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Dinosaur
Temporal range: Late Triassic–Late Cretaceous, 231.4–65.5 Ma
Mounted skeleton of Tyrannosaurus
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Animalia
Phylum:
Chordata
Class:
Reptilia
Order:
Sauropsida
Suborder:
Dinosauria
Orders and suborders

Saurischia

[edit]

Theropoda

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Theropods were the only predatory dinosaurs known.

Herrerasauridae

[edit]
Lightly-built bipedal reptile
Artist's impression of Herrerasaurus

It is a family of primitive theropods[1]. They were usually small (no more than 4m), and had four fingers on each hand. They can;t be classified into any major group of dinosaurs.

The first cladogram presented here follows one proposed analysis by M.D. Ezcurra in 2010. In this review, Herrerasaurus is a primitive saurischian, but not a theropod. The second cladogram is based on an analysis by M.J. Benton, in 2004. This review indicated Herrerasaurus was a basal theropod.[2].

  Dinosauria  

Ornithischia

 Saurischia 
 Herrerasauridae 

Herrerasaurus

Staurikosaurus

Unnamed herrerasaurid

 Eusaurischia 
  Dinosauria  

Ceratosauria

[edit]
CretaceousJurassicTriassicLate CretaceousEarly CretaceousLate JurassicMiddle JurassicEarly JurassicLate TriassicMiddle TriassicEarly TriassicMajungasaurusCarnotaurusAucasaurusIlokelesiaKryptopsGenusaurusGenyodectesCeratosaurusCryolophosaurusDilophosaurusMegapnosaurusProcompsognathusCoelophysisCretaceousJurassicTriassicLate CretaceousEarly CretaceousLate JurassicMiddle JurassicEarly JurassicLate TriassicMiddle TriassicEarly Triassic

Another group of primitive theropods. Their main characteristic - four fingers[3].

Coelophysidae

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It is a family of Ceratosaurs. They were usually small and long-necked[4].

Dilophosauridae

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A relatively small family of ceratosaurs. Had strange crests on their heads.

Elaphrosauridae

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This family has not yet formally named, but first it waqs described by Thomas Holtz in his book "Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages"[5].

Ceratosauridae

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Closely related to Dilophosauridae, Ceratosauridae also had head crests. But they had nasal horns, not elongated crests as in dilophosaurids.

Abelisauroidea

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Abelisauridae
[edit]
Skull cast of Majungasaurus at the Field Museum

It, with no doubt, is the largest and the most succesfull theropod family. They inhabited mostly Sothern Hemisphere, but at least one species lived in Europe - Tarascosaurus[8]. Also we have evidence that they were cannibals. Study of the skull of Majungasaurus, performed by Scott Sampson[9], showed bite marks on the skull, ribs etc.

Their teeth were short, robust and serrated.

FAMILY ABELISAURIDAE

Noasauridae
[edit]
Noasaurus

These relatively small predatory dinosaurs were related to Abelisauridae. Most of them reached no more than 3 metres in lenght. The first species to appear - Genusaurus.

FAMILY Noasauridae

Tetanurae

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The most advanced theropods.

Megalosauroidea

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Megalosauridae
[edit]
Restoration of Megalosaurus

Megalosauridae are the most primitive tetanurae[14]. They as all tetanurs have three fingered arms, but heir claws are more advanced than those of Ceratosaurs.

The cladogram presented here follows Benson (2010) and Benson et al. (2010)[15]

Megalosauridae
Spinosauridae
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The only known family of fish - eating dinosaurs. They were very widely distributed: North Africa[16], Europe, South America, Asia and even perhaps USA. Their cone shaped teeth were not designed to hunt and kill dinosaurs.

Size comparison of several species of spinosaurids and a human

Allosauroidea

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Also named carnosaurs, they were like megalosauroidea, but more advanced.

The cladogram presented here follows the 2010 analysis by Benson, Carrano and Brusatte.[15]

Allosauroidea
Sinraptoridae
[edit]

Not very large carnosaurs. They are the most primitive allosauroidea. The cladogram presented here follows a study by Benson and colleagues in 2010.[15]

Sinraptoridae
Allosauridae
[edit]
Life restoration of Allosaurus fragilis.

In fact, Allosauridae, could be the smallest tetanuran family. Only threespecies are known : Allosaurus, Saurophaganax and [[Epanterias. However they are relatively advanced dinosaurs. They , as birds[18], had carpal.

Neovenatoridae
[edit]

Most neovenatorids earlier were classified as Allosauridae. However they lived much longer than allosaurs. Probabaly one of Neovenatoridae, Orkoraptor, survived till Maastrichtian[19]

The cladogram presented here follows the 2010 analysis by Benson, Carrano and Brusatte. Another study published later in 2010 also found the Australian theropod Rapator to be a megaraptoran extremely similar to Australovenator.[20]

Neovenatoridae

Neovenator

<font color="white">unnamed

Chilantaisaurus

Megaraptora
<font color="white">unnamed

?Orkoraptor

<font color="white">unnamed
Carcharodontosauridae
[edit]

Another, the most advanced, family of Carnosauria[21]. Among carcharodontosauridae were several the biggest land predators ever.

A cladogramm after Brusatte et al[22]. 

 Carcharodontosauridae
 |__Concavenator corcovatus
 |__Kelmayisaurus?
    |__Eocarcharia dinops[23]
    |__Acrocanthosaurus atokensis
       |__Shaochilong maortuensis
       |__Tyrannotitan chubutensis[24]
           |__Carcharodontosaurus saharicus
              |Giganotosaurinae
              |__Giganotosaurus carolinii
              |__Mapusaurus roseae

Coelurosauria

[edit]
Juravenator
Coeluridae and Compsognathidae
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The most basal coelurosaurs known[25]. Some evidence from Liaoning shows that they were feathered[26].

Maniraptora

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Alvarezsauridae
[edit]

Family of omnivorous dinosaurs with one-fingered hands.

Dromaeosauridae
[edit]

The family of dinosaurs to which Velociraptor and Deinonychus belong to.They are characterized by "killing claw" on each foot. Also new evidence points that they were feathered, and closely related to birds.

The cladogram by paleontologists Nicholas Longrich and Philip J. Currie, 2009[29] .

Dromaeosauridae

Mahakala

Unenlagiinae

Rahonavis

<font color="white">unnamed
<font color="white">unnamed
Microraptorinae
Eudromaeosauria
Saurornitholestinae
<font color="white">unnamed

Deinonychus

<font color="white">unnamed
Velociraptorinae
<font color="white">unnamed
<font color="white">unnamed
Dromaeosaurinae
Troodontidae
[edit]

Very similar to their cousins - Dromaeosauridae, but are characterized by having smaller "killing claw"[34]. The smartest dinosaurs.

Therizinosauridae
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Nothronychus

The only known plant - eating theropods. Had very long claws on their hands.

The cladogram here follows a 2007 phylogenetic analysis by Phil Senter.[37]

Therizinosauridae

Erliansaurus

Nothronychus

<font color="white">unnamed

Neimongosaurus

<font color="white">unnamed

Segnosaurus

<font color="white">unnamed
Ornithomimidae
[edit]

Also called "ostrich-like dinosaurs", because of their large eyes and long necks with legs. Were among the smartest animals of their time.

Restoration of Beishanlong

Sauropodomorpha

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Prosauropoda

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They were the ancestors of more known Sauropods. However they had shorter necks, thinner legs, and were functionazlly bipedal[41].

Plateosauridae

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A family of Prosauropoda. Were characterized by more bulky body than most of other prosauropods.

Riojasauridae and Massospondylidae

[edit]
Lufengosaurus

Were much like Plateosauridae[42].

Sauropoda

[edit]

This taxonomy follows Wilson & Sereno 1998, Yates 2003 and 2010,[43] Galton 2001,[2] and Wilson 2002, with ranks after Benton, 2004.[44]

Vulcanodontidae

[edit]

The most basal sauropod family known.

Diplodocidae

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These sauropods are usually characterized by very long necks and hind limbs and short front. Often confused with Mamenchisauridae.

Macronaria

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The most advanced sauropods. Could held their necks higher than their shoulder region, while diplodocids couldn't.

Several Macronaria

Ornithischia

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Thereophora

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Evolution

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In the family tree of Thyreophora, Stegosauridae are right in the middle. Some paleontologists, propose a theory that they evolved from dinosaurs like ScelidosaurusюThey state that in early stegosaurs, like Huayangosaurus, plates are relatively small, while in Stegosaurus, the most advanced member of the family, they are very large. Perhaps bony plates of stegosaurs evolved from scutes of Scelidosaurus[52] or its relatives.

Family tree of Thyreophora

[edit]

Lesothosaurus, Stormbergia?↓

Scelidosaurus, etc.↓ *↓

Lexovisaurus and other primitive stegosaurs↓ *Ankylosauria

Stegosaurinae

Stegosauria

[edit]

Huayangosauridae

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This another family of Stegosauria.They are usually characterized by short and robust plates on their back.

Family Huayangosauridae

Stegosauridae

[edit]

They are usually characterized by triangular plates on their back. These plates were not as hard as the plates of Huayangosauridae, so perhaps they were used only for display[53].

However there are several exeptions:Dacentrurus[54], Lexovisaurus and Kentrosaurus have also spikes on their back.

Classification
[edit]

Stegosaurids are usually divided into two main subfamilies: Dacentrurinae and Stegosaurinae[5]. Stegosaurinae are usually characterized by large sizes. The earliest stegosaur is thought to be Lexovisaurus[55] from Bathonian of England. There was found a massive femur of the juvenile Lexovisaurus.

This is a list of stegosaurian genera by classification and location:

Suborder Thyreophora

Infraorder Stegosauria

A cladogramm by Kenneth Carpenter[58]. 

Stegosauridae
└──┬─?Chungkingosaurus
└──┬──Chialingosaurus
└──┬──┬──Wuerhosaurus
│  └──┬──Dacentrurus
│     └──Hesperosaurus
└──┬──Tuojiangosaurus 
└──┬──┬──Kentrosaurus            
│  └──Lexovisaurus[59]
└──┬──Stegosaurus stenops
   └──S. ungulatus (=?S. armatus)

He states, that Wuerhosaurus and Hesperosaurus are more closely related to Tuojiangosaurus and Dacentrurus, than to Stegosaurus. However, Thomas Holtz thinks that Hypsirophus, Stegosaurus, Hesperosaurus and Wuerhosaurus form a subfamily-Stegosaurinae[5].

Cladogramm by Holtz et al. 

Stegosauridae
└──┬──┬──Dacentrurinae
│  └──┬──Dacentrurus
│     └──Miragaia
└──┬──Stegosaurinae 
└──┬──┬──Wuerhosaurus            
│    └──Hesperosaurus
└──┬──Stegosaurus
  └──Hypsirophus

Primitive Stegosauria

[edit]

Most of primitive stegosaurids, such as Lexovisaurus, Kentrosaurus, and Tuojiangosaurus, are characterized by triangular plates running along their back and reduced lateral osteoderms[60]. Some of them like Kentrosaurus, also had spines on second half of their back and postorbital horns[61].

Dacentrurinae

[edit]

Today are known only 2 members of Dacentrurinae: Dacentrurus and Miragaia[62] . They usually have long back spines and necks.

Ankylosauria

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Ankylosauria[63]is a group of thyreophorans, related to Stegosauria, only their body lacked plates. They were covered in armour, particulary in armour plates, called osteoderms.

Polacanthidae

[edit]
Restoration of Gastonia

Polacanthidae is a family of Ankylosauria. Polacanthids are characterized by long shoulder spines, and a shield of fused armour over their hips[64]. Gastonia is a common example[65].

Nodosauridae

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If polacanthidae depended on spines as defense[66], nodosauridae were more offensive. They protested themselves by hugging to the ground, because most of them did not have spikes at all[67].

Marginocephalia

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The cladogram below follows a 2009 analysis by Zheng and colleagues.[71]

Marginocephalia

Cladogram after Butler et al., 2011.[72]

Marginocephalia

Pachycephalosauria

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Pachycephalosauria is a group of Marginocephalia.They had thick skulls[73] and very small brains

Most of Pachycephalosauria were very similar to each other. Only some of them, Dracorex and Stygimoloch[74], had spikes at the end of their domes. Jack Horner suggested that they could be juvenile forms of Pachycephalosaurus[75].

Ceratopsia

[edit]

Psittacosauridae

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Like Protoceratopsidae, but don't have a frill.

Protoceratopsidae

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Early ceratopsians, but they have a frill.

Ceratopsinae

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It consists only of one member - Ceratops.

Chasmosaurinae

[edit]

Chasmosaurinae is a subfamily of ceratopsid dinosaurs. Triceratops is a well-known example. They were one of the most successful groups of herbivores of their time. Chasmosaurines appeared in the early Campanian, and became extinct, along with all other non-avian dinosaurs, during the K-T extinction. Broadly, the most distinguishing features of chasmosaurinae are prominent brow horns and long frills lacking long spines; centrosaurines generally had short brow horns and relatively shorter frills, and often had long spines projecting from their frills. Chasmosaurines are currently known definitively from rocks in western Canada, the western United States, and northern Mexico.

We now know that all ceratopsia used their horns in fighting[80].

Genera
[edit]
Phylogenetic relationships between Chasmosaurinae by Samson et al.

Centrosaurinae

[edit]
Members of Centrosaurinae

Centrosaurinae is another subfamily of Ceratopsia. If Chasmosaurinae had longer brow horns, centrosaurinae had very long nasal horns. They were named by paleontologist Lawrence Lambe, in 1915, with Centrosaurus as the type genus.[83].Their, and all other ceratopsian's brains were small[84].

Ornithopoda

[edit]

Cladogram after Butler et al, 2011.[72]

Artist's impression of several species of ornithopoda in profile
Cerapoda

Fabrosauridae and Heterodontosauridae

[edit]

Fabrosauridae

[edit]

Fabrosauridae is a strange family of ornithischian dinosaurs. It shared several features with both ornithopoda and thyreophora. At last, Galton defined them as primitive ornithischians.

Heterodontosauridae

[edit]
Cast of a Heterodontosaurus skull

Heterodontosauridae were the most abundant family of early ornithischians. They are usually characterized by two long incisors on the upper jaw. Their purpose is still a mystery. However they led some paleontologists to believe that heterodontosaurids bere omnivores or carnivores. The same was with Lesothosaurus.

Hypsilophodontidae, Dryosauridae, Camptosauridae

[edit]

Members of these three families were very similar to each other. That's why earlier Camptosauridae and Dryosauridae were under Hypsilophodontidae.

The following genera were regarded as valid, but weren't classified:

Several other genera belong here somewhere, but are very poorly known or dubious:[89]

Hadrosauriforms

[edit]
Family tree of Hadrosauridae

Iguanodontidae and Rhabdodontidae

[edit]

Most of ornithopoda are very similar to each other, and Rhabdodontidae[90] and Iguanodontidae are no exception. Once practically all memebers of Rhabdodontidae were assigned to Iguanodontidae.

However, iguanodontids had much larger thumb claws, so they perhaps used them for defense.

Hadrosauroidea

[edit]

Hadrosauridae (informally known as "duck-billed dinosaurs", because of their beak) is a family of herbivorous Hadrosauriformes. It includes ancestors and closest relatives of Hadrosauridae.

Cladogram after Prieto-Marquez and Norell (2010).[91]

Hadrosauroidea 

Hadrosauridae

[edit]
Edmontosaurus skull, Oxford University Museum of Natural History
Lambeosaurinae
[edit]

It is a subfamily of hadrosauridae. Lambeosaurinae[92] differenched from other membersof their family by having crests on their heads. Some were helmet-shaped, like in Corythosaurus, some were tube-like, such as in Parasaurolophus. They could be brightly coloured or adorned, or in the case of Parasaurolophus, could be used to make sound. Some paleontologists even supposed that they used ultrasound as defense. However there is no evidence to support this theory[93].

Probably the first of them was Eolambia[94].

Hadrosauridae was first defined as a clade, by Forster in a 1997 abstract, as simply "Lambeosaurinae plus Hadrosaurinae and their most recent common ancestor." The following cladogram was recovered in a 2010 phylogenetic analysis by Prieto-Márquez.[95]

 Lambeosaurinae 
Saurolophinae
[edit]

This is another subfamily of Hadrosauridae[96]. They very rarely have crests, but most species had some strange fleshy appendages on their noses. They could be used as resonators.

Kritosaurus restoration

Saurolophinae (formerly Hadrosaurinae) is usually considered to include the following genera:

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Phylogenetic relationships of the basal dinosaurs, the Herrerasauridae F.E. Novas
  2. ^ Benton, Michael J. (2004). "Origin and relationships of Dinosauria". In Weishampel, David B.; Dodson, Peter; and Osmólska, Halszka (eds.) (ed.). The Dinosauria (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. 7–19. ISBN 0-520-24209-2. {{cite book}}: |editor= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  3. ^ THE PHylOGENy OF CERAtOSAURIA M.T. Carrano
  4. ^ Furculae in the Late Triassic theropod dinosaur Coelophysis bauri L.F. Rinehart, S.G. Lucas
  5. ^ a b c d Thomas R. Holtz, Jr. (2007). Dinosaurs: The Most Complete, Up-to-Date Encyclopedia for Dinosaur Lovers of All Ages. Random House. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
  6. ^ [1]. {{cite book}}: External link in |title= (help)
  7. ^ Ceratosaurus (Dinosauria, Theropoda): a revised osteology, James H. Madsen,Samuel Paul Welles
  8. ^ Buffetaut, E., Mechin, P. & Mechin-Salessy, A., 1988, "Un dinosaure théropode d’affinités gondwaniennes dans le Crétacé supérieur de Provence", C.R. Acad. Sci. Paris t. 306. Sér. II: 153-158
  9. ^ Craniofacial anatomy of Majungasaurus crenatissimus (Theropoda: Abelisauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of MadagascarSD Sampson
  10. ^ Sereno, P.C.; Brusatte, S.L. (2008). "Basal abelisaurid and carcharodontosaurid theropods from the Lower Cretaceous Elrhaz Formation of Niger" (PDF). Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 53 (1): 15–46. doi:10.4202/app.2008.0102.
  11. ^ a b c Canale, Juan I.; Scanferla, Carlos A.; Agnolin, Federico L.; Novas, Fernando E. (2008). "New carnivorous dinosaur from the Late Cretaceous of NW Patagonia and the evolution of abelisaurid theropods". Naturwissenschaften. 96 (3): 409–14. doi:10.1007/s00114-008-0487-4. PMID 19057888.
  12. ^ New materials of Masiakasaurus knopfleri Sampson, Carrano, and Forster, 2001, and implications for the morphology of the Noasauridae (Theropoda: Ceratosauria), M.T. Carrano, MA Loewen
  13. ^ The position of the claws in Noasauridae (Dinosauria: Abelisauroidea) and its implications for abelisauroid manus evolution, F.L. Agnolin
  14. ^ Holtz, T.R., Molnar, R.E., Currie, P.J. (2004). "Basal Tetanurae."
  15. ^ a b c Benson, R.B.J., Carrano, M.T and Brusatte, S.L. (2010). "A new clade of archaic large-bodied predatory dinosaurs (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) that survived to the latest Mesozoic". Naturwissenschaften. 97 (1): 71–78. Bibcode:2010NW.....97...71B. doi:10.1007/s00114-009-0614-x. PMID 19826771.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) Supporting Information Cite error: The named reference "bensonetal2010" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  16. ^ A new specimen of Spinosaurus (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from the Lower Cretaceous of Tunisia, with remarks on the evolutionary history of the Spinosauridae, Buffetaut
  17. ^ Baryonychine teeth (Theropoda: Spinosauridae) from the Lower Cretaceous of La Cantalera (Josa, NE Spain), Ruiz-Omeñaca, JI Canudo
  18. ^ Basal bird phylogeny, L.M. Chiappe
  19. ^ Benson, R.B.J.; Carrano, M.T; Brusatte, S.L. (2010). "A new clade of archaic large-bodied predatory dinosaurs (Theropoda: Allosauroidea) that survived to the latest Mesozoic".
  20. ^ Agnolin, Ezcurra; Pais; Salisbury (2010). "A reappraisal of the Cretaceous non-avian dinosaur faunas from Australia and New Zealand: Evidence for their Gondwanan affinities". Journal of Systematic Palaeontology. 8 (2): 257–300.
  21. ^ Eddy, Drew R.; Clarke, Julia A. (2011). Farke, Andrew. ed. "New Information on the Cranial Anatomy of Acrocanthosaurus atokensis and Its Implications for the Phylogeny of Allosauroidea (Dinosauria: Theropoda)".
  22. ^ Brusatte, S., Benson, R., Chure, D., Xu, X., Sullivan, C., and Hone, D. (2009). "The first definitive carcharodontosaurid (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from Asia and the delayed ascent of tyrannosaurids." Naturwissenschaften, DOI: 10.1007/s00114-009-0565-2
  23. ^ Sereno, P.C.; Brusatte, S.L. (2008). "Basal abelisaurid and carcharodontosaurid theropods from the Lower Cretaceous Elrhaz Formation of Niger"
  24. ^ Novas, F. E.; S. de Valais, P. Vickers-Rich, and T. Rich (2005). "A large Cretaceous theropod from Patagonia, Argentina, and the evolution of carcharodontosaurids".
  25. ^ A new phylogeny of the carnivorous dinosaurs T.R. Holtz Jr.
  26. ^ THE CARNIVOROUS DINOSAURIAN REMAINS FROM FUSIN, LIAONING, HU SHOW-YUNG
  27. ^ Alifanov, V.R. and Barsbold, R. (2009). "Ceratonykus oculatus gen. et sp. nov., a new dinosaur (?Theropoda, Alvarezsauria) from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia." Paleontologicheskii Zhurnal (Russ.) 2009, 1: 86–99.
  28. ^ A basal parvicursorine (Theropoda: Alvarezsauridae) from the Upper Cretaceous of China XING XU, DE-YOU WANG, CORWIN SULLIVAN, DAVID W. E. HONE, FENG-LU HAN, RONG-HAO YAN & FU-MING DU (P.R. China). Zootaxa， 2413 1-19.
  29. ^ Longrich, N.R.; Currie, P.J. (2009). "A microraptorine (Dinosauria–Dromaeosauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of North America". PNAS 106 (13):
  30. ^ Porfiri, Juan D. (2011). "A new small deinonychosaur (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Late Cretaceous of Patagonia, Argentina" (PDF). Anais da Academia Brasileira de Ciências. 83 (1): 109–116. ISSN 0001-3765. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  31. ^ Bonaparte, (1999).
  32. ^ Novas, Fernando E.; Pol, Diego; Canale, Juan I.; Porfiri, Juan D.; Calvo, Jorge O. (2009). "A bizarre Cretaceous theropod dinosaur from Patagonia and the evolution of Gondwanan dromaeosaurids". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 276 (1659): 1101–7. doi:10.1098/rspb.2008.1554. PMC 2679073. PMID 19129109.
  33. ^ Longrich, N.R.; Currie, P.J. (2009). "A microraptorine (Dinosauria–Dromaeosauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of North America". PNAS. 106 (13): 5002–7. doi:10.1073/pnas.0811664106. PMC 2664043. PMID 19289829.
  34. ^ A new troodontid (Theropoda: Troodontidae) from the lower Cretaceous Yixian Formation of western Liaoning, China, X.Xing
  35. ^ Osteology and relationships of Byronosaurus jaffei (Theropoda: Troodontidae) P.J. Makovicky, M.A. NORELL, J.M. CLARK
  36. ^ A review of the Mongolian Cretaceous dinosaur Saurornithoides (Troodontidae: Theropoda)MA Norell, PJ Makovicky, GS Bever
  37. ^ Senter, P. (2007). "A new look at the phylogeny of Coelurosauria (Dinosauria: Theropoda)." Journal of Systematic Palaeontology, (doi:10.1017/S1477201907002143).
  38. ^ A new dinosaur, Gallimimus bullatus n. gen., n. sp.(Ornithomimidae) from the Upper Cretaceous of Mongolia, H. Osmólska, E. Roniewicz…
  39. ^ A specimen of Ornithomimus velox (Theropoda, Ornithomimidae) from the terminal Cretaceous Kaiparowits Formation of southern Utah, F.L. Decourten
  40. ^ Structure and function of the pectoral girdle and forelimb of Struthiomimus altus (Theropoda: Ornithomimidae), E.L. Nicholls
  41. ^ Prosauropoda, P.M. Galton
  42. ^ Yates, Adam M. (2007). "The first complete skull of the Triassic dinosaur Melanorosaurus Haughton (Sauropodomorpha: Anchisauria)",
  43. ^ Yates, Adam M. (2010). "A revision of the problematic sauropodomorph dinosaurs from Manchester, Connecticut and the status of Anchisaurus Marsh". Palaeontology. 23 (4): 739–752. doi:10.1111/j.1475-4983.2010.00952.x.
  44. ^ Benton, M.J. (2004). Vertebrate Palaeontology, Third Edition. Blackwell Publishing, 472 pp.
  45. ^ Anatomy and phylogenetic relationships of Tazoudasaurus naimi (Dinosauria, Sauropoda) from the late Early Jurassic of Morocco, R. ALLAIN
  46. ^ Gillette, D.D., 1996, "Stratigraphic position of the sauropod Dystrophaeus viaemalae Cope and its evolutionary implications", In: Morales, Michael, editor, The continental Jurassic, Museum of Northern Arizona Bulletin 60: 59-68
  47. ^ Taylor, M.P. (2010). "Sauropod dinosaur research: a historical review." Pp. 361-386 in Moody, R.T.J., Buffetaut, E., Naish, D. and Martill, D.E. (eds.), Dinosaurs and Other Extinct Saurians: A Historical Perspective. London: The Geological Society, Special Publication No. 34.
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