User:Donald Trung/Han Dynasty coinage

This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia page "Han dynasty coinage" and is preserved for attribution.

• https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/1169961119  Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 11:49, 12 August 2023 (UTC) .

Original draft

[[File:五铢钱 海昏侯国遗址2.jpg|thumb|right|A large number of [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coins]] on display at the "Dazzling Life: Archaeological Finds of the Marquis of Haihun State in Han Dynasty. March 2, 2016 to June 2, 2016." (五色炫耀——南昌汉代海昏侯国考古成果展。2016年3月2日至6月2日，首都博物馆。) exhibition at the [[Capital Museum]], [[Beijing]].]] The '''Han dynasty coinage''' ({{zh|first=t|t=漢朝貨幣|s=汉朝货币|p=Hàncháo Huòbì|links=yes}}) system refers to the currency system of the [[Han dynasty]], which ruled [[China]] from 202 BC until 9 AD, when it was overthrown by the [[Xin dynasty]] (see "[[Xin dynasty coinage]]"), and again from 25 AD until 220 AD. The most common coin used during the Han dynasty period was the [[bronze]] [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coin]], while smaller quantities of gold coinages also circulated. During the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] in 119 BC a series silver-tin alloy coins was introduced, but due to both unforseen inflationary effects and rampant counterfeiting it was withdrawn after circulating for only 4 years. The Han dynasty period saw an average annual production of 220,000,000 bronze cash coins minted (or 220,000 [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|strings]] of 1,000 cash coins). The Han dynasty saw the introduction of the [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) inscription on cash coins, which would be used for a total 736 years centuries after the [[end of the Han dynasty]], until it was replaced by the [[Kaiyuan Tongbao]] (開元通寳) inscription in 621 AD during the [[Tang dynasty]] period. During different periods, private coin production was permitted, while during other periods the government maintained a strict monopoly on the production of money. The quality of the coinage produced during the Han dynasty varies greatly partially due to these policies. == Overview == {{Further|Ancient Chinese coinage|Economy of the Han dynasty}} During the [[Warring States period]] (403–221 BC), the development of private commerce, new trade routes, handicraft industries, and [[History of Chinese currency|a money economy]] led to the growth of new urban centers. These centers were markedly different from the older cities, which had merely served as power bases for the [[Chinese nobility|nobility]].<ref name="nishijima 1986 574">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=574}}.</ref> The use of a standardised, nationwide currency during the [[Qin dynasty]] (221–206 BC) facilitated long-distance trade between cities.<ref name="hinsch 2002 28">{{Harvnb|Hinsch|2002|p=28}}.</ref> The Han dynasty would continue producing the cash coins of the Qin dynasty period and would sometimes enforce a state monopoly on the production of money and sometimes allow private persons to manufacture their own money according to government regulations.<ref name="TransAsiart-Han-de-l'Ouest-Intro">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimpho.htm|title= Monnaies des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (206 av.-8 ap. J.-C.). - Western Han coins (206 BC- 8 AD).|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=5 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref> By this Western Han dynasty period, a full monetary economy had developed.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Taxes, salaries, and fines were all paid in coins. An average of 220 million cash coins were produced a year.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} In 119 BCE, the Ban Liang was replaced by the San Zhu (三銖, of weight approximately 2 g), and from 118 BCE, the [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖, around 3.25 g).<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science">{{cite web|url= https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-021-00530-3|title= Chemical studies of Chinese coinage II: from Qin to Yuan (221 BCE–1368 CE).|date=22 May 2021|accessdate=10 August 2023|author= A. M. Pollard & Ruiliang Liu|publisher= Heritage Science|language=en}} Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).</ref> First issued in 118 BC, this inscription was used on cash coins of many regimes both inside and outside of China over the next 700 years.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Sometimes Wu Zhu cash coins can be specifically dated from dated moulds that have been discovered, or from their find spots, but the majority of cash coins with this inscription cannot.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} The Wu Zhu cash coins of the Western Han Dynasty have a square top to the 朱 component of "Zhu" (銖) character; on later Wu Zhu coins, this character is rounded.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} The usurper [[Wang Mang]], who founded the [[Xin dynasty]] (9–23 CE), reformed the currency, [[Xin dynasty coinage|re-introducing spade and knife coins]].<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> Towards the end of his reign, he introduced the [[Huo Quan]] (貨泉), a cash coin of similar form to the Ban Liang but usually weighing around 3 g, to replace the Western Han period Wu Zhu coinage.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> The Huo Quan continued in circulation into the restored Eastern Han Dynasty (c. 23–220 CE), but Wu Zhu cash coins continued as the main copper-alloy coinage until the end of the 6th century CE long after the fall of the Han dynasty.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> During the Western Han period the granaries in both the cities and the countryside were full and the government treasuries were running over with wealth.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} The ''[[History of Han]]'' claims that [[Chang'an]] (present-day [[Xi'an]], [[Shaanxi]]) had stacked up hundreds of millions of [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|strings of cash coins]] until the cords that had bound them together had rotted away and these numerous cash coins could no longer be counted.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} [[Four occupations|Merchants and peasant farmers]] paid property and poll taxes in cash coins and land taxes with a portion of their crop yield.<ref name="nishijima 1986 600">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=600}}.</ref> Peasants obtained coinage by working as hired labourers for rich landowners, in businesses like breweries or by selling agricultural goods and homemade wares at urban markets.<ref name="nishijima 1986 600 601">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|pp=600–601}}.</ref> The Han government may have found collecting taxes in coin the easiest method because the transportation of taxed goods would have been unnecessary.<ref name="nishijima 1986 601">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=601}}.</ref> Cash coins became the common measure of wealth during Eastern Han dynasty period, as many wages were paid solely in cash coins.<ref name="ebrey 1986 612 613">{{Harvnb|Ebrey|1986|pp=612–613}}.</ref> Diwu Lun (第五倫) ([[floruit|fl.]] 40–85 AD), Governor of Shu Province (modern [[Sichuan]]), described his subordinate officials' wealth not in terms of landholdings, but in the form of aggregate properties worth approximately 10,000,000 cash coins.<ref name="ebrey 1986 612">{{Harvnb|Ebrey|1986|p=612}}.</ref> Commercial transactions involving hundreds of thousands of cash coins were commonplace.<ref name="ebrey 1986 612"/> During the Western Han dynasty period, on average, [[millet]] costs about 75 cash coins and polished rice 140 cash coins per hectolitre, a horse 4,400-4,500 cash coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} A labourer could be hired for a monthly salary of 150 cash coins; a merchant could earn 2,000 cash coins a month.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} [[Angus Maddison]] estimates that the country's [[gross domestic product]] was equivalent to $450 per head in 1990 [[United States dollar]]s—a sum that was above subsistence level, and which did not significantly change until the beginning of the Song dynasty in the late 10th century.<ref name="maddison 2001 259">{{Harvnb|Maddison|2001|p=259}}.</ref> Sinologist [[Joseph Needham]] has disputed this and claimed that China's GDP per capita exceeded Europe by substantial margins from the 5th century BCE onwards, holding that Han China was much wealthier than the contemporary [[Roman Empire]].<ref>{{harvnb|Maddison|2007|p=42}}</ref> The widespread circulation of cash coins enriched many merchants, who invested their money in land and became wealthy landowners. The government's efforts to circulate cash had empowered the very social class which it actively tried to suppress through heavy taxes, fines, confiscations, and price regulation schemes.<ref name="nishijima 1986 601"/> == Copper coinages == === Ban Liang === {{Main|Ban Liang}} [[File:030 S-93 W. Han Ban Liang, Wendi, 179-157 BC, 24mm.jpg|thumb|left|A [[Ban Liang]] (半兩) cash coin issued during the reign of [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]].]] ==== "Elm seed" Ban Liang ==== During the early Western Han period, founding [[Emperor Gaozu of Han|Emperor Gaozu]] (r. 202–195 BC) closed government [[Mint (coin)|mints]] in favour of [[Ancient Chinese coinage|coin currency]] produced by the [[private sector]].<ref>Nishijima Sadao, “The Economic and Social History of Former Han,” p. 586; in The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch’in [Qin] and Han Empires, 221 B.C.–A.D. 220, edited by Denis Twichett and Michael Loewe, [[New York City|New York]]: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1986.</ref><ref name="nishijima 1986 586">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=586}}.</ref> During these early days of the Western Han dynasty period the Qin dynasty period [[Ban Liang]] (半兩) cash coins were considered to be too heavy and inconvenient to use, this is because of their large sizes and weights (about 8 grams), so the [[Government of the Han dynasty|imperial government]] permitted the private production of Ban Liang cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#wang_mang|title= Chinese Coins - Introduction and History § Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 25 AD). & § Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) and Later Wu Zhu Coins.|date=24 July 2021|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> These small privately cast cash coins are popularly known as "[[elm]] seed Ban Liang coins" (榆莢半兩錢, ''Yú jiá bàn liǎng qián'').{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=83}}<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> While officially these cash coins still had the inscription "Ban Liang" (meaning half of a [[tael]]), the reduction in size from the Qin to the "elm seed" variant went from an average of around 8 gram to only slightly more than a single gram.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/><ref>《史記・平準書》引《古今注》雲:"榆莢錢重三銖". (in [[Classical Chinese]]).</ref> The heaviest "elm seed" Ban Liang cash coins had a weight of less than 2 grams, while the lightest of these coins weighed only about a quarter of a gram (or ¼ gram).<ref>[[Book of Han|漢書]]·卷二十四下·食貨志第四下 (in [[Classical Chinese]]).</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/><ref name="nishijima 1986 586"/> Despite their greatly reduced weights these "elm seed" Ban Liang cash coins the conventional inscription of the previous dynasty, making their nominal (stated) value much greater than their intrinsic value.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586"/> The "elm seed" cash coins were described as being "so light that the wind could carry them away".<ref name="Elm-Seed-Ban-Liang-MoneyMuseum">{{cite web|url= https://touchcoins.moneymuseum.com/?&id=1834&l=en|title= Chinese Empire, Early Han Dynasty, Ban Liang (Elm-Seed-Coin).|quote= To enhance their production, the ban liang became ever smaller and lighter – a tendency that finally culminated in the so-called "elm seed coins" (yujiaqian): coins so light, as vernacular had it, that the wind could carry them away.|date=2023|accessdate=4 August 2023|author= Touchcoins|publisher= [[MoneyMuseum (Zurich)|MoneyMuseum]]|language=en}}</ref> ==== 8 ''zhu'' Ban Liang ==== The tiny "elm seed" cash coins proved to be very disruptive to the [[Economy of the Han dynasty|economy]], causing Gaozu's widow [[Empress Lü Zhi]], as [[grand empress dowager]], to issue an edict stipulating regulations that would create a new heavier bronze coin weighing 8 ''[[Chinese units of measurement|zhu]]'' (八銖半兩錢), approximately 4.8-5.3 grams.<ref>《[[Book of Han|漢書・高后紀]]》記載:"二年(公元前186年)秋七月,行八銖錢。" (in [[Classical Chinese]]).</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> These new regulation Ban Liang cash coins had a diameter of around 26 to 30 millimeters and unlike the earlier Ban Liang cash coins had their inscriptions written in [[clerical script]] rather than in [[seal script]].<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Empress Lü Zhi abolished private minting in 186 BC. She first issued a government-minted bronze coin weighing {{convert|5.7|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586"/> The 8 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins were cast in the same bronze moulds that were used in the final years of the [[Warring States period]] and cannot really be distinguished from the original coins.<ref name="TransAsiart-Western-Han-banliang-coins">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimphobl1.htm|title= Banliang 半兩 des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (1). - Western Han banliang coins (1).|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=8 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref><ref>Roger Wai-San DOO (杜維善), ''Banliang kao'' (半兩考), 2 volumes, [[Shanghai|Shanghaï]] (2000).</ref><ref>[[François Thierry (numismatist)|François THIERRY]], ''Monnaies chinoises, I L'Antiquité préimpériale'', [[National Library of France|Bibliothèque Nationale]], [[Paris]] (1997), pp. 165-167.</ref> For this reason, the 8 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins of Empress Lü Zhi are often misattributed to the Warring States period.<ref name="TransAsiart-Western-Han-banliang-coins"/> ==== Wu Fen Ban Liang ==== During the 6th year of the reign of Empress Lü (182 BC) she ordered a new standard government Ban Liang cash coin with an official weight of 2.4 ''zhu'', or about {{convert|1.5|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref>Luo Zhufeng (羅竹風), ed. (1986-1993). ''Hanyu da cidian'' 漢語大辭典 ([[Shanghai]]: Cishu chubanshe), Vol. 7, 1334; Vol. Fulu-Suoyin (附錄‧索引), 3-21. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/><ref name="nishijima 1986 586"/> The reason for this change was the fact that the 8 ''zhu'' coins were too expensive to continue producing.<ref name="TransAsiart-Western-Han-banliang-coins"/> These 2.4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins are commonly referred to as "5 parts Ban Liang cash coins" (五分半兩錢, ''wǔ fēn bàn liǎng qián'') because they were only ⅕th the size of an actual Qin period Ban Liang and typically only had a weight of around 1.5 grams.<ref>《[[Book of Han|漢書・高后紀]]》記載:"六年春,行五分錢。(in [[Classical Chinese]]).</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> The change to the lighter coin caused widespread inflation.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586"/> Some variants of the ''wǔ fēn'' Ban Liang cash coins tend to have very broad outer rims, which includes their inscriptions protruding well above the surface of the square central hole.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> To the ancient Chinese, these characteristics make the cash coin similar to the eyes of a [[snake]],<ref>《中國錢幣大辭典秦漢編》說：「鑄於文帝前元五年至武帝元狩五年（前175—前118年）。面有邊，較寬，錢肉分高低二層，外邊肉高，近穿孔處低。文字外側壓於邊上。因其形似蛇眼，故稱『蛇目』」。</ref> hence they are popularly referred to in China as "snake eye Ban Liang cash coins" (蛇目半兩錢, ''Shémù bàn liǎng qián'').<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.163.com/12/0115/04/7NPI9M4N00014AED.html |title=文帝铸四铢半两钱(图) |access-date=2014-09-20 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305025638/http://news.163.com/12/0115/04/7NPI9M4N00014AED.html |archive-date=2016-03-05 }}</ref><ref>丁福保《古钱大辞典》上卷释文云：“钱文面文拓视而阴阳半圆者曰蛇目”。(in [[Mandarin Chinese]] using [[Simplified Chinese characters]]).</ref> These "snake eye" coins typically have a diameter of around 23.4 millimeters and a weigh around 2.7 grams with the heaviest weighing 3.1 grams and the lightest 2.3 grams.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/><ref>《中国历代货币大系2 秦汉三国南北朝货币》收录12枚蛇目半两，各枚标有数据，钱径最大者23.57mm，最小者22.20mm，最重者3.1g，最轻者2.3g。但是对此种版式未加文字注释说明。(in [[Mandarin Chinese]] using [[Simplified Chinese characters]]).</ref> The reign of Empress Lü Zhi also saw the issuance an edict prohibiting private citizens from producing money, meaning that that counterfeiting had run rampant.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/charmcoins.html#han_ban_liang_dots|title=Emergence of Chinese Charms. - Symbols Begin to Appear on Chinese Coins.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> During the reign of [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]] this prohibition on the private production of currency was abolished.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Private mints were required to mint cash coins weighing exactly {{convert|2.6|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586"/> The legalisation wasn't universally accepted by everyone, as the former government official [[Jia Yi]] would argue against the reintroduction of competitive coinage, claiming that it would lead to debasement, and that a plethora of different types of privately minted cash coins would confuse the public resulting in the widespread manipulation of money exchanges.<ref name="Jia-Yi-Private-mintage">Jia Yi’s commentary was preserved in the Hanshu (''History of the Former Han'') compiled by Ban Biao, Ban Gu, and Ban Zhao. It appeared in 111 A.D. See Scheidel, p. 8.</ref> Therefore, Jia Yi argued that the restoration of the [[state monopoly]] of money production and government control over the copper supply were preferable.<ref name="Jia-Yi-Private-mintage"/> His propositions were rejected by the Han government.<ref name="Jia-Yi-Private-mintage"/> ==== 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang ==== During the 5th year of the reign of Emperor Wen, the emperor ordered the creation of a new series of Ban Liang cash coins weighing 4 ''zhu''.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> These 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins (四銖半兩錢, ''Sì zhū bàn liǎng qián'') typically are around 23 and 25 millimeters in diameters and weigh at most 3 grams.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Private minting was legalised again, but private minters would now have adhere to strict government regulations on the weights and alloys of the coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=83}} One of the personally favourite officials of Emperor Wen, Senior Grand Master [[Deng Tong]] (鄧通), issued currency that is said to have "prevailed throughout the realm".<ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Deng-Tong">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/personsdengtong.html|title= Deng Tong 鄧通.|quote= Under Emperor Wen 漢文帝 (r. 180-157 BCE), he rose from Yellow-helmeted gentleman (huangtoulang 黃頭郎 to Senior Grand Master (shang dafu 上大夫) and was regularly presented by the emperor with precious gifts and was granted to exploit the revenue of a copper mine in Yandao 嚴道 in Sichuan. He was even granted the permission to coin his own money that circulated through the whole empire.|date=27 September 2011|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= Ulrich Theobald|publisher= [[Chinaknowledge]] - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art.|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Deng Tong was granted to exploit the revenue of a [[copper mine]] in Yandao (嚴道) in what is today [[Yingjing County]], [[Sichuan]], later he was allowed to produce Ban Liang cash coins for a total of 3 years and to bring "more happiness" (多福) to the people he added an extra bit of metal both above and below the square central hole to differentiate his privately cast 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins from other 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/><ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Deng-Tong"/> While Deng Tong was probably the wealthiest individual of Western Han dynasty period, he lost imperial favour under [[Emperor Jing of Han|Emperor Jing]] causing the government to confiscate all of his assets and revenue leading him to die in poverty.<ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Deng-Tong"/> The 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins would be produced for slightly over 50 years until the Ban Liang inscription was superseded by a new type of coin in the year Yuan Shou 4 (元狩四年, 119 BC).<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> A number of 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins have an outer rim.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> A far fewer number of these cash coins contain both an outer rim as well as an inner rim around the square central hole.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> A number of 4 zhu ban liang coins display various markings such as dots, lines, numbers, and and symbols (see "[[#The emergence of Chinese numismatic charms|§ The emergence of Chinese numismatic charms]]" below).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Some of these 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins have their inscriptions reversed.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> A few rare specimens of this type also have additional Chinese characters present on the coins, such as ''Tài cháng'' (太常) and ''Shàng wèn'' (上問 / 上问).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> === San Zhu === The substantial difference between the nominal value and intrinsic value of Ban Liang series of cash coins during the Western Han dynasty period provided fertile ground for widespread counterfeiting.<ref name="Nishijima-and-Scheidel">Nishijima, p. 587; [[Walter Scheidel]], “The Monetary Systems of the Han and Roman Empires,” Princeton/Stanford Working Papers in Classics, Paper No. 110505 (February 2008), p. 8.</ref> The markets and money exchanges of China did not accept the Ban Liang at their face value and they were traded based on their weight, rather than passively accepting the fictitious value of half a tael.<ref name="Nishijima-and-Scheidel"/> For this reason in the year Yuan Shou 4 (119 BC) during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] the [[San Zhu]] (三銖) series of cash coins was introduced to replace the earlier Ban Liang inscription.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}}<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> The term ''zhu'' (銖) means "grain". The "grain" was an ancient Chinese unit of weight equal to 100 grains of [[millet]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> San Zhu ("three grain" or "three ''zhu''") cash coins typically weighed around 1.95 to 2 grams.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}}<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> The San Zhu cash coins was issued either between 140-136 BC, or between 119-118 BC.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} The records are ambiguous on the dates of issue, but the later date is generally preferred by numismatists.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} === Wu Zhu === {{Further|Wu Zhu#Western Han dynasty|Wu Zhu#Eastern Han dynasty}} [[File:Wu Zhu (五銖) - Four Horns - Scott Semans.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) cash coin with "4 horns", Fredrik Schjøth (余德) attributes this cash coin to [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]].]] ==== Introduction of the Wu Zhu ==== In the spring of the year Yuan Shou 5 (118 BC) during the reign of Emperor Wu the [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) series of cash coins replaced the San Zhu.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Large quantities of Wu Zhu cash coins were cast during the reign of the Han dynasty and Wu Zhu cash coins would continue to be manufactured throughout the dynasties that followed until they were finally replaced by the [[Kaiyuan Tongbao]] (開元通寳) series of cash coins in the year 621 [[Anno domini|AD]] at the beginning of the reign of [[Emperor Gaozu of Tang|Emperor Gaozu]] of the [[Tang dynasty]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.history.ucsb.edu/faculty/roberts/coins/Chinese%20coins/Tangetc.html|title=Tang Dynasty (618-907) and the subsequent Ten States Five Kingdoms era (907-960 or so).|date=24 October 2003|access-date=9 June 2018|work= Luke Roberts at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara|Department of History - University of California at Santa Barbara]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/><ref name="nishijima 1986 587">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=587}}.</ref> Despite the introduction of the new coinage, Ban Liang cash coins would continue to circulate alongside the new series.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Like Jia Yi before him, the prominent official [[Sang Hongyang]] was very skeptical of the private production of coinage and sought to reinstate a state monopoly over the manufacturing of currency.<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan">Huan Kuan, ''Yantie lun'', 4, “Cuobi,” p. 16; English translation in ''Fountain of Fortune'' by von Glahn, p. 36.</ref> Sang Hongyang argued that if the government maintained the sole authority to produce money that "the people will not serve two masters" (implying both the state and the private market) and that a state monopoly would clear all doubts that the coinage in circulation was genuine and of sound quality.<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan"/> However, over 60 different [[Mandarin (bureaucrat)|mandarins]] from across the realm petitioned against the revocation of the freedom to produce money stating that the private production of cash coins is the most efficient method of supplying the people with sound coinage.<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan"/> The mandarins argued that the private sector will be compelled by the market to maintain proper standards of size, weight, and purity as any bad currency would be rejected by the market.<ref name="Von-Glahn-page-36">Von Glahn, ''Fountain of Fortune'', p. 36.</ref> They claimed that a government monopoly would allow the imperial government to debase the currency with impunity.<ref name="Von-Glahn-page-36"/> Private minting was again abolished in 144 BC during the end of [[Emperor Jing of Han|Emperor Jing]]'s (r. 157–141 BC) reign. Private coining was made a crime and those convicted could face the [[death penalty]].<ref>Richard von Glahn (万志英), ''Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000–1700'', p. 35, [[Los Angeles]]: [[University of California Press]], 1996.</ref> Despite this, the {{convert|2.6|g|oz|abbr=on}} bronze coin was issued by both central and local [[Commandery (China)|commandery]] governments until 120 BC, when for one year it was replaced with a coin weighing {{convert|1.9|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586 587">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|pp=586–587}}.</ref> Other currencies were introduced around this time. [[Token money]] notes made of embroidered white deerskin, with a face value of 400,000 cash coins, were used to collect government revenues.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586 587"/> ==== Jun Guo Wu Zhu ==== 118 BC the government of the Western Han dynasty ordered the Commanderies (君) and the [[Kings of the Han dynasty|Kingdoms]] (國) to cast Wu Zhu cash coins, which together with the imperial mint in [[Chang'an]] became the only institutions allowed to cast money.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-junguo-wuzhu">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimphowz1.htm|title= Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (1). - Western Han wuzhu (1). - 1-Les junguo wuzhu 郡國五銖.|quote= En 118 av. J.-C., Wudi 武帝 interdit la fonte des banliang 半兩 et imposa celle des wuzhu 五銖, pièces devant peser 5 zhu et qui devait être munies d'un rebord interne et externe au revers, ce qui n'était pas le cas des banliang dont le revers était plat. La fonte était autorisée aux princes gouvernant un royaume (guo 國), aux commanderies (jun 郡) et bien sûr aux ateliers de l'empereur à Chang'an.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These cash coins are referred to in the Mandarin Chinese language as ''Jun Guo Wu Zhu'' ({{zh |first=t | t= 君國五銖 | s= 君国五铢 | hp= Jūn guó wǔ zhū | links=no }}).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> As these mints were no longer in the habit of making reverse moulds and pairing them with the right molds, these first Wu Zhu and often have rough reverse sides.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-junguo-wuzhu"/> According to the ''[[History of Han]]'' the reverse sides of these ''Jun Guo Wu Zhu'' had a circular rim was added around the square central hole as a security feature against the scraping off of the metal.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/>{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Additionally, many of these early Wu Zhu cash coins tended to have unfiled edges which resulted in them having a rough circumference.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Neither the commanderies nor the kingdoms maintained strong quality controls on their mints resulting in these early Wu Zhu cash coins being very poorly made.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-junguo-wuzhu"/> The ''Jun Guo Wu Zhu'' cash coins constitute a very heterogeneous series of coinages, some of them have barely marked reverses while others have very high edges, some have internal edges that are square, others misshapen, some have curved corners.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-junguo-wuzhu"/> The ''Jun Guo Wu Zhu'' cash coins had a maximum diameter of 33.3 millimeters and a maximum weight of 5.8 grams.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> The ''Jun Guo Wu Zhu'' cash coins are typically large and heavy, with the edges not filed.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} They are generally taken to be the earliest cash coins with the Wu Zhu inscription.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Sometimes they have a rimless reverse.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Since commandery-issued cash coins were often of inferior quality and lighter weight, the central government closed all commandery mints in 113 BC and granted the central government's [[Government of the Han dynasty#Superintendent of Waterways and Parks|Superintendent of Waterways and Parks]] the exclusive right to mint cash coins.<ref name="nishijima 1986 587 588">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|pp=587–588}}.</ref> Although the issue of central government coinage was transferred to the office of the [[Government of the Han dynasty#Minister of Finance|Minister of Finance]] (one of [[Nine Ministers]] of the central government) by the beginning of Eastern Han dynasty period, the central government's monopoly over the issue of coinage persisted.<ref name="bielenstein 1980 83">{{Harvnb|Bielenstein|1980|pp=47 & 83}}.</ref> ==== Chi Ze Wu Zhu ==== In the year 115 BC, [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] ordered that a new series of Wu Zhu cash coins would be cast by the mints in the capital city which would nominally be equal to 5 regular cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/>{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} These cash coins are known as the ''Chi Ze Wu Zhu'' (赤仄五銖 / 赤仄五铢){{Efn|The term ''Chize'' (赤仄) means "Red (or Shining) Edge" or purple edge since, after being removed from the mould, the edges of these coins were filed so that the copper colour of the bare metal showed through. Notably, the Chinese character "Wu" (五) on these cash coins tends to be composed of fairly straight lines.}} and are alternatively known as ''Zhōng guān chì zè'' (鍾官赤仄 / 锺官赤仄).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These ''Chi Ze'' cash coins typically have well made reverse sides as opposed to the more heterogenous ''Jun Guo Wu Zhu'' cash coins.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-junguo-wuzhu"/> These cash coins are lighter than the ''Jun Guo'' versions, and have filed edges.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Upon their introduction, only these were allowed to circulate.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Specimens of this series were taken from the tomb of [[Liu Sheng, Prince of Zhongshan]], who died in 113 BC.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} ==== Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu ==== In the year 113 BC the imperial government monopolised the production of money again and a new series of Wu Zhu cash coins started being produced by the Three Offices of Shang Lin (上林三官).<ref name="Shang-Lin-San-Guan-Fitzwilliam-Museum">{{cite web|url= https://data.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/id/object/237435|title= Wu Zhu, Shang Lin San Guan: CM.185-2015.|quote= Shang Lin San Guan: the Three Offices of Shang Lin Park were the Office for Coinage, Office for the Sorting of Copper, and the Office of Price Equalisation.|date=27 April 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|work= [[Fitzwilliam Museum]], [[University of Cambridge]]|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/>{{Efn|This government agency is alternatively known in the [[English language]] as the "Three Offices of Shang Lin Park" (further reading: "[[Translation of Han dynasty titles]]"), the 3 component agencies of it were the Office for Coinage, Office for the Sorting of Copper, and the Office of Price Equalisation.}} The coins produced by these 3 offices are known as the ''Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu'' (上林三官五銖, ''shàng lín sān guān wǔ zhū''), which, unlike the ''Chi Ze Wu Zhu'' cash coins, did not have an unrealistic value of being equal to 5 regular cash coins, rather they only had the nominal value of a single cash coin.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Most of these cash coins have a raised line above the square central hole on their obverse sides.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> The quality of ''Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu'' cash coins was so high that forgery became unprofitable except to true artisans, great villains, or thieves.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} All earlier circulating cash coins were ordered by the government to be melted down and the copper taken to Shang Lin for the production of new cash coins.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} Despite the monopolisation there were still government officials who expressed their dislike of the exclusive right to produce cash coins by the government.<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan"/> The mandarins argued what [[Sima Qian]] had argued decades before,<ref>[[Sima Qian]], Shiji (''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]''), 30.1442. Beijing ed.; von Glahn, p. 26.</ref> namely that back during ancient times that people [[barter]]ed and had no money, yet marketplaces still existed.<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan"/> Then during the [[Zhou dynasty]] period tortoise and cowrie shells, gold, and bronze coins would be introduced as [[Medium of exchange|media of exchange]].<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan"/> The mandarins argued that these commodities were accepted by the market because of their scarcity, durability, and desirability. Meanwhile the later made cash coins largely derive their value from the fact that the emperor mandated them as valid currency, rather than based on the trust of the people.<ref name="Yantie-lun-Huan-Kuan"/> ==== Wu Zhu cash coins of the Eastern Han dynasty ==== In the year 9 [[Wang Mang]] usurped the throne and created the [[Xin dynasty]] (see "[[Xin dynasty coinage]]"), who reigned until the year 23 when the Han dynasty was restored.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Goodrich |first=Chauncey S. |journal=Oriens |volume=10 |issue=1 |date=July 1957 |pages=114–8 |publisher=Brill |location = Leiden |title=The Reign of Wang Mang: Hsin or New? |doi = 10.2307/1578760|jstor=1578760 }}</ref><ref name="Hymes 2">{{cite book|author=Robert Hymes|editor=John Stewart Bowman|title=Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture|url=https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john|url-access=registration|year=2000|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-11004-4|page=[https://archive.org/details/columbiachronolo00john/page/13 13]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |first=Guiguo |last=Wang |url=http://worldcat.org/oclc/760283452 |title=Radiating impact of WTO on its members' legal system: the Chinese perspective |date=2011 |publisher=Hague Academy of International Law |isbn=978-90-04-21854-3 |oclc=760283452}}</ref> Following the restoration of the Han dynasty (known now as the "[[Eastern Han dynasty]]" in [[Chinese historiography]]) the production of Wu Zhu cash coins resumed.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> At first, the coins of Wang Mang and the Wu Zhu of the Western Han period were continued to be used.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-wuzhu-de-Guangwudi">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphe.htm|title= Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est 東漢 (1). - Eastern Han Wuzhu (1). - 1-Les wuzhu de Guangwudi 光武帝.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref> Once the widespread civil wars following Wang Mang's overthrow abated, the Wu Zhu cash coin was reintroduced by [[Emperor Guangwu of Han|Emperor Guangwu]] (r. 25–57 AD) in 40 AD at the instigation of [[Ma Yuan (Han dynasty)|Ma Yuan]] (14 BC – 49 AD).<ref name="ebrey 1986 609 bielenstein 1986 232 233 nishijima 1986 588">{{Harvnb|Ebrey|1986|p=609}}; {{Harvnb|Bielenstein|1986|pp=232–233}}; {{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=588}}.</ref> The Emperor was advised that the foundation of the wealth of a country depends on a good political economy, which was found in the good old Wu Zhu coinage, and so the government reissued the Wu Zhu cash coins.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} The Guangwu period Wu Zhu cash coins are characterised by a wide "Wu" (五) character, a "Zhu" (銖) character whose point is larger than on earlier Wu Zhu cash coins, the straight part of the "Zhu" character is further less geometric (without right angles) than on the coins of the Western Han dynasty period.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-wuzhu-de-Guangwudi"/> The Warlord [[Dong Zhuo]] moved the capital city from [[Luoyang]] to [[Chang'an]] in the year 190 and proceeded to melt down large bronze statues dating to the beginning of the Qin dynasty in order to manufacture small cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Many of these cash coins produced by the warlord Dong Zhuo were so small that the Chinese would popularly refer to them as either "goose eye cash coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 鵝眼錢 | s= 鹅眼钱 | hp= É yǎn qián | links=no }}) or "chicken eye cash coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 雞目錢 | s= 鸡目钱 | hp= Jī mù qián | links=no }}).<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Despite their rather crude appearances, the Chinese characters present on these smaller coins are actually very well cast in high relief.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> A number of these diminutive cash coins bore the Wu Zhu inscription, but because of their small sized only the left half of the Chinese character "Wu" (五) and the right half of the "Zhu" (銖) character would actually fit on the coin.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> The "Zhu" character present to the left side of the square central hole is notably distinctive in the fact that the character extends from the top of the outer rim to its bottom.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Note that this type of Wu Zhu cash coin is different from what Chinese people typically refer to as "chiselled rim cash coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 鑿邊錢 | s= 凿边钱 | hp= Záo biān qián | links=no }}), where a normal size Wu Zhu cash coin would have had its inside cut out in order to turn a single cash coin into two cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> During the middle of the Eastern Han dynasty period ranging from the reigns of [[Emperor Ming of Han|Emperor Ming]] to [[Emperor Huan of Han|Emperor Huan]] there are only minor fundamental differences in terms of official calligraphic fonts.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-wuzhu-de-Guangwudi"/> Besides the appearance of marks (bars, dots, etc.) these cash coins are fairly homogeneous in both type and module.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-wuzhu-de-Guangwudi"/> During the reign of [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]], a type of Wu Zhu cash coin known as "corner coins" (角錢) are believed to have been produced in the year 186 AD.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Cities in ancient China had [[city walls]] built surrounding them as a means of fortification and protection.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> It is said that the square central hole of these "corner coins" represented the city and that the 4 lines going out of the coin symbolised wealth flowing out, portending the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty in the year 220 AD.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Wu Zhu cash coins would be cast for over 700 years, meaning that it is very difficult to attribute Wu Zhu cash coins to a specific reign or a specific period.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> So it's not always easy to attribute cash coins with this inscription without more context or more knowledge of series.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> The reason why the attribution of Wu Zhu cash coins produced after the fall of the Han dynasty is difficult is because at this time Chinese coins were cast using bronze moulds and, since these moulds would last a long time, they would continue to be used over and over again by subsequent dynasties.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> == Silver coinages == === Bai Jin San Pin === The ''Bai Jin San Pin'' (白金三品, "White metal three kinds"), according to the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'', was introduced in 119 BC during the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] as both the [[Han–Xiongnu War]] and the territorial expansion of the Han Empire caused the [[Government of the Han dynasty|imperial government]] to desperately increase their revenues.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/blog/2020/12/22/turtle-shaped-coin-of-the-han-dynasty/|title= Turtle-Shaped Coin of the Han Dynasty.|date=22 December 2020|accessdate=2 August 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref>张吉保. 再论“白金三品”——从陕西发现“白金三品”之银质马币说起[A]. .西部金融·钱币研究2010年增刊总第四期[C].:,2010:4. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref> Among the reasons why the government started issuing this new type of currency was to remedy the inflation caused by the excessive issuance of bad money, but the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' would prove to be an insufficient solution.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin">{{cite web|url= https://yindingbowuguan.com/m.php/library/detail/id/78.html|title= 西汉时期-汉武帝与白金三品. - 汉朝（公元前202—公元220年），分为西汉和东汉，汉高祖刘邦建立西汉，定都长安，汉光武帝刘秀建立东汉，定都洛阳，西汉与东汉合称两汉。§ 西汉白金三品龙币、龟币、马币|date=2023|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= 银博文库|publisher= Silver Ingot Museum (銀錠博物館)|language=zh-cn}}</ref> The ''Records of the Grand Historian'' claim that the new "white metal" (白金) money was a mixture of [[silver]] and [[tin]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> All of these weighed less than {{convert|120|g|oz|abbr=on}}.<ref name="nishijima 1986 586 587"/> Both the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' and the ''[[Book of Han]]'' mention that the agency responsible for the production of these coins was the ''[[Shaofu (imperial China)|Shaofu]]'' (少府).<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/>{{Efn|Various [[English language|English]] translations of ''Shaofu'' (少府) exist, these include "Privy Treasurer", "Minister Steward", "Chamberlain of the Palace Revenues", and "Superintendent of the Lesser Treasury" (further reading: "[[Translation of Han dynasty titles]]"). The Shaofu was the government agency that oversaw the management of the palace treasury, i.e., the private finances of the Han dynasty'd imperial clan.}} The ''Bai Jin San Pin'' were issued in a total of 3 denominations, these different denominations differ from each other in both shape and surface pattern.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> Additionally, the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' are sometimes described by Chinese numismatists as "cake" coins or "biscuit" coins because, unlike the common cash coins that circulated at the time, they were not thin but rather unusually thick and heavy.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> The back of the dragon coin is concave, with a circle of inscription symbols such as "V", "I", "M", and "N" around the periphery, the meaning of which is unknown, and a square "small" stamp is printed in the middle of the coin.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> The horse coin is very detailed and the back of the horse seems to have wings, which means a flying horse.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> The back of the horse coin is uneven with dents and no pattern, with a square "small" stamp.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> The ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins proved to be unsuccessful and were short-lived.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> The Chinese people considered them to be "[[Fiat currency|empty coins]]" (虛幣) and their effect on the market was [[Inflation (economics)|inflationary]] due to the fact that their nominal value was significantly higher than their intrinsic value.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> Furthermore, these coins were very easily counterfeited using less valuable metals like lead instead of silver.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> The high nominal values of the new silver currency would inspire many to counterfeit the coins.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> Hundreds of thousands were executed and eventually over a million people would be pardoned for counterfeiting after the government decided to reform the monetary system again.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> Government officials called for an improvement of the copper-alloy Wu Zhu to try to remedy the issues that the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' were created to solve.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> After only circulating for 4 years the imperial government officially abolished their circulation in 115 BC.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> List of ''Bai Jin San Pin'' silver coins:<ref>《[[Book of Han|漢書]]·食貨志》載：“造銀錫為白金。 以為天用莫如龍，地用莫如馬，人用莫如龜，故白金三品。 ” (in [[Classical Chinese]]).</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> {| class="wikitable" |- ! Design !! [[Nominal value]] !! Shape !! Description !! Diameter !! Thickness !! Weight in [[tael]]s{{br}}(Weight in grams){{Efn|The weights in taels were mentioned in the historical sources, weights in grams based on modern specimens.}} !! Image |- | [[Turtle]]{{br}}(烏龜) || 300 [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coins]] || Oval || The symbolism of [[Turtle shell|domed shell]] of the turtle represents the round sky above and its flat bottom symbolises the [[flat earth]] below. Therefore, the image of the turtle represented the [[Han Chinese people]] who live beneath the vaulted sky and stand on the earth. || 4 cm x 2 cm || || 4 tael{{br}}(12 grams) || [[File:Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) rubbings - Zhihu (知乎) 08.png|75px]] |- | [[Horse]]{{br}}(馬) || 500 cash coins || Square || The square shape is meant to represent the [[Di (Chinese concept)|ancient Chinese concept of "earth"]]. The horse is described as having its "head upright, chest high, with three legs on the ground and one hoof raised, full of vigor, and imposing momentum". || 3.0 centimeters || 0.2 centimeters || 6 tael{{br}}(18 grams) || [[File:Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) rubbings - Zhihu (知乎) 05.png|75px]] |- | [[Chinese dragon|Dragon]]{{br}}(龍) || 3000 cash coins || Circle || The dragon ''Bai Jin San Pin'' was round in shape, which was meant to represent the Chinese concept of ''[[tian]]'' (the sky or heavens). The dragon's pattern design has been described as having a "long mouth, long neck, one horn, and flying through the clouds". || 5.5 centimeters || 0.4 centimeters || 8 tael{{br}}(146 grams) || [[File:Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) rubbings - Zhihu (知乎) 02.png|75px]] |} While the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins are generally recognised to be the "first official silver coins produced in China".<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> The ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins are neither pure silver nor are they shaped like traditional coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> Furthermore, a number of silver coins predating the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins are known to exist, this includes [[Warring States period]] [[Spade money#Silver spade money|silver spade money]] and [[Ban Liang#Silver Ban Liang cash coins|silver Ban Liang cash coins]] attributed to the [[Qin (state)|State of Qin]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> However, none of these older silver coins are mentioned in any extent official documents.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> It is therefore more accurate to describe the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' as the "first legal silver coins minted by the government for general circulation and recorded in official documents".<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> ==== Lead ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins ==== While the ''Records of the Grand Historian'' describes the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins as being made of a silver-tin alloy (described as a "white metal"), no specimens of these coins were known to exist until a number of of turtle, horse, and dragons coins fitting the descriptions of these coins [[List of coin hoards in China|began to be excavated]] in the 1980s at various archaeological digs.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> However, these ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins were all made of [[lead]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref>师小群,党顺民. 龙纹铅饼探[J]. 文博,2004(01):51-54.(in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref><ref>夏鼐：《外国字铭文的汉代（？）铜饼》，《夏鼐文集》（下册），社会科学文献出版社，2000年，第3－9页。(in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref> The authenticity of these lead ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins was called into question as these were never mentioned by any historical texts and no silver ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins were found at that point.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> In 2003 an academic seminar was held in [[Hanzhong]], [[Shaanxi]] where scholars would discuss the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' and what was known at the time about it to try to reach a consensus about it.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/><ref>周延龄. 西汉铅饼相关问题再探[J]. 西安金融,2004(04):62-63. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref> The scholars generally agreed on the shape and size of the coins, and the scholars reached a consensus on the idea that the coins were cast during the reign of Emperor Wu.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> Consensus was also reached that the period from issuance to its abolition lasted about 6 six years and because of their high nominal values that only small quantities were produced.<ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> Officially, the [[laws of the Han dynasty]] prohibited the government from issuing coinages made using [[base metal]]s (including lead).<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> These lead coins are likely either [[counterfeit money]] or [[Chinese burial money|burial money]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> Counterfeiting circulating currency was common throughout Chinese history and because the nominal value of the ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins was so high it was both easy and highly profitable to make lead counterfeits.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> However, as only the emperor had the legal right to produce coins during this period and the Han dynasty government issued the [[capital punishment]] for counterfeiters, thousands were executed.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin"/> It wasn't until 2007 that the first silver horse ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coin [[List of coin hoards in China#2007 (Mainland China)|was discovered]] in the [[Shaanxi]] province and until 2013 that the first silver turtle ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coin was found in [[Xi'an]] (which was known as [[Chang'an]] during the Han dynasty period).<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref>王泰初. 西安发现龟形银币“白金三品”材质之争尘埃落定. 收藏界, 2013(04):65-66. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref> The discovery of these silver coins confirmed that these were indeed the authentic legal coins as described in the ancient texts and that the lead coins weren't.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/> As of December 2020 no authentic silver dragon ''Bai Jin San Pin'' coins are known to exist.<ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty"/><ref>姜宝莲. 扬州汉墓出土“龙纹铅饼”初探[N]. 中国文物报,2016-12-13(005). (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref> == Gold coinages == [[File:Golden variant of Wu Zhu coin.jpg|thumb|right|A golden [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) [[Cash (Chinese coin)|cash coin]] produced during the Han dynasty period.]] The chapter on the ''equalisation of agronomical matters'' (平準書) in the ''[[Records of the Grand Historian]]'' explains that after the Qin dynasty unified China that it introduced both copper-alloy cash coins and gold coins known as ''Yi'' (鎰).<ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Huanqian">{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://chinaknowledge.de/History/Terms/huanqian.html|title= huanqian 圜錢, round coins of the Warring States and the Qin Periods.|date=24 June 2016|access-date=5 August 2023|encyclopedia= By Ulrich Theobald ([[Chinaknowledge]] - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art).|language=en}}</ref> These gold coins, like the Ban Liang cash coins, had inscriptions that indicated their weight.<ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Huanqian"/> During the Qin dynasty period other precious objects were also a means of payment, but they were not perceived as money.<ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Huanqian"/> While the Han dynasty didn't immediately reform the "low currency" (下幣 / 下币) copper-alloy Ban Liang cash coins used by the preceding Qin dynasty, it did reform the "high currency" (上幣 / 上币), namely gold.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> While during the Qin dynasty gold was denominated and weighed in [[tael]]s (兩) it would now be denominated in [[Catty|catties]] (斤). During the Han dynasty period a single catty weighed about 250~300 grams.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> Prior to the Han dynasty period, [[jade]] had a long history of use in China, gold was in itself a ‘new’ element of Chinese culture as was gold coinage.<ref name="The-New-Use-of-Gold-in-Han-Dynasty-China">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/abs/exotica-fashion-and-immortality-the-new-use-of-gold-in-han-dynasty-china-206-bcece-220/B73619A2E56CCA2ED870E4E8E287BC6A|title= Exotica, Fashion and Immortality: The New Use of Gold in Han Dynasty China (206 BCE–CE 220).|date=9 November 2021|accessdate=10 August 2023|author= S. Wang|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|language=en}}</ref> During the Han dynasty one catty of gold currency was valued at around ten thousand bronze Ban Liang cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins"/> == List of Han dynasty cash coins == {{Further|List of Chinese cash coins by inscription|Wu Zhu#List of types of Wu Zhu coins}} {| class="wikitable" |- ! Type !! Inscription{{br}}([[Traditional Chinese]]) !! [[#Catalogue numbers|Catalogue numbers]] !! Image |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''[[Ban Liang]] cash coins - Qin / Han type (220-180 BC).'''{{br}}Weight about 5 grams, reverse plain and flat. |- | Normal ''ban''.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.8, FD #415, Schjøth #88-91 || [[File:029 S-88 or 82, W. Han Ban Liang, Empress Gao, 187-180, 34mm.jpg|75px]] |- | ''Ban'' inverted.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.9, FD #417 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Ban Liang cash coins - Western Han dynasty types''' |- | "Elm seed" cash coins (榆莢錢). Very small. (200-180 BC).{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.10-7.13, FD #411-414, Schjøth #86-87 || [[File:S562 yujiabanliang Han 1 (8213165385).jpg|75px]] |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Wu Fen Ban Liang cash coins (五分半兩錢), weight of 2.4 ''zhu''.''' Small coins, large hole. (182-175 BC). |- | Normal inscription.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.14, FD #421 || |- | Inscription repeated above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩半兩) || Hartill #7.15, FD #420 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Nominal weight of 4 ''zhu'' (actual weight of 3 grams or less). No rims. (175-119 BC).''' |- | Bottom of the Liang looks like M.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.16 || |- | Bottom of the Liang looks like a sideways E.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.17, FD #422, Schjøth #92-95 || [[File:030 S-93 W. Han Ban Liang, Wendi, 179-157 BC, 24mm.jpg|75px]] |- | Inscription reversed.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Liang Ban{{br}}(兩半) || Hartill #7.18, FD #425, Schjøth #96-99 || |- | Two lines above the hole.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.19 || |- | Vertical line above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.20, FD #423 || |- | Dot and crescent ("Sun and Moon") above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.21, FD #424 || |- | "Wu" (五) sideways below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Wu{{br}}(半兩五) || Hartill #7.22 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | It is thought that the additional characters on '''Hartill #7.23-7.27''' are personal names. |- | ''Zhu San'' (主三) sideways above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Zhu San{{br}}(半兩主三) || Hartill #7.23 || |- | Bei? (貝?) sideways above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Bei Bei{{br}}(半兩貝貝) || Hartill #7.24 || |- | Shang Wen (上問) above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Shang Wen{{br}}(半兩上問) || Hartill #7.25 || |- | Tai Chang (太常) sideways above and below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Tai Chang{{br}}(半兩太常) || Hartill #7.26 || |- | Hu Yu Gong (胡羽公) below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang Hu Yu Gong{{br}}(半兩胡羽公) || Hartill #7.27 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Iron Ban Liang cash coins of the Western Han dynasty.''' |- | [[Tieqian|Iron cash coin]]. (Many of these have been found in the [[Hunan]] province.){{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.28 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Nominal weight 4 ''zhu''. Coins with rims. (136-119 BC).''' |- | Bottom of the Liang looks like a sideways E.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.29, FD #433, Schjøth #104 &c || [[File:034 S-104 W. Han Ban Liang, Han Wudi, 140-87 BC, 23.5mm.jpg|75px]] |- | Two lines below.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.30, FD #434 || |- | Inscription reversed.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Liang Ban{{br}}(兩半) || Hartill #7.31, FD #435 || |- | Bottom of the Liang character looks like M. Fine workmanship.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=84}} || Ban Liang{{br}}(半兩) || Hartill #7.32, FD #432 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''[[San Zhu]] cash coins (三銖錢).''' |- | With outer rim.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || San Zhu{{br}}(三銖) || Hartill #8.1, FD #431, Schjøth #103 || |- | No rim.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || San Zhu{{br}}(三銖) || Hartill #8.2 || |- | Inscription reversed.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Zhu San{{br}}(銖三) || Hartill #8.3 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Jun Guo [[Wu Zhu]] cash coins (君國五銖錢).''' |- | Jun Guo Wu Zhu.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.4, FD #441, Schjøth #114 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Chi Ze Wu Zhu cash coins (赤仄五銖錢).'''{{Efn|Chi Ze (赤仄) means "Red (or Shining) Edge", referring to the red copper showing when the edges were filed smooth.}} |- | Chi Ze Wu Zhu.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.5 || |- | Chi Ze Wu Zhu.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.6 || |- | Chi Ze Wu Zhu.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.7 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu cash coins (上林三官五銖錢).''' |- | Shang Lin San Guan Wu Zhu.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.8, Schjøth #115 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Other Western Han Wu Zhu cash coins.''' |- | No rim above the hole. c. 90 BC.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.9 || |- | Half-moon mark below the hole. Distinguish from Hartill #10.34, cf Hartill #9.49.{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.10 || |- | Small "Wu" (五), typical of moulds dating from the reign of [[Emperor Xuan of Han|Emperor Xuan]] (73-49 BC).{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.11 || |- | Dot above the hole. Also found on Eastern Han Wu Zhus. (See Hartill #10.32).{{Sfn|Hartill|2005|p=85}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #8.12 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Early Wu Zhu cash coins produced by the Eastern Han dynasty and rebellions.''' |- | [[Tieqian#Chengjia|Iron Wu Zhu]]. Resembles the W. Han coin. Two of which were considered to be equal to one copper-alloy cash coin. Cast by the rebel state of [[Chengjia]].{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Harrill #10.1, FD #509 || |- | Jian Wu Wu Zhu (建武五銖). Head of the 朱 component of the "Zhu" (銖) character is rounded, typical of the Eastern Han dynasty period.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Harrill #10.2, FD #510, Schjøth #178 || |- | colspan=4 align="center" style="background:#efefef;" | '''Si Chu (Four Corner) Wu Zhu (四出五銖).'''{{br}}{{Small|Attributed to the Eastern Han period [[Emperor Ling of Han|Emperor Ling]], AD 186. The 4 lines are commonly said to represent wealth flowing from a ruined city, an omen of the [[End of the Han dynasty|overthrow of the Han dynasty]].}} |- | Four lines on the reverse side.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #10.3, FD #512, Schjøth #179 || |- | Two dots in the "Wu" (五).{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Hartill #10.4 || |- | Inscription reversed.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Zhu Wu{{br}}(銖五) || Hartill #10.5, FD #513 || |- | Two dots above and below hole on obverse.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Harrill #10.6 || |- | Four dots on the reverse.{{sfn|Hartill|2005|p=91}} || Wu Zhu{{br}}(五銖) || Harrill #10.7 || |} == Manufacturing processes == === "Upright casting" with piece moulds === The initial method of producing cash coins during the Han dynasty period was known as "Upright Casting" with piece moulds (板范豎式澆鑄).<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting">{{cite web|url= https://www.academia.edu/25740794|title= Mints and Minting in Late Imperial China Technology Organisation and Problems.|date=2015|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Cao Jin (曹晉)|publisher= [[Academia.edu]]|language=en}}</ref> This was the first form of metal casting known in China and dates back as far as the [[Shang dynasty]] and [[Western Zhou dynasty]] periods, this manufacturing technique would be used continually from the middle and later parts of the [[Spring and Autumn period]] of the [[Zhou dynasty|Zhou period]] until as late as the Western Han dynasty.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> From the beginning coin casting was done at generalised bronze casting workshops that specialised in bronze objects and like the casting moulds of the [[Aes grave|aes]] the moulds used for early Chinese coinages were made of clay.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/><ref>Crawford, Michael Hewson. - ''Roman Republican Coinage, Vol. 1'' ([[Cambridge]]: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1974). Page: 589.</ref><ref>Hai-ping Lian, Zhong-ming Ding, and Xiang Zhou - ''Clay molds for casting metal molds used in minting techniques in the Han Dynasty'' Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology 24 (Supplement), 87-97.</ref> Different manufacturing techniques had different advantages and disadvantages, the formed and baked clay moulds that were commonplace before this era saw rising competition from stone moulds, this was because the carved moulds that were utilised were made of soft stones and they were were easily made and their creation was ad a lower cost because they could be utilised in coin production more than once, as opposed to stone moulds.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> While they were better to use than clay moulds, stone moulds had the tendency to become brittle with ease during the casting process, so manufacturers would soon introduce bronze casting moulds.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> This evolution was paired with larger interiors for the moulds so that they were capable of producing even more cash coins during a single casting session, during the early Western Han period these larger bronze moulds could produce as much as several dozens of cash coins at a time and unlike the earlier moulds they could be used much more often.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> The casting process in these early moulds worked in a way that two mould-sections were placed together, then the core of the mould was placed into the top area, then the bronze smiths would pour molten metal into an opening that was formed by a cavity that was located in its centre.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/><ref>[[Peng Xinwei]] (彭信威). - ''Zhongguo huobi shi'' (中國貨幣史, "A history of Chinese currency") – [[Shanghai]]: Shanghai renmin chubanshe, 1965. Page: 41. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref><ref>Glahn, Richard von. - ''Fountain of Fortune: Money and Monetary Policy in China, 1000-1700'' ([[Berkeley, California|Berkeley]], [[California]]: [[University of California Press]], 1996). Page: 48.</ref><ref>Vogel, Hans Ulrich. ‘Chinese Central Monetary Policy, 1600-1844’, in Late Imperial China, 8/2 (1987), pp. 1-52. Wagner, Donald B. Ferrous Metallurgy ([[Cambridge]]: [[Cambridge University Press]], 2008). Page: 15.</ref> === "Stack casting" === "Stack casting" (疊鑄) is a method of cash coin casting where large quantities of identical coin moulds were placed together in a way that they were all connected to a single common casting gate, this allowed for a very large quantity of objects to be manufactured in only a single casting session, saving time, labour power, metal, materials for fuel, and refractory material.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/>{{Sfn|Wagner|2008|p=154}} Historians still debate when the "stack casting" method was first used, some believe that it originated during the Warring States period while others than it started sometime during the Western Han dynasty period by commoners.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/>{{Sfn|Hua Jueming|1983|p=242-246}} While some Ban Liang cash coins of the early Western Han dynasty period and the 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins were produced using this method.<ref name="Study-on-the-stack-casting-SCA">Hai-ping Lian, Zhong-ming Ding, Xiang Zhou, and Hui-kang Xu - ''Study on the stack-casting techniques for casting coins of the Han Dynasty in China'' Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology 20 (Supplement), 53-61. Quote: "The stack - casting was used for casting the Banliang coins of the early Western Han Dynasty (206B.C.-A.D. 8) and the bronze coins of the Xin Empire (A.D. 9-23 ) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 23-220) . It was a main technique for casting bronze coins from the Eastern Han to the time that the sand-mold casting was used. Some Banliang coins of the early Western Han Dynasty and Sizhubanliang coins of the middle Western Han Dynasty were also cast by the stack-casting. But Wuzhu coins were not found to be cast by the stack - casting technique."</ref> It wasn't until it was adopted by the imperial Chinese government during the [[Xin dynasty]] period, under the rule of Emperor [[Wang Mang]], that this technique would become the most common method for the production of cash coins.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/><ref>Shaanxi sheng bowuguan (陝西省博物館) - ‘Xi'an beijiao xinmang qianfan jiao zhi qingli jianbao’ (西安北郊新莽錢范窖址清理簡報, "A briefing of sorting out the ancient oven of making coins moulds during the Xin period (9-23AD) at the suburb north to Xi'an"), in Wenwu (文物, "Cutural relics"), 11 (1959), pp. 12–13. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref><ref>Zhou Weirong (周衛榮) - ‘Zhongguo chuantong zhuqian gongyi chutan’ (中國傳統鑄錢工藝初探) [A primary research of Chinese-traditional coin-cast techniques], in ''Zhongguo qianbi lunwen ji'' (中國錢幣論文集) [A collection of papers on Chinese numismatics], 4 (2002), pp. 198–214. Zhou Weirong (2002a), pp. 13-20. 14</ref> The adoption of this casting method allowed for the government to produce more cash coins, as during the Xin dynasty a single cast could produce 184 cash coins, a number which wasn't possible to have been achieved with the earlier "Upright Casting" technique of manufacturing cash coins.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> A 2004 simulation experiment managed to cast 480 coins during a single casting process with this technique.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/><ref>Dai Zhiqiang (戴志强), Zhou Weirong (周衛榮), Shi Jilong (施繼龍), Dong Yawei (董亞巍), and Wang Changsui (王昌燧). - ‘Xiao Liang qianbi zhuzao gongyi yu moni shiyan’ (蕭梁錢幣鑄造工藝模擬驗) [The coinage casting technique of the Liang Dynasty in the Six Dynasties and its simulation experiment], in Zhongguo qianbi (中國錢幣) [Chinese numismatics], 3 (2004), pp. 3-9. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]]).</ref> From the Eastern Han dynasty period until the adoption of sand-mould casting this would be the main technique for casting bronze cash coins in China.<ref name="Study-on-the-stack-casting-SCA"/> The "stack casting" method would continue to be improved over the ages and was used in China until the end of the [[Southern dynasties]] during the [[Northern and Southern dynasties]] period.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/> In China the "stack casting" method would be superseded by the sand casting method for producing cash coins sometime during the 5th and 6th centuries, but the "stack casting" method endured in [[Vietnam]] until as late as the 19th century, as the [[French Indochina|French colonial authorities]] reported on the [[Nguyễn dynasty]] still using the "stack casting" method for producing cash coins until modern machine-struck cash coins were introduced.<ref name="Cao-Jin-Cash-coin-casting"/><ref>Schroeder, Albert. - ''Annam: études numismatiques'' ([[Paris]]: Imprimerie nationale, E. Leroux, 1905). Pl. XXIV, XXV. (in [[French language|French]]).</ref> == Mintage numbers == From 118 BC to 5 AD, the government minted over 28,000,000,000 cash coins, with an annual average of 220,000,000 coins minted (or 220,000 [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|strings]] of 1,000 cash coins).<ref name="nishijima 1986 588">{{Harvnb|Nishijima|1986|p=588}}.</ref> In comparison, the [[Chinese era name|Tianbao period]] (天寶) (742–755 AD) of the Tang dynasty produced 327,000,000 coins every year while 3,000,000,000 cash coins in 1045 AD and 5,860,000,000 cash coins in 1080 AD were made in the [[Economy of the Song dynasty|Song dynasty]] (960–1279 AD).<ref name="nishijima 1986 588"/> == Han dynasty coin charms == {{Further|Chinese numismatic charm}} === The emergence of Chinese numismatic charms === As China was one of the first countries in the world to use metal coinage and its ancient history and this usage can be traced back well over two thousand years it also also an ancient history of [[Exonumia|exonumismatics]], the evolution of [[ancient Chinese coinage]] has gone side-by-side with the evolution of "coin-like" charms, amulets, and talismans.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/|title= Ancient Chinese Charms and Coins. - Introduction to Chinese Charms|date=16 November 2016|access-date=29 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)}}</ref> Cast throughout the centuries, these are referred to in [[English language|English]] as "[[Chinese numismatic charm]]s".<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Informally the Chinese referred to them as "yansheng coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 厭勝錢 | s=厌胜钱 | hp= yàn shèng qián | links=no }}), "ya sheng coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 壓勝錢 | s= 压胜钱 | hp= yā shèng qián | links=no }}), "flower coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 花錢 | s= 花钱 | hp= huā qián | links=no }}), or "play coins" ({{zh |first=t | t= 玩錢 | s= 玩钱 | hp= wán qián | links=no }}).<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> The term "Yansheng" means "to curse" (厭) on the evil spirits so as "to crush" (勝) them, and later these numismatic charms started to bear the meaning of inviting good fortune and warding off evil spirits.<ref name="Jian-Hu-December-2016">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_9|title= Lucky Charms from the Ming and the Qing Dynasties.|date=10 December 2016|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Jian Hu|publisher= [[Springer Publishing]], [[Singapore]]|language=en}}</ref> Today, Chinese numismatic charms are often referred to as "flower coins" (花錢).<ref name="Jian-Hu-December-2016"/> Chinese coin-like charms, are generally agreed to date back to the second century CE and continued to be used until middle of the 20th century.<ref>Fang and Thierry (2016), page: 1.</ref> While the making of numismatic charms first appeared during the Western Han dynasty period, they flourished, both in terms of quantity and quality, during the [[Ming dynasty|Ming]] and [[Qing dynasty|Qing dynasties]].<ref name="Jian-Hu-December-2016"/> Symbols began to appear on certain Chinese coins starting about 2,000 years ago.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/yinyangfiveelements.html|title= "Yin Yang" and the "Five Elements" as the Basis for Star, Moon, Cloud, and Dragon Symbols on Ancient Chinese Coins and Charms.|date=24 July 2021|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> Initially, these symbols were very simple such as raised "dots" (representing stars) and raised crescent-shaped lines (representing the moon) before evolving into more complicated symbols and eventually into the complex Chinese numismatic charms of later dynasties.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> These numismatic charms did not serve as any form of official coinage but merely took the form of money, as the concept of money represents power.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Coin-shaped charms are, therefore in the mind of the ancient Chinese, a very compact form of power and were used to suppress evil spirits, bring "good luck", "good fortune", and to avert possible misfortune.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> These coin-like amulets were then filled with various types of symbolism and are believed by the multitude of Chinese to have vast powers.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> While many of the very earliest forms of monetary instruments found in Chinese history had inscriptions (legends) which identified their place (state or kingdom) of production, some also included their denominations.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Gradually, other notations began to appear on Chinese coins, these symbols included dots, crescents, circles, lines and blobs.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These various types of simple marks and symbols can be found to be made "in relief" into the coin, which is commonly known as ''yangwen'' ({{zh |first=t | t= 陽文 | s= 阳文 | hp= Yáng wén | links=no }}), where they protrude above the surface of the coin, or they may be carved, engraved or incused into the coin, which is commonly known as ''yinwen'' ({{zh |first=t | t= 陰文 | s= 阴文 | hp= Yīn wén | links=no }}).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> While these early simple symbols that appeared on ancient Chinese coinage are not well understood by numismatists today, they are believed to represent stars, moons, suns, numbers, etc. ([[#"Yin Yang" and the "Five Elements" as the basis for Star, Moon, Cloud, and Dragon symbols on ancient Chinese coins and charms|see below]]).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> The Han dynasty period is notable in the history of Chinese numismatic charms as it is the definite period in which the first widely accepted ''true charms'' were produced.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Though it is not exactly known when "good luck" charms first appeared in China, the precursors to Chinese numismatic charms can be traced back to at least the 7th to 4th century BC.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> For example, there is a [[Qi (state)|Qi Kingdom]] "three character knife" (a type of [[knife money]]) with the character ''ji'' (吉) meaning "auspicious", it is generally believed that this character derived from a character on ancient [[oracle bone script]] character meaning "to pray for luck".<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Near the end of the [[Warring States period]] a "一刀" round coin also had this same character.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Many scholars of numismatics and exonumismatics now believe that the first ''true'' charms and amulets in Chinese history actually appeared during the Han dynasty period, this claim is further strengthened by archaeological evidence.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Some of these early Chinese numismatic charms that were discovered were meant to be worn (see "[[Chinese pendant charms]]").<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> The reasons for the emergence of Chinese numismatic charms are complex and is likely due to the private production of money and monetary products during this period.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Typically throughout history central governments usually attempt to monopolise the production of money in order to minimise financial chaos.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> In so doing, the private production and minting is usually prohibited.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Following the unification of China under [[Qin Shi Huang]] he abolished all existing forms of money that circulated in China at the time ([[spade money]], knife money, [[Huanqian|round coins]], Etc.) and established and made the [[Ban Liang]] cash coins the sole legal currency of China.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Despite the fact that Ban Liang cash coins had an officially stipulated standard size and weight, the large number of pieces that have survived from that era show that there was a wide variation in their actual sizes and weights.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> This indicates that, despite the creation of a unified monetary system throughout the Chinese Empire, the actual casting coins in the country remained decentralised.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> During the [[Qin dynasty]] period some Ban Liang cash coins had raised dots on their surface which possibly were meant to represent stars.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> During the Western Han dynasty period Ban Liang cash coins with horizontal and vertical lines as well as with raised dots began to be seen, these could possibly be explained as representing the stars, moon, and sun.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Many of the later made Wu Zhu cash coins also "auspicious symbols" including stars and star constellations, the moon, the sun, clouds, swords, swastikas both above and below the square hole, [[Chinese dragon|dragons]], auspicious animals such as the turtle and snake, etc.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> It is thought by scholars that these symbols relate to a number of fundamental beliefs held by the ancient Chinese people relating to various concepts such as [[yin and yang]] and the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> It is unknown when "dots" began to appear, but it was during the Western Han dynasty that they became more frequently seen on Ban Liang cash coins produced during this era, these "dots" are among the first and most common symbols to appear on early Chinese coinage.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These "dots" are typically very small and are raised above at the same level as any Chinese seal script character found on the the observe of the cash coin as well as the rims surrounding the edge of the cash coin or its square central hole.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> This is an indication that these symbols were indeed intentionally carved into the mould that was used to produce the coinage.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> However, in some cases, these "dots" are located below the surface of the cash coin indicating they had to have been engraved or incused later on the cash coin following their mintage and not during.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These "dots" can be located on both the obverse and reverse sides of these early cash coins and their quantity can range from one to multiple.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> This very simple symbol would mark the initial step in a development that would later evolve into the much more sophisticated symbolism that would later be found on the charms and amulets produced during the reigns of later Chinese dynasties.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> During the reign of the Han dynasty [[Empress Lü Zhi]] an edict was issued prohibiting private citizens from producing money, meaning that that counterfeiting had run rampant.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> During the reign of [[Emperor Wen of Han|Emperor Wen]] this prohibition on the private production of currency was abolished.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> One of the personally favourite officials of Emperor Wen, Senior Grand Master [[Deng Tong]] (鄧通),<ref>Cang Xiuliang (倉修良), ed. (1996). ''Hanshu cidian'' (漢書辭典) - (Jinan: Shandong jiaoyu chubanshe), 998.</ref> issued currency that is said to have "prevailed throughout the realm".<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> Deng Tong was allowed to produce cash coins for a total of 3 years and to bring "more happiness" (多福) to the people he added an extra bit of metal both above and below the square central hole to differentiate his privately cast 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins from other 4 ''zhu'' Ban Liang cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Although later in subsequent [[dynasties in Chinese history]] they would again attempt to prohibit non-state coinage production the private market would continue to produce cash coins to offset demand. While the primary purpose of this production was to be profitable, a good part of the casting was because the ancient Chinese people believed that coin-like charms can avert misfortune, to celebrate happy events, and to control evil.<ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms"/> As various symbols on cash coins such as "numbers", dots, crescents, circles, Chinese characters, and other symbols were cast beginning in the Eastern Han Dynasty and continued until manufacturing of cash coins with the Wu Zhu inscription finally ceased with the introduction of the [[Kaiyuan Tongbao]] series of cash coins near the end of the 6th century, it is speculated that these early precursors to Chinese numismatic charms were produced locally or privately cast.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> This is because the Eastern Han dynasty period until the early [[Tang dynasty]] period was filled with tremendous eras of unrest and widespread economic insecurities throughout China causing for the private and local production of cash coins to become widespread during this era.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> === Dots, crescents, circles, numbers, counting rods, Chinese characters, and other symbols appearing on coins === [[File:Wu Chu charm - John Ferguson 07.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) cash coin charm with 3 "dots" and a crescent.]] During the middle period of the [[Eastern Han dynasty]], marked the beginning of the appearance of marks, such as bars (thick stripes), above or below the hole, dots, lines above or below the characters.<ref name="TransAsiart-période-médiane-des-Han-de-l'Est">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphe2.htm|title= Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est 東漢 (2). - Eastern Han Wuzhu (2). - 2-Les wuzhu de la période médiane des Han de l'Est avec marques.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref> In this period, the coins keep a quality similar to that of the cash coins of the Western Han dynasty period.<ref name="TransAsiart-période-médiane-des-Han-de-l'Est"/> According to [[France|French]] numismatist [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] the meaning of the marks is, as with those of the Western Han dynasty period, an enigma that has yet to be definitively solved.<ref name="TransAsiart-période-médiane-des-Han-de-l'Est"/> Following "dots", another common symbol found on early ancient Chinese coins from this period is the [[crescent]], which was first introduced on Ban Liang cash coins during the Western Han dynasty.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Crescents sometimes resemble the mark that a human [[fingernail]] would make if pressed on a soft surface.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These crescents are found both on the obverse and reverse sides of cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> The moon or crescent marks are variously referred to by the Chinese under a number of names, namely "moon lines" ({{zh |first=t | t= 月紋 | s= 月纹 | hp= Yuè wén | links=no }}), "nail lines" ({{zh |first=t | t= 甲紋 | s= 甲纹 | hp= Jiǎ wén | links=no }}), or "moon marks" ({{zh |first=t | t= 月痕 | s= 月痕 | hp= Yuè hén | links=no }}).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> While the most common appearance of crescents on cash coins show only a single crescent, cash coins with two, three, or as much as four crescents are also known to exist.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Another symbol in the form small circles, which are believed to represent the "sun", are occasionally seen on early Chinese cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> During the Eastern Han dynasty these circles were commonly found on Wu Zhu cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> During the middle of the Eastern Han dynasty period ranging from the reigns of [[Emperor Ming of Han|Emperor Ming]] to [[Emperor Huan of Han|Emperor Huan]] these marks became much more common than they previously were.<ref name="TransAsiart-Les-wuzhu-de-Guangwudi"/> During the Eastern Han dynasty period vertical, slanted, and horizontal lines, sometimes only a single line and sometimes using multiple lines, frequently began to appear on Wu Zhu cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> These lines are generally believed by numismatists to represent [[Chinese numerals]], examples include "一" (one), "二" (two), and "三" (three).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Larger numbers are usually written in their respective Chinese seal script character as opposed to lines, examples include "six" (六), "nine" (九), "ten" (十), etc.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> While the original reason for these lines remains unknown, they do not appear to be indication any denominational "value" or "worth" of these cash coins, meaning that a Chinese character indicating "six" (六) does not correspond with a token value of 6 standard cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Instead, numismatists speculate that these "numbers" were used to indicate some sort of "quantity" or "measure" although it remains unclear in what capacity they were used as such and how they were meant to be interpreted.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> In the [[Shu Han]] Kingdom, Wu Zhu cash coins with 3 vertical lines, particularly incused lines, are often interpreted as meaning the word "river", based on the Chinese character "川".<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Other than regular Chinese numbers, [[Chinese numerals#Counting rod and Suzhou numerals|Chinese rod numerals]] are also found on some ancient cash coins, the Chinese rod system was based on short sticks (called "counting rods") and their various configurations represented "rod numbers" or "rod numerals". These "counting rods", speculatively, could be placed in various positions to indicate numbers within a box specifically made for this purpose.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> By placing these "counting rods" in different positions and orientations, enabling addition and subtraction and other mathematical calculations to be utilised as would later be possible with the (much) later invented [[abacus]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> During the [[Xin dynasty]] the "Value 10" [[Spade money|spade coin]] used rod numbers to indicate it's denomination setting up precedence for rod numbers to appear on the Wu Zhu cash coins of the Eastern Han dynasty and later periods.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Various Chinese seal script characters also appeared on early Chinese coinages which would later influence Chinese numismatic charms.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Amongst the most common characters are "small" (小), "level" such as a "plain" (平), "work" or "industry" (工), "field" (田), and "King" (王).<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> The reason for these Chinese characters remain unknown, [[Gary Ashkenazy]] from the ''Primaltrek'' website notes that they "were probably used to indicate the scope or limits in which the coins were intended to circulate" indicating that they might have been included to indicate that these cash coins were only meant to circulate in areas that were designated by the placement of these characters.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> As the character "王" might indicate the surname "[[Wang (surname)|Wang]]" and "田" the surname "[[Tian (surname)|Tian]]", it is possible that some of these characters might have indicated that these cash coins were possibly possessed or manufactured by a specific individual or family.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> Other "auspicious symbols", such as the [[swastika]], are also commonly found on some Wu Zhu cash coins.<ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms"/> === "Yin Yang" and the "Five Elements" as the basis for Star, Moon, Cloud, and Dragon symbols on ancient Chinese coins and charms === On early cash coins the "dots" are typically referred to as "stars" and the crescents as "moons", respectively by the Chinese.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> As time went by the complexity of these symbols began to increase and irregular round-shaped forms, known as "clouds" (雲 / 云) or "auspicious clouds" (祥雲 / 祥云) began to appear.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> Finally, another symbol referred to by Chinese numismatists known as "[[Chinese dragon|dragons]]" (龍 / 龙) appeared.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> As there are no clear indications when or why these symbols began to appear on ancient Chinese coins a number hypotheses have been put forward.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> The most popular hypothesis regarding the appearance of crescents, or "moons", is that they were in fact "marks of celebrities", namely that a famous person (for example, an empress-consort) would impress their fingernail into a clay coin mould before it had hardened after drying up, not unlike [[United States|American]] celebrities (namely actors and actresses) impressing their hands into the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] in front of [[Grauman's Chinese Theatre]] today.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> Meanwhile for the "dots", also known as "stars", the leading hypothesis is that the traditional Chinese character character for "star" (星) not only referred to the celestial bodies but also "to spread" or "to disseminate", through the antiquated definition of ''bù'' (布), or alternatively ''sàn'' (散) meaning "to distribute" or "to give out".<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> These alternative readings then meant that the presence of "stars" on cash coins had a meaning that cash coins, like the star-studded sky, widespread, and numerous, should likewise be distributed throughout the Chinese Empire (or "the world").<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> An alternative hypothesis for the appearance of "dots" (or "stars"), crescents (or "moons"), "auspicious clouds", and "dragons" on cash coins is that they relate to the [[Chinese philosophy|philosophy]] and [[Religion in China|religious beliefs]] present in ancient China during the Zhou, Qin, and Han dynasty periods.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> Namely, the ancient Chinese belief in [[yin and yang]] and the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]], which in ancient Chinese thought was used to explain both the structure of the earth and the universe in which the planet existed.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> The ancient Chinese word for "coin" (泉) was identical to the ancient Chinese word for "[[Spring (hydrology)|spring]]" (泉), meaning that cash coins were associated with the [[Water (wuxing)|element of "water"]].<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> The ancient Chinese believed that water was the accumulated cold air (vapours) of ''yin'' (陰 / 阴) energy originating on the moon (月).<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> Therefore, the extended meaning of a "moon" (represented as "dots") and the "(auspicious) clouds" on ancient Chinese coinages was that the currency should circulate just like the flowing, gushing, and rising waters of the world.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> Regarding the presence of "clouds" on ancient Chinese cash coins and charms, their association comes from "rain water" (雨) as the second Trigram (坎) of the [[Eight Trigrams]] (八卦) is mentioned in the ''[[I Ching]]'' as water existing in the heavens (''[[tian]]'') in the form clouds.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> This would add the [[Chinese numismatic charm#Implied and hidden meanings of Chinese numismatic charms|hidden meaning]] that cash coins displaying images of "auspicious clouds" should also circulate as free as the flow of water.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> Like the "moon" and the "auspicious clouds", the wiggly-line symbol known as the "dragon" is also associated with the Wuxing element of "water", as the ancient Chinese associated the dragon with this element.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> The Chinese dragon is considered to be a "water animal" that sends the rain.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> While later in Chinese history the dragon would become the supreme symbol of the [[Emperor of China]], during the Han dynasty the Dragon, as a spirit, was believed to be associated with water as it would exhale the wind and then summon the rain.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> This means that "dragons", like "moons" and "auspicious clouds" indicated that cash coins are meant to circulate freely like both the stars in the sky and the flow of water.<ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements"/> === The appearance of the first "true charms" === During the Han dynasty, the first Chinese charms which are generally considered to be "true charms" were created.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/loopcharms.html#ri_ru_qian_jin|title= Chinese Pendant Charms – 挂牌 § Han Dynasty Charms.|quote=While it is not known when the first true charm appeared in China, most scholars agree that a fairly large number had appeared by the time of the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). Some of these earliest charms were based on the coins of the time. Others were meant to be worn.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> Among the Han dynasty coin charms are those with ''[[Liubo]]'' patterns, ''liubo'' is possibly the earliest known board game in Chinese history with a complete set of rules and props.<ref name="Liu-bo-coin-charms">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_2|title= Charms Decorated with Liu bo Patterns from the Han Dynasty.|quote= As far as we know based on excavated evidence, there are mainly five categories of physical data for ''liu bo'', namely, the actual game board , depictions on stones and baked bricks , funerary models, bronze mirrors , and coin charms.|date=10 December 2016|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Jie Song (The Kai Yuan Website of Chinese Coins, Xi’an, China)|publisher= [[Springer Publishing|Springer Science+Business Media Singapore]]|language=en}}</ref> Besides coin charms, ''liubo'' patterns were also found on stones and baked bricks, funerary models, and bronze mirrors.<ref name="Liu-bo-coin-charms"/> Many scholars note that a [[Chinese pendant charm]] with the two inscriptions ''rì rù qiān jīn'' (日入千金, "may you earn a 1,000 gold everyday") and ''Zhǎng wú xiāng wàng'' (長毋相忘 / 长毋相忘, "do not forget your friends") is among the first "true charms" produced during this period.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/> The meaning of these 2 inscriptions placed together means "do not forget your friends when you earn much gold everyday", indicating that it's a reminder for people to not forget those who were there for them before they became rich.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/> This charm has large "dots" (representing "stars") located between the characters of its inscription not unlike the precursors to Chinese numismatic charms discussed above.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/> This pendant charm has a large loop at one end of the charm and contains a minor tab with a round hole at the other, while in the middle there is a disc resembling a cash coin with the aforementioned inscriptions read [[clockwise]] on it.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/> While it is uncertain how it was used, it is possible that it was either hung from the waist, used as a button or fastener on a garment, or placed as a part of a necklace.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/> While the original version of these charms date to the Han dynasty, many later made versions are known to exist.{{Sfn|Hartill|2020|p=594}} Another version of this Han dynasty period charm has the same design but features different obverse and reverse inscriptions, the alternative version has the inscription ''chú xiōng qù yāng'' (除兇去央 / 除凶去央, "do away with evil and dispel calamity") on one side and ''pì bīng mò dāng'' (闢兵莫當 / 辟兵莫当, "avoid hostilities and ward off sickness") on the other.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/>{{Sfn|Hartill|2020|p=594}} Indicating that this was a protective charm intended to ward off evil spirits and other negative events.<ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms"/> A version of this amulet exists but with no loops.{{Sfn|Hartill|2020|p=594}} During the Han dynasty a type of cast amulet known as ''Coiled Dragon and Stars'' (龍扭星) appeared, these are also referred to as ''Graters'' and ''Curry Combs'', and are mentioned by [[Lu Zhenhai]] (卢振海) in his 1991 work ''Chinese Old Talismanic Coin Register'' (中国古代压胜钱谱, ''Zhōngguó gǔdài yā shèng qián pǔ'').<ref>卢振海 (Lu Zhenhai) - 中国古代压胜钱谱 (''Zhong-guo gu dai ya sheng qian pu''). Chinese Old Talismanic Coin Register. [[Shenyang]] (1991). Pages: 770-792. (in [[Mandarin Chinese]] using [[Simplified Chinese characters]]).</ref><ref name="Hartill-2020-page-135">''Cast Chinese Amulets'' by David Hartill (13 August 2020). Page: 135.</ref> However, the authenticity of the Han period 'Coiled Dragon and Stars'' amulets cannot be established as only rubbings and drawings are mentioned.<ref name="Hartill-2020-page-135"/> == Hoards of Han dynasty coins == {{See also|List of coin hoards in China}} * Between the years 1955 and 1959 a number of iron Ban Liang cash coins were unearthed in [[Western Han dynasty]] era tombs in the [[Hunan]]ese cities of [[Hengyang]] and [[Changsha]].<ref name="PrimaltrekShanxiIronCashCoinsHoard">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2015/06/29/12000-song-dynasty-iron-coins-unearthed-in-shanxi-province/|title= 12,000 Song Dynasty Iron Coins Unearthed in Shanxi Province.|date=June 29, 2015|access-date=April 6, 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref name="ChinaNewsIronBanLiang">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinanews.com/m/cul/2015/03-09/7112538.shtml|title= 山西绛州州署遗址发现万枚北宋铁钱.|date=March 9, 2015|access-date=April 7, 2020|author= Taiyuan News (太原晚报)|publisher= M.CHINANEWS.COM (中新网)|language=zh-cn}}</ref> These hoards point out to the possibility that China has used [[Tieqian|iron cash coins]] over a millennium before the Northern Song dynasty, as was traditionally thought before these discoveries.<ref name="PrimaltrekShanxiIronCashCoinsHoard"/><ref name="ChinaNewsIronBanLiang"/> * In 1980, a golden Wu Zhu cash coin was unearthed in the prefecture-level city of Xianyang in province of Shaanxi.<ref name="National-Museum-of-China-golden-Wu-Zhu-1980">{{cite web|url= https://www.chnmuseum.cn/zp/zpml/hb/202209/t20220906_257268_wap.shtml|title= 五铢金钱 - 西汉（公元前202—8年）- 直径2.6厘米 - 1980年陕西咸阳出土.|date=2023|accessdate=2 August 2023|work= [[National Museum of China]] (中国国家博物馆)|language=zh-cn}}</ref> This golden cash coin is 2.6 cm in diameter and was cast during the [[Western Han dynasty]] period.<ref name="National-Museum-of-China-golden-Wu-Zhu-1980"/> * In the year 2000 at the archeological site of [[So Kwun Wat]], [[Tuen Mun]] in the [[Special administrative regions of China|special administrative region]] of [[Hong Kong]] over sixty Han dynasty era bronze cash coins were unearthed which included both [[Ban Liang]] (半兩) and [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) cash coins, among the hoard were also pieces of linen and bamboo mats.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200201/18/0118133.htm|title= Exhibition to show the archaeological discoveries in Tuen Mun.|date=January 18, 2002|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= The [[Government of Hong Kong]].|language=en}}</ref> * In February 2003 a coin hoard consisting of several hundreds of Wu Zhu cash coins held in a [[String of cash coins (currency unit)|string]] by rope.<ref name="TransAsiart-Ligature-de-wuzhu-des-Han-de-l'Est">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphelig.htm|title= Ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est. - String of Eastern Han wuzhu.|quote= Fragment de ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est agglomérés; au centre, sortant du trou de la monnaie, on voit la corde qui maintenait l'ensemble. Ce fragment faisait partie d'un trésor de plusieurs centaines de wuzhu maintenus en ligature, découvert au Henan en février 2003.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref> * In January 2006 during the construction of a plaza in [[Pingli County]], Shaanxi a Han dynasty era tomb was uncovered, during its excavation archeologists found 259 [[Wu Zhu]] cash coins, 1 tripod made from iron, a pottery kitchen range as well as 3 pottery urns.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.china.org.cn/english/features/Archaeology/154569.htm|title= Han Dynasty Coins Unearthed in Shaanxi.|date=January 10, 2006|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= [[Xinhua News Agency]] (hosted on China.org.cn).|language=en}}</ref> * On June 15, 2011, it was reported that the [[Guangzhou Cultural Relics Archaeological Research Institute]] had unearthed a pile of one thousand cash coins while excavating an [[Eastern Han dynasty]] period grave in [[Guangzhou]], Guangdong.<ref name="PrimaltrekHanGraveWangMangHoard">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2011/06/15/1000-coins-discovered-in-han-dynasty-grave/|title= 1,000 Coins Discovered in Han Dynasty Grave.|date=June 15, 2011|access-date=April 6, 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref name="SSSS-Han-Grave-Wang-Mang-Hoard">{{cite web|url= http://www.sssc.cn/a/20110615/130810489147387.shtml?utm_source=CMS_NODE_NEWS_INDEX&utm_medium=Text_Link&utm_content=pos_news-index-middle-kao-gu-yan-jiu&utm_campaign=INTERNAL_CMS|title= 广州再次发现东汉大型墓葬.|date= June 15, 2016|access-date= April 9, 2020|author= 未知作者|publisher= 盛世收藏网|language= zh-cn|archive-date= April 19, 2019|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190419080441/http://www.sssc.cn/a/20110615/130810489147387.shtml?utm_source=CMS_NODE_NEWS_INDEX&utm_medium=Text_Link&utm_content=pos_news-index-middle-kao-gu-yan-jiu&utm_campaign=INTERNAL_CMS|url-status= dead}}</ref> The discovered cash coins are all [[Xin dynasty coinage|Xin dynasty period cash coins]] with the inscription Daquan Wushi (大泉五十).<ref name="PrimaltrekHanGraveWangMangHoard"/> The Eastern Han dynasty grave is 8.2 meters in length and 5.02 meters in width.<ref name="PrimaltrekHanGraveWangMangHoard"/> Other than the cash coins, the archeologists had also discovered nearly a hundred other objects inside of the grave including a [[bronze mirror]], pottery, coloured tile, as well as different types of ornaments and jewelry made of [[jade]] and [[agate]].<ref name="PrimaltrekHanGraveWangMangHoard"/> * On July 16, 2012, a large cache of 14,000 [[Ancient Chinese coinage|ancient Chinese coins]] was found in [[Kuqa County|Kuqa]], Xinjiang which included Han dynasty era Wu Zhu (五銖) and "Chiseled rim Wu Zhu" (鑿邊五銖) cash coins, [[Xin dynasty]] era Huo Quan (貨泉) and Daquan Wushi (大泉五十) cash coins, a [[Three Kingdoms period]] Taiping Baiqian (太平百錢) cash coins, as well as [[Kucha coinage|native cash coins]].<ref name="PrimaltrekNingxiaKushanEmpireHoard">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2012/10/28/ancient-kushan-empire-coins-unearthed-in-ningxia/|title= Ancient Kushan Empire Coins Unearthed in Ningxia.|date=October 28, 2012|access-date=April 6, 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref name="SSSS-Kushan-Empire-Coins-Ningxia-2012">{{cite web|url= http://www.sssc.cn/a/20121012/135001000979516.shtml|title= 宁夏西吉县出土17枚中亚古贵霜帝国珍贵铜.|date= October 12, 2012|access-date= April 9, 2020|author= 未知作者|publisher= 北京盛藏艺术品有限公司|language= zh-cn|archive-date= March 12, 2013|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130312215630/http://www.sssc.cn/a/20121012/135001000979516.shtml|url-status= dead}}</ref> Alongside the cash coins were shards of pottery as well as fragments of [[human bones]] which lead the archeologists believe that this was an old cemetery.<ref name="primaltrek-kucha-hoard">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2012/08/30/largest-cache-of-ancient-coins-unearthed-in-xinjiang-province/|title= Largest Cache of Ancient Coins Unearthed in Xinjiang Province.|date=August 30, 2012|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> * In August 2012 a large hoard of Wu Zhu cash coins and [[Xin dynasty coinage|Xin dynasty era cash coins]] was found in the city of [[Huoluochaideng]], [[Ordos City]] [[Inner Mongolia]].<ref name="Kaogu-Huoluochaideng">{{cite web|url= http://kaogu.cssn.cn/ywb/news/new_discoveries_1/201301/t20130104_3925336.shtml|title= 3,500 kg of ancient coins excavated in N China.|date=January 4, 2013|access-date=April 10, 2020|author= Credited as "[[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua News]] NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) – [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref> The hoard included 3500 kg of Chinese cash coins and around 150 clay moulds used to manufacture [[Xin dynasty coinage|coins from the Xin dynasty]].<ref name="Kaogu-Huoluochaideng"/> According to archeologists the site might've been a mint that was in operation since the reign of [[Emperor Wu of Han|Emperor Wu]] until Emperor [[Wang Mang]].<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.kaogu.net.cn/html/en/News/New_discoveries/2014/0709/46786.html|title= 2,100-year old Coin Manufacture Workshop Ruins Found at Ancient City-site in Inner Mongolia.|date=July 9, 2014|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= Chinese Archeology Writer (Chinese Archeology – Institute of Archeology – Chinese Academy of Social Sciences).|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Primaltrek-Inner-Mongolia">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/01/01/3-tons-of-coins-excavated-from-ruins-of-han-dynasty-mint-in-inner-mongolia/ |title= 3 Tons of Coins Excavated from Ruins of Han Dynasty Mint in Inner Mongolia.|date=January 1, 2013|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= http://culture.people.com.cn/n/2012/1231/c172318-20061557.html |title= 鄂尔多斯发现3500公斤西汉至王莽时期古钱币与钱范。|date=December 31, 2012|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= 人民网>>文化>>滚动新闻推荐（时效性强新闻）。|language=zh}}</ref> * During excavations conducted from November to December in 2012 in the Yujiabu cemetery in [[Zhangqiu]], [[Jinan]] [[Shandong]], the [[Jinan Municipal Archaeological Institute]] had discovered a number of cash coins in the tombs.<ref name="Kaogu-Zhangqiu-Shandong-2013">{{cite web|url= http://kaogu.cssn.cn/ywb/news/new_discoveries_1/201304/t20130406_3925968.shtml|title= Archaeological Achievements at the Yujiabu Cemetery in Zhangqiu, Shandong Province.|date=April 6, 2013|access-date=April 12, 2020 |website=Chinese Archaeology |language=en}}</ref> The excavation had discovered a total of seventeen tombs, including earth shaft tombs from the Han dynasty period, earth shaft tombs with a brick-built outer coffin from the Han dynasty period, brick-chamber tombs from the Han dynasty period, and an earth pit tomb with cave chamber from the Qing dynasty period.<ref name="Kaogu-Zhangqiu-Shandong-2013"/> The 6 earth shafts mostly yielded [[Wu Zhu]] cash coins, while the tombs identified as "Tomb M3" and "Tomb M8" contained [[Xin dynasty]] period Daquan Wushi (大泉五十) cash coins, indicating that the people buried there were likely done so during the Xin dynasty period rather than the Han dynasty era.<ref name="Kaogu-Zhangqiu-Shandong-2013"/> * In 2015 Chinese archeologists uncovered 10 tonnes of [[bronze]] Wu Zhu cash coins from the [[Western Han dynasty]] (or around 2 million cash coins) alongside over ten thousand of other iron, bronze, and gold items in the Haihunhou cemetery near [[Nanchang]], Jiangxi, among the other uncovered items were [[bamboo slip]]s, wood tablets, as well as jade objects. As these Wu Zhu cash coins were [[Cash (Chinese coin)#Stringing of cash coins|strung in strings of 1000 pieces]] this proved that the practice of stringing cash coins per 1000 didn't first happen during the [[Tang dynasty]] as was previously thought but actually six hundred years earlier.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://lunaticg.blogspot.com/2015/11/10-ton-han-dynasty-coins-found-in-china.html?m=1|title= 10 ton Han Dynasty coins found in China.|date=October 10, 2015|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= Gila Lunatic (lunaticg).|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url= https://www.thevintagenews.com/2015/12/25/coins-found-in-a-han-dynasty-tomb/|title= Two million copper coins weighing 10 tonnes found inside 2,000-year-old tomb.|date=December 25, 2015|access-date=September 3, 2018|work= by Ian Harvey (The Vintage News).|language=en}}</ref> By 2017 the cash coins unearthed at the site had numbered to around 2,000,000 Wu Zhu cash coins, on January 9, 2017, iFeng.com reported that a rare Wu Zhu cash coin with a character that was found to have been carved upside down.<ref name="Kaogu-Haihunhou-Tomb-Hoard-2017">{{cite web|url= http://kaogu.cssn.cn/ywb/news/new_discoveries_1/201701/t20170113_3940227.shtml|title= Incorrectly printed coin found in Haihunhou tomb.|date=January 13, 2017|access-date=April 11, 2020|author= Credited as "[[People's Daily]] NetWriter : Zhang Huan".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) – [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref> * It was reported on November 17, 2015, by the [[Xinhua News Agency]] that at the tomb of the [[Marquis of Haihun]] in [[Xinjian District|Xinjian]], Jiangxi a number of gold coins had been found.<ref name="Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015">{{cite web|url= http://www.china.org.cn/china/2015-11/17/content_37093227.htm|title= Gold coins found in ancient tomb.|date=November 17, 2015|access-date=April 12, 2020|author= [[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua]]|publisher= [[China Internet Information Center]] ([[State Council Information Office]] and [[China International Publishing Group]])|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Kaogu-Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015">{{cite web|url= http://kaogu.cssn.cn/ywb/news/new_discoveries_1/201511/t20151120_3935511.shtml|title= Gold coins, hoofs found in 2,000-yr-old Chinese tomb.|date=November 20, 2015|access-date=April 12, 2020|author= Credited as "[[Xinhua News Agency|Xinhua Net]] NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) – [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref><ref name="Kitco-Han-Dynasty-Gold-2015">{{cite web|url= https://www.kitco.com/news/2015-12-28/Chinese-Archeologists-Discovery-Largest-Cache-Of-Han-Dynasty-Gold-Coins.html|title= Chinese Archeologists Discovery Largest Cache Of Han Dynasty Gold Coins.|date=December 28, 2015|access-date=April 15, 2020|author= Neils Christensen|publisher= Kitco News|language=en}}</ref> Excavations of the tomb have been conducted since 2011.<ref name="NewHistorian-Marquis-of-Hainun-2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.newhistorian.com/excavation-haihunhou-tomb-china-completed/7382/ |title=Excavation of Haihunhou Tomb in China Completed |date= October 12, 2016|language=English |website=New Historian|access-date=February 22, 2017}}</ref><ref name="Chinanews-Marquis-of-Haihun-2011">{{cite web |url=http://www.ecns.cn/video/2016/03-03/201341.shtml |title=Identity of Han-Dynasty marquis confirmed |date= |language=English |website=Chinanews.com|access-date=February 22, 2017}}</ref> The gold objects unearthed included some 25 gold hoofs (a type of [[sycee]]) with varying weights from 40 to 250 grams and 50 very large gold coins weighing about 250 grams each.<ref name="Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015"/><ref name="Kaogu-Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015"/> The gold coinages were packed inside of three different boxes that were placed under a bed that was located inside of the main chamber of the tomb.<ref name="Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015"/><ref name="Kaogu-Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015"/> According to Yang Jie, who leads the excavation team, the gold objects were likely awarded to the Marquis of Haihun by the emperor himself.<ref name="Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015"/><ref name="Kaogu-Haihunhou-Gold-Hoard-2015"/> * On Monday November 13, 2017, the [[Henan Cultural Relics Department]] announced that an excavation near [[Zhoukou]], Henan had unearthed a large number of tombs and cash coins that date to the Han dynasty period.<ref name="ECNS-Henan-November-2017">{{cite news |url= http://www.ecns.cn/m/2017/11-16/281168.shtml|title= More than 100 Han Dynasty tombs unearthed in Henan Province.|date=November 16, 2017|access-date=April 28, 2020|editor=Li Yan |work=[[China News Service]] |language=en}}</ref> Over 120 different tombs were discovered, of which 105 dated to the Han dynasty period and 15 to the [[Song dynasty]] and [[Qing dynasty]] periods.<ref name="ECNS-Henan-November-2017"/> Most of the cash coins unearthed at the site were [[Wu Zhu]] (五銖) cash coins, while also a number of [[Xin dynasty]] [[Spade money|spade coins]] issued under Wang Mang, and Song Dynasty cash coins were also found in a number of tombs.<ref name="ECNS-Henan-November-2017"/> * In May of the year 2020 the [[Chengdu Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology]] reported on the findings in various tombs located in Chengdu, Sichuan which range from the [[Warring States period]], the [[Qin dynasty]], the Han dynasty, the [[Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period]], the [[Ming dynasty]], and the Manchu [[Qing dynasty]].<ref name="HeritageDaily-Chengdu-excavations-May-2020">{{cite web|url= https://www.heritagedaily.com/2020/05/over-6000-ancient-tombs-discovered-by-archaeologists-in-china/129107|title= Over 6000 ancient tombs discovered by archaeologists in China. – May 14, 2020. Archaeologists excavating in Chengdu, Sichuan province have discovered over 6000 ancient tombs spanning more than 2000 years.|date=May 14, 2020|access-date=August 20, 2020|work= HeritageDaily – an independent online magazine for archaeological and associated disciplines, dedicated to the heritage and historical sector. We identified the need for a central resource offering the latest archaeological news, journals, articles and press releases.|language=en}}</ref> Among these finds hundreds of cash coins dating to the late Han dynasty period were discovered. Various other items were also discovered inside of these burial sites.<ref name="HeritageDaily-Chengdu-excavations-May-2020"/> == Numismatics and studies into the coinage == === Metal content and alloys === According to a November 2011 article in the Microchemical Journal entitled ''Corrosion behavior and morphological features of archeological bronze coins from ancient China'', the chemical composition of the Wu Zhu cash coins of the Han dynasty from the [[List of coin hoards in China#2006 (Mainland China)|Zhongguan minting site hoard]] have been systematically investigated by the means of [[optical microscopy]] (OM), [[X-ray diffraction]] (X-RD), and [[scanning electron microscopy]] (SEM) equipped with backscattered electron (BSE) detector, and energy dispersive spectrometry (EDS) techniques.<ref name="Microchemical-Journal-November-2011">{{cite web|url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0026265X11000919|title= Corrosion behavior and morphological features of archeological bronze coins from ancient China.|date=November 2011|accessdate=12 August 2023|author= Ling He, Junyan Liang, Xiang Zhao, and Baolian Jiang|publisher= Microchemical Journal|language=en}}</ref> These investigations researched the nature of the [[patina]] and corrosion features on the surfaces of the coins.<ref name="Microchemical-Journal-November-2011"/> Analysis revealed that the presence of a type of corrosion found on the patina of the cash coins known as "[[bronze disease]]" is caused by chloride anions from [[cuprous chloride]].<ref name="Microchemical-Journal-November-2011"/> The elemental compositions of the alloys of the Wu Zhu cash coins attributed to the Western Han dynasty period from this hoard on average was found to be 84.8–85.4 wt.% copper (Cu), 3.3–6.1 wt.% tin (Sn), 4.7–6.4 wt.% lead (Pb), and 2.6–2.9 wt.% antimony (Sb).<ref name="Microchemical-Journal-November-2011"/> In the 2021 article ''Chemical studies of Chinese coinage II: from Qin to Yuan (221 BCE–1368 CE)'' by A. M. Pollard and Ruiliang Liu published in the journal ''[[Heritage Science (journal)|Heritage Science]]'' the researchers noted the median levels of iron found in the alloys of cash coins jumped from the [[Qin dynasty]] period to the [[Western Han dynasty]] period, Pollard and Liu hypothesised that this might have been a reflection of the slagging processes in the production of the copper.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> The [[Zhou dynasty coinage|pre-Qin]] and Qin dynasty coinages have a median percentage of iron below 0.25%, whereas the median level of iron present in cash coins during the Western Han period rises to 0.74%.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> During the Western Han period the metallic compositions of coins varied widely.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> For orientation, a composition of Pb/Cu (lead/copper) = 0.1 and Sn/Cu (tin/copper) = 0.05 corresponds to approximately 87% copper, 4% tin, and 9% lead.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> During the [[Xin dynasty]] period under [[Wang Mang]] there is a considerable reduction in the range of alloy compositions when compared to the previous Western Han period. Under Wang Mang, the relative alloy compositions are much more consistent. Pb/Cu (lead/copper) is mostly confined to between 0 and 0.3, and Sn/Cu (tin/copper) is likewise reduced to between 0.02 and 0.15.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> Pollard and Liu speculate that the reduction in compositional variation is probably a consequence of the currency reforms enacted under the reign of Wang Mang.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> When the Han dynasty is restored ([[Eastern Han dynasty]] period) this lower variation appears to have been largely preserved.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> After the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty there appears to be further gradual change, with the lead-copper ratio now being largely constrained to below 0.6, while the tin-copper ratio extending up to as much as 0.3, compared to being largely below 0.15 as it was during the Han dynasties, indicating that the tin content tends to be higher in the post-Han periods of Chinese history.<ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science"/> === Studies into Han dynasty numismatic charms === The study ot Chinese coin-like charms and amulets dating the Han dynasty period has helped our modern understanding of the ancient Chinese [[board game]] of ''[[liubo]]''.<ref name="The-Language-and-Iconography-of-Chinese-Charms">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3|title= The Language and Iconography of Chinese Charms: Deciphering a Past Belief System.|date=2016|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Alex Chengyu Fang (Department of Linguistics and Translation, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong) and [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry]] (Département des Monnaies et Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, France)|publisher= [[Springer Publishing|Springer Science+Business Media Singapore]]|language=en}}</ref> == See also == * [[List of historical currencies]] == Notes == {{Notelist}} === Catalogue numbers === * '''Hartill''' = ''Cast Chinese Coins'' by David Hartill. [[Trafford]], [[United Kingdom]]: [[Trafford Publishing]]. September 22, 2005. {{ISBN|978-1412054669}}. * '''FD''' = ''Fisher's Ding'' (丁), George A. Fisher's copy of [[Ding Fubao]]'s (丁福保) original work catalogue, 1980, 251 pages. * '''Schjøth''' = "Chinese Currency, Currency of the Far East - A Comprehensive Text Chou Dynasty, 1122 B.C.–255 B.C. Through Ch'ing Dynasty 1644 A.D.–1911 A.D." by Fredrik Schjøth and Virgil Hancock, [[Oslo|Oslow]], [[Norway]], 1929. * '''Hartill-Qing''' = ''Qing Cash'' (清代貨幣) by David Hartill, [[Royal Numismatic Society]] (2003). * '''Krause''' = C.L. Krause and C. Mishler, ''[[Standard Catalog of World Coins]]'', [[Krause Publications]], 1979. == References == {{Reflist}} == Sources == * {{citation |last=Ebrey |first=Patricia |chapter=The Economic and Social History of Later Han |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis |editor2-last=Loewe |editor2-first=Michael |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |pages=608–648 }}. * {{cite book |last=Hartill |first= David |year=2005 |title=Cast Chinese Coins |location=Trafford, UK}} * {{citation |last=Hinsch |first=Bret |title=Women in Imperial China |year=2002 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield Publishers |location=Lanham |isbn=978-0-7425-1872-8 }}. * {{citation |last=Nishijima |first=Sadao |chapter=The Economic and Social History of Former Han |editor1-last=Twitchett |editor1-first=Denis |editor2-last=Loewe |editor2-first=Michael |title=Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220 |year=1986 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-521-24327-8 |pages=545–607 }}. * {{citation |last=Maddison |first=Angus |title=The World Economy: A Millennial Perspective |year=2001 |publisher=OECD Publishing |isbn=978-92-64-18608-8 }}. * {{citation|last=Maddison |first=Angus |year=2007|title=Chinese economic performance in the long run|publisher=Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. Development Centre|isbn=978-92-64-03762-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=csqDUpShUdAC&q=Needham&pg=PA198}} == External links == {{Commons category-inline|Coins of the Han Dynasty}} {{Han dynasty topics}} {{Chinese currency and coinage}} {{S&T in China}} [[:Category:Coins of ancient China]] [[:Category:Cash coins]] [[:Category:Chinese numismatics]] .

Standard reference templates

Usually recurring sources

2023

December 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

March 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2023.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2023|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2023|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2023|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

2022

December 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

March 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2022.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

2021

December 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

2020

December 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

June 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

May 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= May 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=May 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

April 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=April 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

March 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= February 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

2019

December 2019.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= December 2019|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

To use

• <ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="HoreshQing"/>

• <ref name="PrimalQing">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#qing_dynasty_coins|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 - Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty (1644-1911)|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=30 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="PrimalQing"/>

• <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/01/08/the-king-of-qing-dynasty-coins/|title=The King of Qing Dynasty Coins.|date=8 January 2013|accessdate=8 January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins"/>

• <ref name="CambridgeInflation">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/hsienfeng-inflation/54A8F1ADDC871CC18F4DCFA828730DEB|title= The Hsien-Fêng Inflation (Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009).|date=October 1958|accessdate=28 July 2019|author= Jerome Ch'ên|publisher= [[SOAS University of London]]|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>

• <ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
  • <ref name="Brill2015"/>

• <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa">{{cite web|url= http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/41940/1/WP159.pdf|title= Money and Monetary System in China in the 19th-20th Century: An Overview. (Working Papers No. 159/12)|date=January 2012|accessdate=26 January 2020|author= Debin Ma|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics]]|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa"/>

• <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851-1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]||language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/>.

Sources to use

• http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimpho.htm
  • <ref name="TransAsiart-Han-de-l'Ouest-Intro">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimpho.htm|title= Monnaies des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (206 av.-8 ap. J.-C.). - Western Han coins (206 BC- 8 AD).|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=5 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 22:04, 5 August 2023 (UTC) .

• http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimphobl1.htm
  • <ref name="TransAsiart-Western-Han-banliang-coins">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimphobl1.htm|title= Banliang 半兩 des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (1). - Western Han banliang coins (1).|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=8 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref><ref>Roger Wai-San DOO (杜維善), ''Banliang kao'' (半兩考), 2 volumes, [[Shanghai|Shanghaï]] (2000).</ref><ref>[[François Thierry (numismatist)|François THIERRY]], ''Monnaies chinoises, I L'Antiquité préimpériale'', [[National Library of France|Bibliothèque Nationale]], [[Paris]] (1997), pp. 165-167.</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 21:22, 8 August 2023 (UTC) .

• http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimphowz1.htm
  • <ref name="TransAsiart-Les-junguo-wuzhu">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/xihan/ncnimphowz1.htm|title= Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Ouest 西漢 (1). - Western Han wuzhu (1). - 1-Les junguo wuzhu 郡國五銖.|quote= En 118 av. J.-C., Wudi 武帝 interdit la fonte des banliang 半兩 et imposa celle des wuzhu 五銖, pièces devant peser 5 zhu et qui devait être munies d'un rebord interne et externe au revers, ce qui n'était pas le cas des banliang dont le revers était plat. La fonte était autorisée aux princes gouvernant un royaume (guo 國), aux commanderies (jun 郡) et bien sûr aux ateliers de l'empereur à Chang'an.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 08:45, 9 August 2023 (UTC) .

• http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphe.htm
  • <ref name="TransAsiart-Les-wuzhu-de-Guangwudi">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphe.htm|title= Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est 東漢 (1). - Eastern Han Wuzhu (1). - 1-Les wuzhu de Guangwudi 光武帝.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 09:30, 9 August 2023 (UTC) .

• http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphe2.htm
  • <ref name="TransAsiart-période-médiane-des-Han-de-l'Est">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphe2.htm|title= Wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est 東漢 (2). - Eastern Han Wuzhu (2). - 2-Les wuzhu de la période médiane des Han de l'Est avec marques.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 09:53, 9 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Introduction-to-Chinese-Charms">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/|title= Ancient Chinese Charms and Coins. - Introduction to Chinese Charms|date=16 November 2016|access-date=29 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/charmcoins.html#han_ban_liang_dots
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Emergence-of-Chinese-Charms">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/charmcoins.html#han_ban_liang_dots|title=Emergence of Chinese Charms. - Symbols Begin to Appear on Chinese Coins.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/yinyangfiveelements.html
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Yin-Yang-and-the-Five-Elements">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/yinyangfiveelements.html|title= "Yin Yang" and the "Five Elements" as the Basis for Star, Moon, Cloud, and Dragon Symbols on Ancient Chinese Coins and Charms.|date=24 July 2021|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/loopcharms.html#ri_ru_qian_jin
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Han-Dynasty-loop-charms">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/loopcharms.html#ri_ru_qian_jin|title= Chinese Pendant Charms – 挂牌 § Han Dynasty Charms.|quote=While it is not known when the first true charm appeared in China, most scholars agree that a fairly large number had appeared by the time of the Han Dynasty (206 BC - 220 AD). Some of these earliest charms were based on the coins of the time. Others were meant to be worn.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#wang_mang
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-History-of-Chinese-Coins">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#wang_mang|title= Chinese Coins - Introduction and History § Western Han Dynasty (206 BC - 25 AD). & § Eastern Han Dynasty (25-220) and Later Wu Zhu Coins.|date=24 July 2021|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/blog/2020/12/22/turtle-shaped-coin-of-the-han-dynasty/
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/blog/2020/12/22/turtle-shaped-coin-of-the-han-dynasty/|title= Turtle-Shaped Coin of the Han Dynasty.|date=22 December 2020|accessdate=2 August 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/personsdengtong.html
  • <ref name="ChinaKnowledge-Deng-Tong">{{cite web|url= http://www.chinaknowledge.de/History/Han/personsdengtong.html|title= Deng Tong 鄧通.|quote= Under Emperor Wen 漢文帝 (r. 180-157 BCE), he rose from Yellow-helmeted gentleman (huangtoulang 黃頭郎 to Senior Grand Master (shang dafu 上大夫) and was regularly presented by the emperor with precious gifts and was granted to exploit the revenue of a copper mine in Yandao 嚴道 in Sichuan. He was even granted the permission to coin his own money that circulated through the whole empire.|date=27 September 2011|accessdate=9 August 2023|encyclopedia= By Ulrich Theobald ([[Chinaknowledge]] - An Encyclopaedia on Chinese History, Literature and Art).|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 12:07, 9 August 2023 (UTC)

• https://data.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/id/object/237435
  • <ref name="Shang-Lin-San-Guan-Fitzwilliam-Museum">{{cite web|url= https://data.fitzmuseum.cam.ac.uk/id/object/237435|title= Wu Zhu, Shang Lin San Guan: CM.185-2015.|quote= Shang Lin San Guan: the Three Offices of Shang Lin Park were the Office for Coinage, Office for the Sorting of Copper, and the Office of Price Equalisation.|date=27 April 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|work= [[Fitzwilliam Museum]], [[University of Cambridge]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:20, 9 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://yindingbowuguan.com/m.php/library/detail/id/78.html
  • <ref name="Silver-Ingot-Museum-Bai-Jin-San-Pin">{{cite web|url= https://yindingbowuguan.com/m.php/library/detail/id/78.html|title= 西汉时期-汉武帝与白金三品. - 汉朝（公元前202—公元220年），分为西汉和东汉，汉高祖刘邦建立西汉，定都长安，汉光武帝刘秀建立东汉，定都洛阳，西汉与东汉合称两汉。§ 西汉白金三品龙币、龟币、马币|date=2023|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= 银博文库|publisher= Silver Ingot Museum (銀錠博物館)|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 21:31, 9 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-021-00530-3
  • <ref name="Chemical-studies-of-Chinese-coinage-II-Heritage-Science">{{cite web|url= https://heritagesciencejournal.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40494-021-00530-3|title= Chemical studies of Chinese coinage II: from Qin to Yuan (221 BCE–1368 CE).|date=22 May 2021|accessdate=10 August 2023|author= A. M. Pollard & Ruiliang Liu|publisher= Heritage Science|language=en}}</ref> Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 09:47, 10 August 2023 (UTC)

• https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/abs/exotica-fashion-and-immortality-the-new-use-of-gold-in-han-dynasty-china-206-bcece-220/B73619A2E56CCA2ED870E4E8E287BC6A
  • <ref name="The-New-Use-of-Gold-in-Han-Dynasty-China">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/cambridge-archaeological-journal/article/abs/exotica-fashion-and-immortality-the-new-use-of-gold-in-han-dynasty-china-206-bcece-220/B73619A2E56CCA2ED870E4E8E287BC6A|title= Exotica, Fashion and Immortality: The New Use of Gold in Han Dynasty China (206 BCE–CE 220).|date=9 November 2021|accessdate=10 August 2023|author= S. Wang|publisher= [[Cambridge University Press]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 12:13, 10 August 2023 (UTC) .

• Hai-ping Lian, Zhong-ming Ding, Xiang Zhou, and Hui-kang Xu - Study on the stack-casting techniques for casting coins of the Han Dynasty in China Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology 20 (Supplement), 53-61. Quote: "The stack - casting was used for casting the Banliang coins of the early Western Han Dynasty (206B.C.-A.D. 8) and the bronze coins of the Xin Empire (A.D. 9-23 ) and the Eastern Han Dynasty (A.D. 23-220) . It was a main technique for casting bronze coins from the Eastern Han to the time that the sand-mold casting was used. Some Banliang coins of the early Western Han Dynasty and Sizhubanliang coins of the middle Western Han Dynasty were also cast by the stack-casting. But Wuzhu coins were not found to be cast by the stack - casting technique."
  •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:23, 11 August 2023 (UTC) .

• Hai-ping Lian, Zhong-ming Ding, and Xiang Zhou - Clay molds for casting metal molds used in minting techniques in the Han Dynasty Sciences of Conservation and Archaeology 24 (Supplement), 87-97.
  •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:23, 11 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_2
  • <ref name="Liu-bo-coin-charms">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_2|title= Charms Decorated with Liu bo Patterns from the Han Dynasty.|quote= As far as we know based on excavated evidence, there are mainly five categories of physical data for ''liu bo'', namely, the actual game board , depictions on stones and baked bricks , funerary models, bronze mirrors , and coin charms.|date=10 December 2016|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Jie Song (The Kai Yuan Website of Chinese Coins, Xi’an, China)|publisher= [[Springer Publishing|Springer Science+Business Media Singapore]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 11 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_9
  • <ref name="Jian-Hu-December-2016">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3_9|title= Lucky Charms from the Ming and the Qing Dynasties.|date=10 December 2016|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Jian Hu|publisher= [[Springer Publishing]], [[Singapore]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:52, 11 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3.pdf / https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=Han+Dynasty+charms&oq=#d=gs_qabs&t=1691670552644&u=%23p%3DNKkZWgPGmpwJ
  • <ref name="The-Language-and-Iconography-of-Chinese-Charms">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-981-10-1793-3|title= The Language and Iconography of Chinese Charms: Deciphering a Past Belief System.|date=2016|accessdate=11 August 2023|author= Alex Chengyu Fang (Department of Linguistics and Translation, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong) and [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry]] (Département des Monnaies et Médailles, Bibliothèque nationale de France, Paris, France)|publisher= [[Springer Publishing|Springer Science+Business Media Singapore]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 21:17, 11 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0026265X11000919
  • <ref name="Microchemical-Journal-November-2011">{{cite web|url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0026265X11000919|title= Corrosion behavior and morphological features of archeological bronze coins from ancient China.|date=November 2011|accessdate=12 August 2023|author= Ling He, Junyan Liang, Xiang Zhao, and Baolian Jiang|publisher= Microchemical Journal|language=en}}</ref>
  •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 03:28, 12 August 2023 (UTC) .

• Hartill notes: All Ban Liang cash coins listed are at page 84, Wu Zhu's until 8.12 are listed on page 85. Wu Zhu's start again on page 91. Stop at 10.12 on page 91.
  •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 03:28, 12 August 2023 (UTC) .

Other Wikipedia articles

• Economy of the Han dynasty.

Images to use

• https://commons.m.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Wuzhuqian.JPG

Lists to integrate

Western Han Dynasty Coins

Descript Inscript Pinyin Type Years Cast

• Elm seed ban liang

半两 ban liang Elm Seed (yu jia 榆荚) 200 - 180 BC

• 8 zhu ban liang

半两 ban liang 8 zhu (铢) 186 BC - ???

• 8 zhu ban liang

半两 ban liang 8 zhu (铢) with flower hole 186 BC - ???

• 5 parts ban liang

半两 ban liang 5 parts (wu fen 五分) 182 BC

• 4 zhu ban liang

半两 ban liang 4 zhu (铢) 175 BC

• 4 zhu ban liang with reversed inscription

两半 liang ban 4 zhu (铢) 175-119 BC

• ban liang coins with dots

半两 ban liang 4 zhu (铢) coins with stars 175-119 BC

• ban liang coins with crescents

半两 ban liang 4 zhu (铢) coins with moons 175-119 BC

• ban liang coins with lines

半两 ban liang 4 zhu (铢) coins with lines 175-119 BC

• ban liang coins with numbers

半两 ban liang 4 zhu (铢) coins with numbers 175-119 BC

• Jun Guo five zhu coin

君国五 铢 jun guo wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) 118-115 BC

• five zhu coin with reverse

inscription 五铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) 118 BC - 25AD

Eastern Han Dynasty Coins

Descript Inscript Pinyin Special

• five zhu coins with reverse inscription 铢五 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with reverse inscriptions
• five zhu coins with dots

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with stars

• five zhu coins with circles

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with suns

• five zhu coins with numbers

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with numbers

• five zhu coins with rod numbers

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with rod numbers

• five zhu coins with lines

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with lines

• five zhu coins with characters and symbols

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coins with characters and symbols

• five zhu coin with flower hole, dots, number and character

五 铢 wu zhu wu zhu (wu shu) coin with flower hole, stars, and number "2" or character gong (工)

Coin hoards to add

Add to "List of coin hoards in China".

• https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/1168448313...1168604440  Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:39, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

19th century

== 19th century ==

List of 19th century coin hoards in the Qing dynasty
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1820s	Ling-shih-hsien District, Shanxi Province		16 Roman coins.	On 8 May 1886 the Deseret News reported: "Dr. Bushell of the British Legation at Peking, has prepared a monograph on some ancient Roman coins found in Shansi. The coins, 16 in number, were discovered, some 60 years ago, buried in the ground in the district of Ling-shih-hsien: it is known that there was constant intercourse and trade between China and the Roman empire during the first three centuries of the Christian era, and the coins, as identified by Dr. Bushell, date from Tiberius (A. D. 14-37) to Aurelianus (A. D. 270-275). Dr. Bushell says that he has heard of only one other instance of the discovery of Roman coins in China. That was when two were bought by Mr. Lyall at a wayside stall in Tien-Tsin, the Shansi coins presented "every appearance of having been buried, and no attempt had been made to remove the patina to read the legends." Dr. Bushell pronounces them genuine beyond all question, and says that he doubts whether "one of the best modern engravers, with all the appliances at his command, could produce a head equal to that on the coin of Commodus" (A. D. 180-192)."

1960

1960 (Mainland China)

List of 1960 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
September 1960	Luanping County, Hebei province		A number of knife coins.	In 1960 it was reported by the Toledo Blade that a number of knife coins dating to the Warring States period were unearthed in Luanping County, Hebei province. Among the hoard were also a number of other items including kitchen utensils, bricks, tiles, bronze mirrors, agate beads coln, and copper coins.	4th century BC

1969

1969 (Taiwan)

List of 1969 coin hoards in the free area of the Republic of China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
January 1969	Kinmen, Fujian Province		Over 3000 cash coins produced between the years 971 and 1240.	In 1969, workers digging for a construction project on Quemoy island discovered 2 pottery jars with over 3000 cash coins dated to the Song dynasty.	13th century

1977

1977 (Mainland China)

List of 1977 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
July 1977	Inner Mongolia		A number of gold Eastern Roman coins and 4 silver Sasanian coins.	In July 1977 Reuters Hong Kong reported that a Chinese archeologist had discovered a number of gold coins from the Eastern Roman Empire, including 1 produced during the reign of Leo I. The find also included 4 silver Persian coins dated to the Sasanian dynasty.

1980

1980 (Mainland China)

List of 1980 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1980	Xianyang, Shaanxi		A golden Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coin.	In 1980, a golden Wu Zhu cash coin was unearthed in the prefecture-level city of Xianyang in province of Shaanxi. This golden cash coin is 2.6 cm in diameter and was cast during the Western Han dynasty period.	202—8 BC	National Museum of China (中国国家博物馆)

1986

1986 (Mainland China)

List of 1986 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1986	Jingxing County, Hebei province		Over 520 different kinds of cash coins ranging from 206 BC to 1234 AD.	In September 1986 Lakeland Ledger reported that a peasant named Fan Zengbao had found a hoard consisting of over 520 different kinds of ancient Chinese coins while digging the foundation for his new house in Jingxing County, Hebei province. The coins were attributed to a total of 18 different dynasties as well as various regimes from ethnic minorities, ranging from the Western Han dynasty to the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty, covering a period from 206 BC to 1234 AD. A number of the discovered cash coins were reported as being unique and this hoard was reported as going to provide new clues to the study of ancient northern Chinese numismatics.

1987

1987 (Mainland China)

List of 1987 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1987	Shaanxi province		A number of unusual Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins.	A coin hoard in the Shaanxi province included a number of Wu Zhu cash coins. One of the Wu Zhu cash coins discovered in this hoard has one square-like projections extending beyond the normal border of the square central hole. Several of the cash coins found in this hoard have triangular-shaped projections extending beyond the border of the inner hole. These cash coins did not show any indication that the holes were modified by force at some time after their casting meaning that these abnormal shapes were not made after the production but during.

1992

1992 (Mainland China)

List of 1992 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1992	Chenzhou, Hunan province		39 kg of coin clusters and scattered coins.	In 1992 a hoard of 39 kilograms of Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寶) cash coins was discovered in the city of Chenzhou in the southern Chinese province of Hunan. The number of cash coins in the hoard is approximately 8000.	Tang dynasty period
17 August 1992	Shutang, Wangcheng District, Hunan province		A Kaiyuan Tongbao (開元通寶) clay coin mould.	Mr. Ceng Jingyi (曾敬仪), a retired teacher and coin collector, unearthed a Tang dynasty period clay coin mould (钱陶范) used to produce Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins. This clay coin mould is today classified as a "national treasure" (国宝级) by the government of the People's Republic of China.	Tang dynasty period	“Exhibition of Chinese Ancient Coins” (中国历代钱币展), Ouyang Xun Cultural Park (欧阳询文化园), located in Shutang (书堂), Hunan province.

1995

1995 (Taiwan)

List of 1995 coin hoards in the free area of the Republic of China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
1995	Shipwreck off the coast of the General Islet, Penghu County, Taiwan province		A number of Qianlong Tongbao (乾隆通寳) cash coins in an 18th century shipwreck.	In 1995 the Ministry of Education sent the NMH’s Marine Archeology Team was sent to conduct preliminary excavations of "General No. 1". This excavation was done underwater after a number of fishermen from Penghu found the scattered remains of a seafaring vessel in 1994. The sunken sea vessel was named "General No. 1" after Penghu's General Islet, the site of the discovery. This team was the Republic of China's first underwater archaeology team, and consisted of deep-sea divers, historians, anthropologists, and archaeologists. During these underwater excavations the team managed to recover a total of 264 items from the shipwreck. These assets include various items such as blue and white porcelain bowls, porcelain spoons and saucers, pottery pots, bronze implements, and wooden cabin boards. The wreck was dated to the rule of the Qianlong Emperor because a number of Qianlong Tongbao (乾隆通寳) cash coins were excavated which confirmed that this was ship was once a commercial trading ship sailing between the mainland Chinese province of Fujian and the island of Taiwan during the 18th century.	Qianlong period (1735–1796)

2007

2007 (Mainland China)

List of 2007 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
2007	Shaanxi province		A silver Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) coin with a horse pattern produced during the Han dynasty period.	In 2007 a silver Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) coin with a horse pattern was discovered in the Shaanxi province. This find was notably the first silver Bai Jin San Pin that was ever found. Up until this point the only Bai Jin San Pin that were ever discovered were made of lead, these were initially found during the 1980s and confused numismatists because historical texts, such as the Records of the Grand Historian very clearly noted that these coins were made from a silver-tin alloy. This discovery proved the validity of the reported silver coins from the reign of Emperor Wu of Han. The horse Bai Jin San Pin is the second coin of the set mentioned in the records and is square in shape, weighs 6 taels, and had a nominal value of 500 Ban Liang and Wu Zhu cash coins. The image of the horse represented the square earth. The description of the horse states that is has its "head upright, chest high, with three legs on the ground and one hoof raised, full of vigor and and imposing momentum". The "square" horse Bai Jin San Pin coin together with the "round" dragon coin from the same series reflected the the ancient Chinese theory of the “circle and square” where heaven (Tian) is represented by a circle and the flat earth (Di) by a square.	119–115 BC

2011

2011 (Mainland China)

List of 2011 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
2011	Shaanxi province		A silver Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) coin with a horse pattern produced during the Han dynasty period.	In 2011 a silver Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) coin with a horse pattern was discovered in the Shaanxi province. This was the second time that a silver Bai Jin San Pin was found and the second one with a horse pattern.	119–115 BC

2013

2013 (Mainland China)

List of 2013 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
2013	Weihe River, Xi'an city, Shaanxi province		A silver turtle-shaped Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) coin produced during the Han dynasty period.	In 2013, while sand dredgers were excavating in the dried up bed of the Weihe River (渭河) in the northern suburbs of the city of Xi'an they discovered turtle-shaped silver Bai Jin San Pin (白金三品) coin. The coin is 1.6 inches (40 millimeters) in length, 0.8 inch (21 millimeters) in width, and has a thickness of 0.12 inch (3.1 millimeters). The coin weighs 10 grams. The obverse side of this silver coin is dome-shaped with its middle being thick and its edges thin, it has a scaly armour design indicating that it is the design of a turtle Bai Jin San Pin coin as is mentioned in the Records of the Grand Historian (《史记·平淮书》). This coin contains a small square seal located at its centre right. This counterstamp is believed to be the Chinese seal script character shao (少), referring to the shaofu (少府). The reverse side of this turtle-shaped Bai Jin San Pin coin is flat. Its reverse inscription consists of 2 vertically written seal script characters. According to Mr. Huang Xiquan (黄锡全), a notable and recognised numismatic expert and the former head of the China Numismatic Museum, these two seal script characters are read as chui guang (垂光). Huang Xiquan noted that meaning of chui guang in this context refers to the achievements of the Han dynasty Emperor Wu and stands for "glory illuminates, bounties bestowed to the world" (光辉普照，恩泽人间之意). The turtle is also an ancient Chinese symbol used to illustrate the concepts of "longevity" and "immortality".	119–115 BC

2014

2014 (Taiwan)

List of 2014 coin hoards in the free area of the Republic of China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
Late July 2014	Chiayi Botanical Garden, East District, Chiayi, Taiwan province		2 silver Spanish coins from the 17th to 19th centuries (among other items).	During a dig commissioned by the local government of Chiayi in conjunction with Taipei City-based Taiwan Taritsi Cultural Association at the Chiayi Botanical Garden a number of old artifacts were discovered including pottery and bracelets from Taiwan, china, clay, and glass dating to the Qing dynasty period and the Japanese colonial period, as well as 2 silver coins made by the Spanish. Project leader Yen Ting-yu stated about the findings that "It indicates that only a few households lived in pile dwellings by the river in prehistoric times, and Chinese merchants probably brought the Spanish coins to Taiwan." The Chiayi Cultural Affairs Bureau noted that in order for the cultural assets to be preserved that the site should officially be designated as a cultural heritage site.

2023

2023 (Taiwan)

List of 2023 coin hoards in the free area of the Republic of China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
15 May 2023	Chongde (崇德) area, Xiulin, Hualien County, Taiwan province		A trove of artifacts (such as bracelets and agate beads), including cash coins dating to the Song dynasty 900 years ago.	Wu Chin-yi (吳勁毅), the director of the Hualien Cultural Affairs Bureau stated that while digging at a construction site to lay a foundation, workers stumbled upon what appeared to be the corner of a tomb. The owner of the allowed the Hualien Cultural Affairs Bureau to investigate the site where they found an abundance of items including Song dynasty period cash coins. The vast number of artifacts delayed the construction work by 2 months. A number of items in the hoard are dated to the middle of the Taiwanese iron age and proved that the indigenous people living there may have had more extensive trade with China than was previously thought. However, there's still some debate if the cash coins were deposited there at the time they were in circulation or disposed there at a much later time.		Hualien Archeological Museum

Coin hoards to add (Sources)

• https://chinesemoneymatters.wordpress.com/2023/03/27/90-article-counterfeiting-activities-during-the-tang-dynasty-618-907-ce-revealed-by-the-special-alloy-coins-in-the-chenzhou-hoard-hunan-china/

• https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X23001177?via%3Dihub
  • <ref name="Counterfeiting-activities-during-the-Tang-Dynasty-March-2023">{{cite web|url= https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X23001177?via%3Dihub|title= Counterfeiting activities during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) revealed by the special alloy coins in the Chenzhou hoard, Hunan, China.|date=11 March 2023|accessdate=3 August 2023|author= Li Fang, Shengqiang Luo, Wenli Zhou, Chunxin Wang, Zhengyao Jin, Fang Huang, and Anchuan Fan|publisher= [[Journal of Archaeological Science]] ([[ScienceDirect]], [[Elsevier]])|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 19:55, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/blog/2015/01/18/kai-yuan-tong-bao-clay-mould/
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Kai-Yuan-Tong-Bao-Clay-Mould">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/blog/2015/01/18/kai-yuan-tong-bao-clay-mould/|title= ‘Kai Yuan Tong Bao’ Clay Mould.|date=18 January 2015|accessdate=31 July 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 13:50, 31 July 2023 (UTC) .

• https://www.chnmuseum.cn/zp/zpml/hb/202209/t20220906_257268_wap.shtml
  • <ref name="National-Museum-of-China-golden-Wu-Zhu-1980">{{cite web|url= https://www.chnmuseum.cn/zp/zpml/hb/202209/t20220906_257268_wap.shtml|title= 五铢金钱 - 西汉（公元前202—8年）- 直径2.6厘米 - 1980年陕西咸阳出土.|date=2023|accessdate=2 August 2023|work= [[National Museum of China]] (中国国家博物馆)|language=zh-cn}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:01, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://primaltrek.com/blog/2020/12/22/turtle-shaped-coin-of-the-han-dynasty/
  • <ref name="Primaltrek-Turtle-Shaped-Coin-of-the-Han-Dynasty">{{cite web|url= https://primaltrek.com/blog/2020/12/22/turtle-shaped-coin-of-the-han-dynasty/|title= Turtle-Shaped Coin of the Han Dynasty.|date=22 December 2020|accessdate=2 August 2023|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:01, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://books.google.nl/books?id=sLxOAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=Coins+discovered+China&article_id=1277,2151078&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjntvSX4r6AAxUSCuwKHRt3DNkQ6AF6BAgGEAM
  • <ref name="Toledo-Blade-Duanping-Hopei-1960">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.nl/books?id=sLxOAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=Coins+discovered+China&article_id=1277,2151078&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjntvSX4r6AAxUSCuwKHRt3DNkQ6AF6BAgGEAM|title= Sword-Shaped Coins Of Ancient China Discovered.|date=21 September 1960|accessdate=2 August 2023|author= [[Reuters]] Hong Kong|publisher= [[The Blade (Toledo, Ohio)|Toledo Blade]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:36, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://books.google.nl/books?id=iYIuAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA30&dq=Coins+discovered+China&article_id=6672,2725794&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwja2uOJ7L6AAxUB6qQKHQRyDFc4ChDoAXoECAQQAw#v=onepage&q=Coins%20discovered%20China&f=false
  • <ref name="Montreal-Gazette-July-1977">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.nl/books?id=iYIuAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA30&dq=Coins+discovered+China&article_id=6672,2725794&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwja2uOJ7L6AAxUB6qQKHQRyDFc4ChDoAXoECAQQAw#v=onepage&q=Coins%20discovered%20China&f=false|title= Rare coins discovered.|date=28 July 1977|accessdate=3 August 2023|work= The [[Montreal Gazette]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 22:52, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://books.google.nl/books?id=JGpeAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=2594,1624215&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPk5Xq7b6AAxVExgIHHVunCyEQ6AF6BAgNEAM#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false (Quemoy hoard).
  • <ref name="Old-Coins-Found-on-Chinese-Island-1969">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.nl/books?id=JGpeAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA2&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=2594,1624215&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPk5Xq7b6AAxVExgIHHVunCyEQ6AF6BAgNEAM#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false|title= Old Coins Found on Chinese Island.|date=20 January 1969|accessdate=3 August 2023|author= AP Taipei|publisher= [[Observer–Reporter]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 23:21, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://books.google.nl/books?id=CLdWAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA7&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=5485,1744210&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6icm68b6AAxXNxAIHHXXZC1c4FBDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false (Quemoy hoard).
  • <ref name="Coins-Unearthed-The-Spokesman-Review-1969">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.nl/books?id=CLdWAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA7&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=5485,1744210&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwi6icm68b6AAxXNxAIHHXXZC1c4FBDoAXoECAMQAw#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false|title= Coins Unearthed.|date=20 January 1969|accessdate=3 August 2023|author= AP Taiwan|publisher= [[The Spokesman-Review]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 23:22, 2 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://books.google.nl/books?id=pmRNAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA7&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=2123,4874802&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjdnfbq776AAxX7ywIHHcPrDJA4ChDoAXoECAQQAw#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false
  • <ref name="Lakeland-Ledger-September-1986">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.nl/books?id=pmRNAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA7&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=2123,4874802&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjdnfbq776AAxX7ywIHHcPrDJA4ChDoAXoECAQQAw#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false|title= Ancient Chinese coins uncovered.|date=28 September 1986|accessdate=3 August 2023||publisher= [[The Ledger|Lakeland Ledger]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 11:56, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2023/05/17/2003799955
  • <ref name="Sioulin-Hualien-Hoard-May-2023">{{cite web|url= https://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2023/05/17/2003799955|title= Artifacts, including Song-era coins, found in Hualien.|date=17 May 2023|accessdate=3 August 2023|author= CNA|publisher= [[Taipei Times]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 12:28, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=10&post=21004
  • <ref name="Taiwan-Today-Chiayi-City-Hoard-2014">{{cite web|url= https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=10&post=21004|title= Ancient relics unearthed in Chiayi City.|date=21 August 2014|accessdate=3 August 2023|author= [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan)]]|publisher= [[Taiwan Today]], [[Government Information Office]], [[Government of the Republic of China]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 16:35, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=18&post=24370&unitname=Politics-Top-News&postname=Archaeology-exhibition-showcases-undersea-history
  • <ref name="Taiwan-Today-Archaeology-exhibition-showcases-undersea-history">{{cite web|url= https://taiwantoday.tw/news.php?unit=18&post=24370&unitname=Politics-Top-News&postname=Archaeology-exhibition-showcases-undersea-history|title= Archaeology exhibition showcases undersea history.|quote= Readers might be surprised to learn that Taiwan has underwater archaeological treasures to rival the remains of the “Titantic,” wrecks of Spanish treasure galleons in the Caribbean and even the lost city of Atlantis, said by Plato to have sunk into the ocean “in a single day and night of misfortune.”|date=27 November 2009|accessdate=3 August 2023|author= [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Taiwan)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Republic of China (Taiwan)]]|publisher= [[Taiwan Today]], [[Government Information Office]], [[Government of the Republic of China]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 17:09, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://books.google.nl/books?id=e0cIAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=4245,4954149&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPk5Xq7b6AAxVExgIHHVunCyEQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false
  • <ref name="Deseret-News-8-May-1886">{{cite web|url= https://books.google.nl/books?id=e0cIAAAAIBAJ&pg=PA6&dq=Coins+unearthed+China&article_id=4245,4954149&hl=en&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjPk5Xq7b6AAxVExgIHHVunCyEQ6AF6BAgKEAM#v=onepage&q=Coins%20unearthed%20China&f=false|title= THE FAR EAST. - On April 28th, the steamer ''Belgic'' arrived in San Francisco harbor, from China and Japan, bringing Hong Kong advices to April 12th, as follows: NEWS FROM CHINA.|date=8 May 1886|accessdate=3 August 2023|publisher= [[Deseret News]] (Deseret News Company, [[The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]])|language=en}} {{Source-attribution}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 19:21, 3 August 2023 (UTC) .

Cash coin tea

In traditional Chinese medicine, several medicinal teas incorporate cash coins as ingredients. This usage of cash coins has been documented as early as the Eastern Jin dynasty, in China's first emergency medicine manual, Zhou hou fang (肘後方). Brass cash coins would first be thoroughly washed and then boiled in water to produce a type of "tea" which was later consumed by the patient. Practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine believe that the zinc present in cash coins, which had been leached into the slightly acidic liquid, will promote healing and enhance the immune system. Meanwhile, bronze cash coins with high concentrations of lead and tin, were typically boiled to produce a solution used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of the external parts of the ear. Vietnamese cash coins, which have the highest levels of zinc of any cash coins, were ground up into a powder that was mixed into an aqueous solution or ointment for topical use for the treatment of eyes, ears, and hemorrhoids.

Usage among overseas Chinese

It is generally thought that cash coins among the early overseas Chinese communities around the globe have primarily been used as ornaments, gaming pieces, talismans, and gifts to children, but their potential role as a type of alternative currency in Chinatowns and areas with concentrations of Chinese people has been proposed and disputed by multiple archeologists over the years. With modern scholars generally agreeing that they exclusively served non-currency functions and had gaming, religious, and cultural roles among the overseas Chinese.

"The coins used in playing fan t'an are those of the present dynasty, such as are now current in China and imported expressly for gambling purposes in large quantities."

• - The Gambling and Games of the Chinese in America by Stuart Culin (1891).

"played with Chinese cash, or brass coin, of which it takes in China one thousand to make a dollar. The pieces, however, are used, not as money, but as dice or counters"

• - 1858 San Francisco Bulletin article.

- Selected quotes from "The noncurrency functions of Chinese wen in America" by Marjorie Kleiger Akin (1 June 1992), Historical Archaeology.

Chinese cash coins found outside of China have also been used to date various historical Chinese settlements by archeologists. Although the cash coins recovered from these sites aren't exclusively Chinese. And using this method for dating isn't always recommend by scholars. The cash coins recovered at archeological sites commonly include Song dynasty coins, Ming dynasty coins, and Qing dynasty coins. Not all Chinese cash coins found overseas were brought there by Chinese people, this is because they were inexpensive to purchase as before 1820 a foreign merchant could buy 1000 cash coins in China for 36 grams (or 1 tael) of silver, after 1845 this amount of silver could purchase 2200 or more cash coins. European merchants started purchasing cash coins in large quantities following the currency reforms enacted by the Ming dynasty between 1570 and 1580, during the many centuries of trade between Europe and China cash coins would find their way to the New World during the European colonisation period and were occasionally used by Native American populations.

According to a 1979 article by Glenn J. Farris published in the journal of the Society for Historical Archaeology, the early overseas Chinese community in the United States used Chinese and Vietnamese cash coins as money amongst themselves whilst living in the United States. Farris noted this possibility has been suggested by a number of scholars who have analysed coins that were found in the western United States and western Canada. Farris claims that this hypothesis was validated by the finding of 141 Chinese cash coins, Vietnamese cash coins Hong Kong coins, and United States coins and tokens that were found at excavations in the Chinatown of Yreka, California, United States. Other scholars dispute these claims and have used a large number of both historical and contemporary evidence to debunk this.

Scholar Marjorie Kleiger Akin notes that it would have been impossible for Chinese cash coins to be used as money by overseas Chinese communities because "No object can circulate as money if it has a substantially greater value when removed from circulation and used for other purposes. The variety of uses for wen in North America and the numbers of the coins needed for some purposes have been underestimated in the past." Akin warned that archeologists should be more careful to describe unearthed cash coins in the United States as not underestimate how many cash coins were needed in the creation of various objects and that more attention should be given to determine whether cash coins were used as buttons, as basket decorations, as talismans, or joined together in red threads as misinterpreting their usage as pocket change may cause them to overlook other potential uses. She also notes that not all uses are identifiable and that careful examination of a pharmacy site might evidence their usage in traditional forms of medicine. Akin further cited a number of interviews with elderly Chinese residents of Locke who all claimed that they have never heard of anyone using cash coins as a type of currency there.

In a 1987 article entitled Chinese Coins Down Under: Their Role on the New Zealand Goldfields published in the Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology, researchers Neville A. Ritchie (regional archaeologist, Waikato, Department of Conservation) and Graham Stuart Park (director of the Auckland Institute and Museum) disputed the role of Chinese cash coins as money objects in any overseas Chinese community in the world. Ritchie and Park stated that their usage as a currency is "highly improbable" after analysing both archaeological and historical sources. They noted that Chinese cash coins among overseas communities were principally imported for gambling purposes, most notably as gaming counters.

Scholar Marjorie Kleiger Akin noted that Chinese cash coins are "a dramatic example of artifacts whose primary function changed completely when they changed cultural context", noting that rather than being used as currency, they started to fulfil a large number of non-monetary functions among the Chinese people living in the western regions of the North American continent. A large number of cash coins were transferred to the United States and Canada for a variety of talismanic and religious purposes. Akin states that a common talisman used by Chinese people living in the United States and Canada was the "coin-sword" which were commonly given to newlyweds to hang over the marriage bed as a means to insure bliss and harmony. These coin-swords are typically an approximate length of 35 cm to 50 cm and require a minimum of 50 coins to make, while the older, larger, and more elaborately decorated coin-swords would typically contain around 150 cash coins. Other ritualistic uses of cash coins include being used as funerary money, as their usage in Chinese funerals in the western United States has been reported as early as 1849.

Chinese cash coins were also commonly reported to be used by Chinese Americans in a number of gambling games, such as Fan-Tan. While the cash coins were being used as counters or markers, all bets were exclusively made using American money. Though their usage as markers or counters wasn't exclusively done so in betting games, as children used them in a similar manner in a variety of the game hopscotch, played in San Francisco as late as 1935.

Cash coins were also reported to have been used in decorative manners, for example 19th and early 20th century Chinese American mineworkers often strung them as keychains for either talismanic or sentimental reasons.

While there's no evidence for historical medicinal uses of Chinese cash coins among the overseas Chinese communities living in the United States, today their usage in the TCM practice of coining is well documented by both the Chinese American and Chinese Vietnamese American communities. The continued usage or cash coins in this practice is because suitably large US coins are not considered to be appropriate, as the edges of the coin must be smooth to avoid skin abrasion.

Usage among overseas Chinese (Reflist & Sources)

Usage among overseas Chinese (Sources)

• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03373449
  • <ref name="Coins-and-tokens-from-Yreka-Chinatown-1979">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03373449|title= “Cash” as currency: Coins and tokens from Yreka Chinatown.|date=1979|accessdate=6 August 2023|author= Glenn J. Farris|publisher= [[Historical Archaeology (journal)|Historical Archaeology]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 07:51, 6 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://www.jstor.org/stable/29543182
  • <ref name="Chinese-Coins-Down-Under">{{cite web|url= https://www.jstor.org/stable/29543182|title= Chinese Coins Down Under: Their Role on the New Zealand Goldfields.|date=1987|accessdate=6 August 2023|author= NEVILLE A. RITCHIE and STUART PARK|publisher= Australian Journal of Historical Archaeology (Australasian Society for Historical Archaeology)|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 08:13, 6 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03373533
  • <ref name="Noncurrency-functions-of-Chinese-wen-in-America-1992">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03373533|title= The noncurrency functions of Chinese ''wen'' in America.|date=1 June 1992|accessdate=6 August 2023|author= Marjorie Kleiger Akin|publisher= [[Historical Archaeology (journal)|Historical Archaeology]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 12:17, 6 August 2023 (UTC) .

• https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03377105 (PDF).
  • <ref name="The-Luck-of-Third-Street-2008">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF03377105|title= The Luck of Third Street: Archaeology of Chinatown, San Bernardino, California.|date=2008|accessdate=6 August 2023|author= Julia G. Costello, Kevin Hallaran, Keith Warren, & Margie Akin |publisher= [[Historical Archaeology (journal)|Historical Archaeology]]|language=en}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 12:20, 6 August 2023 (UTC) .

Cash coins in traditional Chinese medicine (spin-off project)

• User:Donald Trung/Cash coins in traditional Chinese medicine.
  • https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cash_coins_in_traditional_Chinese_medicine&oldid=1169349999  Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:51, 8 August 2023 (UTC) .

Ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est

2003

2003 (Mainland China)

List of 2003 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
February 2003	Henan province		Hundreds of Eastern Han dynasty period Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins.	In February 2003 a coin hoard consisting of several hundreds of Wu Zhu cash coins held in a string by rope.	Eastern Han dynasty period

Ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est (references and sources)

Ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est (sources)

• http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphelig.htm
  • <ref name="TransAsiart-Ligature-de-wuzhu-des-Han-de-l'Est">{{cite web|url= http://www.transasiart.com/Numismatique/numismatique_chine/donghan/ncnimphelig.htm|title= Ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est. - String of Eastern Han wuzhu.|quote= Fragment de ligature de wuzhu 五銖 des Han de l'Est agglomérés; au centre, sortant du trou de la monnaie, on voit la corde qui maintenait l'ensemble. Ce fragment faisait partie d'un trésor de plusieurs centaines de wuzhu maintenus en ligature, découvert au Henan en février 2003.|date=14 September 2015|accessdate=9 August 2023|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 09:02, 9 August 2023 (UTC) .

Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳) spin-off project

• User:Donald Trung/Zhouyuan Tongbao (周元通寳).
  • https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zhouyuan_Tongbao&oldid=1170216217  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 20:01, 13 August 2023 (UTC) .

Counterfeiting activities during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE) revealed by the special alloy coins in the Chenzhou hoard, Hunan, China

Main article: Kaiyuan Tongbao § Counterfeit coins

Counterfeit coins (Chinese cash coins)

• Counterfeit cash coins (traditional Chinese: 惡錢; simplified Chinese: 恶钱; pinyin: È qián; lit. 'Bad money') refers to illegally produced cash coins, often of inferior quality. Coin counterfeiting has been recorded as early as the Qin dynasty period and has negatively affected social stability and caused economic problems that would continue in later dynasties in Chinese history. The introduction and circulation of counterfeit cash coins onto the market caused inflation, which hindered economic development and caused a series of social problems throughout history. These illegally produced cash coins typically had reduced weights or were adulterated with lower-cost metals (such as iron, lead, etc.), reducing the copper content in the alloys relative to regulation cash coins.

Counterfeit coins (Kaiyuan Tongbao)

Counterfeit cash coins (traditional Chinese: 惡錢; simplified Chinese: 恶钱; pinyin: È qián; lit. 'Bad money') were rampant during the Tang dynasty period, counterfeit Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins were of inferior quality, they were typically lighter or were made with alloys containing larger percentages of cheaper metals, such as iron and lead, reducing the Intrinsic value of the cash coins in circulation. The Old Book of Tang claims that the Jianghuai region, the two capital (Chang'an and Luoyang) regions, the Hebei region, and the Nanling region were most seriously affected by counterfeit cash coins. The introduction and circulation of counterfeit cash coins negatively affected the economy by causing inflation and reducing social stability.

The emergence of coin counterfeiting in China is rooted in the development of the commodity economy and the scarcity of money. The counterfeiting of cash coins prevailed due to a number of factors, primarily based on the market demand for money, while the production of official cash coins was being constrained by the prohibitively high costs associated with their manufacture. The cost of casting wasn't just affected by production costs such as the volume of fuel and manpower, but also by acquisition costs relating to the scarcity of copper, as well as the cost of transportation. These factors all created a market incentive to produce counterfeit cash coins to fill the demand for currency.

The government of the Tang dynasty explicitly forbade coin counterfeiting and actively took measures to eliminate the bad Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins that were illegally produced. Despite their efforts, the crackdown on counterfeit cash coins proved largely to be unsuccessful. Despite the official regulations requiring government mints to cast cash coins with high copper content, examinations of the chemical composition of official Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins reveal higher tin and lead contents that don't match the official alloy compositions mentioned in the historical records. A 2004 analysis revealed that officially produced Kaiyuan Tongbao cash coins were on average 70.21% copper, 17.85% lead, and 8.64% tin, the researchers hypothesised that counterfeit cash coins were probably those with exceptionally high lead content (>36 wt%). Researcher Liu of the Chinese numismatic society believed that the government regulations requiring high copper content in the official alloys were only introduced to curb the cash coin counterfeiting.

Zhongguan minting site hoard

2006

2006 (Mainland China)

List of 2006 coin hoards in Mainland China
Date of discovery	Place of discovery	Image	Content	Long description of the find and notes	Date (if known)	Current location (if known)
2006	Zhongguan minting site, Shaanxi Province		Wu Zhu (五銖) cash coins dating to the Western Han dynasty period.	In 2006 a number of Wu Zhu cash coins were discovered during the archeological investigation of the Zhongguan minting site, located 25 kilometers west from Xi'an, Shaanxi. The total area of the archeological site is the biggest ancient Chinese site found at the time, covering an area over 900,000 m², measuring around 600 meters from the east to the west and around 1500 meters from the south to the north. The cash coins were excavated from depths ranging from 100 to 200 centimeters underground.	Western Han dynasty period

Talk page top

{{WikiProject banner shell|1= {{WikiProject China |class= |importance= |1= }} {{WikiProject Numismatics |class= |importance= |1= }} }} {{Copied |from = Economy of the Han dynasty |from_oldid = 1162106969 |to = Han dynasty coinage |to_diff = |to_oldid = |date = }}

• https://en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy_of_the_Han_dynasty&oldid=1162106969