |
| 1/100 | naoşali | naošali | naasali | measedi | naaširal |
| 1/1000 | naşilyali/navitoşali | naantasali | naatasali | meatasedi | naatasal |
Pronouns
[edit]Personal pronouns
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Khopa-Chkhala | Vitze-Arkabe | Atina-Artasheni | |||
| I | ma(n) | ma | ma | ma | me |
| You (sing.) | si(n) | si | si | si | šen |
| That (close to speaker) | aya | haya | ham | ena | esa |
| This | ia | heya | him | ina | isa |
| We | çki | çku | şǩu | čki/čkə | čven |
| You (pl.) | tkvan | tkvan | t̆ǩva | tkva | tkven |
| Those | antepe | hamtepe | hani | enepi | eseni |
| These | entepe | hemtepe | hini | inepi | isini |
Possessive pronouns
[edit]| Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Khopa-Chkhala | Vitze-Arkabe | Atina-Artasheni | |||
| My | çkimi | çkimi | şǩimi | čkimi/čkəmi | čemi |
| Your (sing.) | skani | skani | sǩani | skani | šeni |
| His/her/its | muşi | muşi | himuşi | muši | misi |
| Our | çkini | çkuni | şǩuni | čkini/čkəni | čveni |
| Your (pl.) | tkvani | tkvani | t̆ǩvani | tkvani | tkveni |
| Their | mutepeşi | hemtepeşi | nişi | inepiš | mati |
Verbs
[edit]Laz verbs are inflected for seven categories: person, number, version, tense, mood, aspect and voice.
Person and Number
[edit]In Laz, like Mingrelian, Georgian, and Svan, verbs can be unipersonal, bipersonal, and tripersonal.
- Monovalent verbs have only subjective person and are intransitive.
- Bivalent verbs have one subject and one object (direct or indirect). They are:
- transitive if the object is direct
- intransitive if the object is indirect
- Trivalent verbs have one subject and two objects (one direct and the other indirect) and are ditransitive.
| Unipersonal | Bipersonal | Tripersonal | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| intransitive | transitive | intransitive | ditransitive | |
| Subject | + | + | + | + |
| Direct Object | N/A | + | N/A | + |
| Indirect Object | N/A | N/A | + | + |
The person may be singular or plural.
Subject and object markers in Laz are the same as in Mingrelian.
Subject markers
[edit]| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| S1 | v- | v-...-t |
| S2 | ∅- | ∅-...-t |
| S3 | ∅-...-n/-s/-u | ∅-...-an/-es |
Object markers
[edit]| Singular | Plural | |
|---|---|---|
| O1 | m- | m-...-an/-es/-t |
| O2 | g- | g-...-an/-es/-t |
| O3 | ∅- | ∅-...-an/-es |
In pre-consonant position, the markers v- and g- change phonetically:
- Before voiced consonants: v- → b-
- Before voiceless (nonglottalized) consonants:
- v- → b- → p-
- g- → k-
- Before glottalized consonants:
- v- → b- → p̌-
- g- → ǩ-
Version
[edit]Like Megrelian, Georgian and Svan, Laz has four types of version marking:
- subjective – shows that the action is intended for oneself,
- objective – action is intended for another person,
- objective-passive – the action is intended for another person and at the same time indicating the passiveness of subject,
- neutral – neutral with respect to intention.
Laz version markers compared to Megrelian, Georgian and Svan
[edit]| Version | Laz | Megrelian | Georgian | Svan |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Subjective | -i- | -i- | -i- | -i- |
| Objective | -u- | -u- | -u- | -o- |
| Objective-passive | -a- | -a- | -e- | -e- |
| Neutral | -o- | -o-/-a- | -a- | -a- |
Tenses
[edit]The maximum number of screeves in Laz is 22. They are grouped in three series. Two screeves (future I and past of future I) exist only for the verb r-, which serves as a 1st series root for oqopumu/ovapu/oyapu (to be).
Paradigm of verb conjugation
[edit]stems: ç̌ar- (to write) and r- (to be: just for future I and past of future I)
| I Series | |||
| Khopa-Chkhala | Vitze-Arkabe | Atina-Artasheni | |
| present | ç̌arups | ç̌arums | |
| imperfect | ç̌arupt̆u | ç̌arumt̆u | |
| imperfective optative | ç̌arupt̆as | ç̌arumt̆as | |
| imperfective inferential | ç̌arupt̆-eren | ç̌arumt̆u-doren | ç̌arumt̆u-donu |
| present conditional | ç̌arupt̆u-ǩon | ç̌arumt̆u-ǩo(n) | |
| future I | (r)t̆as-unon | (r)t̆asen | ort̆as-en |
| past of future I | (r)t̆as-unt̆u | t̆ast̆u | ort̆as-eret̆u |
| II Series | |||
| Khopa-Chkhala | Vitze-Arkabe | Atina-Artasheni | |
| aorist | ç̌aru | ||
| aoristic optative | ç̌aras | ||
| aoristic inferential I | ç̌ar-eleren
/ç̌ar-een /ç̌ar-elen |
ç̌aru-doren | ç̌aru-donu |
| aoristic inferential II | ç̌ar-eleret̆u
/ç̌ar-eet̆u /ç̌ar-elet̆u |
ç̌aru-dort̆u | |
| aoristic inferential optative | ç̌ar-eleret̆as
/ç̌ar-eet̆as /ç̌ar-elet̆as |
n/a | |
| aoristic conditional | ç̌aru-ǩon | ||
| future II | ç̌aras-unon | ç̌aras-en | |
| past of future II | ç̌aras-unt̆u
/ç̌ara-t̆u |
ç̌ara-t̆u | ç̌aras-ert̆u |
| conditional of aoristic inferential II | ç̌ar-eleret̆u-ǩon
/ç̌ar-eet̆u-ǩon |
n/a | |
| inferential of the past of future II | ç̌aras-unt̆-eren | ç̌ara-t̆u-doren | n/a |
| conditional of the past of future II | ç̌ara-t̆u-ǩon | n/a | |
| III Series | |||
| Khopa-Chkhala | Vitze-Arkabe | Atina-Artasheni | |
| inversive inferential I | uç̌arun | ||
| inversive inferential II | uç̌arut̆u | ||
| inferential optative | uç̌arut̆as | ||
| inferential conditional | uç̌arut̆u-ǩo(n) | ||
According to oldness these screeves can be grouped in two sets:
- old (primary) (common with Megrelian).
- new (secondary) derived from the basic screeves (specific Laz).
Classification of screeves according to oldness
| Old (common with Megrelian) | New (specific Laz) |
|---|---|
| present | imperfective inferential |
| imperfect | future I |
| imperfective optative | past of future I |
| present conditional | aoristic inferential I |
| aorist | aoristic inferential II |
| aoristic optative | aoristic inferential optative |
| aoristic conditional | future II |
| inversive inferential I | past of future II |
| inversive inferential II | Conditional of aoristic inferential II |
| inferential optative | inferential of the past of future II |
| inferential conditional | conditional of the past of future II |
Mood
[edit]Indicative
[edit]Indicative statement claims that the proposition should be taken as an apparent fact.
Interrogative
[edit]There are two ways to transform an indicative statement into a question:
- by means of interrogative words. E.g. mi? (who?), mu? (what?), so? (where?), mundes? (when?), muç̌o? (how?) etc. This rule is valid for Megrelian, Georgian and Svan as well.
- by adding an interrogative particle -i to the end of a verb. It has the same function as Megrelian -o, Old Georgian -a and Svan -ma/-mo/-mu.
Imperative
[edit]Indicates a command or request. The aorist form is used when addressing 2nd person (singular/plural) and aoristic optative in all other cases.
Subjunctive
[edit]Expresses possibility, wish, desire.
Conditional
[edit]Indicates condition in contrary to a fact. For this reason a verbal suffix -ǩo (At.-Arsh, Vtz.-Ark.) / -ǩon/-ǩoni (Khop.-Chkh.) is used.
Aspect
[edit]![[icon]](/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg){kind=small} | This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011) |
Voice
[edit] | This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (January 2011) |
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ a b Extension consonant for the Altaic (Turkish) version of the Latin alphabet, often represented with the digit three (3) (currently missing from Unicode ?) ; the Cyrillic letter ze (З/з) has been borrowed in newspapers published in the Socialist Republic of Georgia (within USSR) to write the missing Latin letter ; modern orthographies used today also use the Latin digraphs Ts/ts for З/з and Ts’/ts’ for(З’/з’
References
[edit]- Chikobava, Arn. (1936). Grammatical analysis of Laz with texts (in Georgian). Tiflis.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Chikobava, Arn. (1938). Chan-Megrel-Georgian Comparative Dictionary (in Georgian). Tbilisi.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Fähnrich, H. & Sardzhveladze, Z. (2000). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages (in Georgian). Tbilisi.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - Kajaia, O. (2001–2002). Megrelian-Georgian dictionary. 3 Vols. (in Georgian). Tbilisi.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Kartozia, G. (2005). The Laz language and its place in the system of Kartvelian languages (in Georgian). Tbilisi.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Klimov, G. (1964). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages (in Russian). Moscow.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Klimov, G. (1998). Etymological Dictionary of the Kartvelian Languages. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter.
- Klimov, G. (1998). Languages of the World: Caucasian languages (in Russian). Moscow: Academia.
- Marr, N. (1910). Grammar of Chan (Laz) with reader and wordlist (in Russian). St. Petersburg.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). - Qipshidze, I. (1911). Additional information about Chan (in Russian). St. Petersburg.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Qipshidze, I. (1914). The Grammar of Mingrelian (Iver) Language with reader and dictionary (in Russian). St. Petersburg.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link). - Shanidze, A. (1973). Essentials of Georgian Grammar (in Georgian). Tbilisi.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - Topuria, V. & Kaldani, M. (2000). Svan Dictionary (in Georgian). Tbilisi.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
External links
[edit]| Grammar |  | |
|---|---|---|
| Writing | ||
| Encoding | ||
| Genealogy | ||
| Letters | ||
| Other | ||