Middle Chinese finals

In Middle Chinese, the phonological system of medieval rime dictionaries and rime tables, the final is the rest of the syllable after the initial consonant. This analysis is derived from the traditional Chinese fanqie system of indicating pronunciation with a pair of characters indicating the sounds of the initial and final parts of the syllable respectively, though in both cases several characters were used for each sound. Reconstruction of the pronunciation of finals is much more difficult than for initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class, and there is no agreement as to their values. Because of this lack of consensus, understanding of the reconstruction of finals requires delving into the details of rime tables and rime dictionaries.

Finals and rhyme classes

Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain more than one final:

• Several rhyme classes contain both "open" and "closed" finals, thought to be distinguished by the absence or presence of a medial /w/.
• Six rhyme classes contain finals that appear to be distinguished according to the absence or presence of medial /j/: 戈 (closed) -wa, -jwa (rows 1 and 3); 麻 -æ, -jæ (rows 2 and 3); 庚 -æng, -jæng (rows 2 and 3); 陌 -æk, -jæk (rows 2 and 3); 東 -uwng, -juwng (rows 1 and 3); 屋 -uwk, -juwk (rows 1 and 3).
• Some so-called chóngniǔ rhyme classes contain two finals after a labial, velar and laryngeal initials, one placed in row 3 and the other in row 4. (The finals are not distinguished after dental or sibilant initials, and scholars disagree on which of the two finals these should be allocated to.) In all such cases, the paired finals have identical outcomes in all modern Chinese dialects as well as in Sino-Japanese borrowings, and are generally palatalized; with sporadic exceptions. However, in Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean only the row-4 finals have such palatalization. Karlgren ignored the difference, but all modern linguists consider the distinction important, though they do not agree on its realization. Li's and Baxter's transcriptions adopt a convention of using /ji/ the row-4 finals in contrast to /j/ or /i/ for the row-3 finals.

Classes of finals

Karlgren noticed that classes of finals from the rime dictionaries were placed in different rows of the rime tables. As three classes of final were confined to the first, second and fourth rows respectively, he named them finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals he called "division-III finals" because they occurred in the third row of the tables. Some of these (the "pure" or "independent" division-III finals) occurred only in that row, while others (the "mixed" finals) could also occur in the second or fourth rows with some initials. Karlgren disregarded the chongniu distinction, but later workers have emphasized its importance. Li Rong, in a systematic comparison of the rhyme tables with a recently discovered early edition of the Qieyun, identified seven classes of finals. The table below lists the combinations of initial and final classes that occur in the Qieyun, with the row of the rime tables in which each combination was placed:

		div. I	div. II	"division-III" finals				div. IV
				indep.	mixed	chongniu
Labials		1	2	3	3	3	4	4
Dental	stops	1						4
Retroflex			2		3	3
Lateral		1			3	3		4
Dental	sibilants	1			4	4		4
Palatal					3	3
Retroflex			2		2	2
Velars		1	2	3	3	3	4	4
Laryngeals		1	2	3	3	3	4	4

The mixed and chongniu finals, though designated as division-III finals, are spread across rows 2 and 4 as well as row 3 of the tables. To handle these cases, a distinction is made between the row that the homophone class is placed in and the "division" of its final. This article distinguishes rows by Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 and divisions by Roman numerals I II III IV. In addition, chóngniǔ finals in division III are notated in the table of final outcomes below as III/3 or III/4, depending on the row in which they occur.

Significance of the division

There are correspondences between certain divisions and the presence or absence of medial glides in later dialects, in ways that differ depending on the class of the initial (e.g. velar, labial, retroflex, etc.). There are also clear co-occurrence restrictions between initials and divisions, in that initials from certain of these same classes can occur with finals only from certain divisions. The LMC authors of this system appear to have been aware of these classes of initials, and seem to have determined the separation into divisions partly on the basis of the co-occurrence relationships and partly on the medial glides, although it is debated how the exact classification was made. It is important to remember that the authors of this system were attempting to use LMC phonology to reconstruct EMC phonology (although they probably thought of it more in terms of trying to harmonize the way that words were normally pronounced with the rather different system of rhymes and homophones as laid out in the Qieyun).

The clearest difference is between division III and other divisions, with division III generally corresponding to palatal initials and/or finals with palatal (i.e. high-front) vowels or glides. In addition, divisions I and IV allow exactly the same set of initials in EMC, suggesting that the distinction between the two postdates the EMC period. Division-IV syllables are commonly thought to reflect a diphthong containing a vocalic glide /i/ in LMC, corresponding to an EMC mid-front monophthong, variously reconstructed as /ɛ/, /e/ or ɪ. Beyond this, there is no consensus.

Karlgren, and many authors following him, suggest that neither divisions I nor II had any medial other than /w/ or /u/, with division I corresponding to back vowels and division II to front vowels. Some authors have suggested that division II corresponded not so much to front vowels as to centralized vowels. Many authors have recently suggested that division-II syllables consistently had a medial /r/ in Old Chinese, although this appeared to have already disappeared by EMC, so it's unclear exactly how this would have been carried forward into LMC. (Some have suggested that the system of divisions dates back at least to the time of the Qieyun (c. 600 AD), and reflects a medial /ɣ/ present very early on in the EMC period.)

Table of Early Middle Chinese finals

The following table lists Early Middle Chinese (EMC) reconstructed "finals" (i.e. all of the syllable other than the initial consonant), according to different authors. It also lists the corresponding Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes according to Pulleyblank, and the Standard Mandarin outcomes using Pinyin spelling. The table does not explicitly list finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ (the so-called "entering tone" syllables), but these can easily be derived by substituting /p/ for /m/, /t/ for /n/, and /k/ for /ŋ/. Some columns are not strictly in IPA.

Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes

Codes for initial classes:

• G = guttural (velar or laryngeal, i.e. a back consonant)
• P = labial (includes labiodental)
• PG = labial or guttural (i.e. a grave consonant)
• A = acute consonant (anything not in PG)
• SR = EMC retroflex sibilant
• ST = alveolar sibilant
• M = /m/
• RXLʔ = EMC retroflex, EMC palatal sibilant, /l/ or /ʔ/

Standard Mandarin outcomes

The modern outcomes are listed using the following codes:

• P = bilabial stops (p, b)
• PM = bilabials (p, b, m)
• F = labiovelars (f, w < /m-/)
• T = alveolar stops (t, d)
• S = alveolar sibilants (c, z, s)
• Š = retroflex sibilants (ch, zh, sh)
• ŠR = retroflex (ch, zh, sh, r)
• K = velars (k, g, h)
• Q = palatal sibilants (q, j, x); they occur in place of either velars or alveolar sibilants when i or ü follows
• G = gutturals (velars or no initial; in the latter case, stemming from MC ʔ- or ŋ-/ng- and sometimes written w- or y- in Pinyin)
• J = "jutturals" (same as gutturals but with palatal sibilants in place of velars; occurs before i or ü)

The outcomes are written either as individual outcomes in Pinyin, or combined outcomes in "pseudo-Pinyin" (when the outcome begins with a "-" or uppercase letter). "Pseudo-Pinyin" uses Pinyin conventions but without any of the abbreviations normally in use in Pinyin. Examples:

• "-uei" indicates the pronunciation /uei/, normally spelled -ui or wei
• "-üe" indicates the pronunciation /ye/, normally spelled -ue (after q-, j-, x-); -üe (after l-, n-); or yue
• "-i" indicates the pronunciation /i/ (usually [i], but [ɨ] after alveolar or retroflex sibilants); normally spelled -i or yi

When not indicated, the choice of whether a velar or palatal occurs is determined by the following vowel: palatals before -i or -ü, velars elsewhere.

Example: A listed outcome like -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo means that the outcome is -e for a guttural (i.e. ge, ke, he, e); -o for a labial (i.e. po, bo, mo); -uo elsewhere; but for alveolar stops, -a also appears (i.e. either tuo, duo or ta, da), and wo occasionally appears instead of e as the outcome of MC ʔ- or ŋ- (the outcome of both is a "null initial", which is counted as a "guttural" in the modern outcomes).

These outcomes assume the normal correspondences between EMC initials and Standard Mandarin initials:

• EMC voiced stops and fricatives become unvoiced in Mandarin; stops in syllables with tone 1 become aspirated, otherwise unaspirated.
• EMC palatal sibilants and retroflex stops become Mandarin retroflex sibilants.
• EMC nasal changes: nr- becomes Mandarin n-; ny- becomes Mandarin r-, or sometimes the syllable er; ng- is dropped.
• EMC guttural /ʔ-/ is dropped, and h- is dropped in the sequence hj-.
• EMC velars and alveolar sibilants become Mandarin palatal sibilants before Early Mandarin -i- or -ü- (/y/).
• With certain finals, EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, and EMC m- usually becomes Mandarin w-; this is indicated by F-. Lowercase f- appears in finals where EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, but either there are no known examples of EMC m- with the same final, or EMC m- with that final becomes Mandarin m- rather than w-.

In a couple of situations where two different EMC initials have merged, the modern outcome is nonetheless different depending on the EMC initial:

• EMC retroflex and palatal sibilants merged in LMC, but sometimes the modern outcomes are different. For example, under -ip, the notation -i, Še < SR- means that EMC syip > shi but EMC srip > she.
• EMC ng- and ʔ- both disappear, but sometimes with different results. For example, -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie means that the modern result is ya when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but ai when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/. On the other hand, -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao means that the modern result is ao when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but yao when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/ (since J- includes original velars); likewise for -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, indicating wo vs. yue.

Zero coda

Yunjing rhyme class	Qieyun rhyme class	division	rounding	Bernhard Karlgren	Li Rong	Edwin G. Pulleyblank		William H. Baxter	Abraham Y.S. Chan		Zhengzhang Shangfang	Standard Mandarin pronunciation
						EMC	LMC		Jinling	Luoyang
果 (outer)	歌	I	open	ɑ	ɑ	a [ɑ]	a [ɑ], Pua [ɑ]	a	ɑ	ɐ	ɑ	-uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo
	戈	I	closed	uɑ	uɑ	wa [wɑ]	ua [uɑ]	wa	wɑ	wɐ	uɑ	-uo; also Ge
	戈	III-mixed	open	i̯ɑ	iɑ	ɨa [ɨɑ]	ia [iɑ]	ja	ɑ	œ	ɨɑ	Qie
	戈	III-mixed	closed	i̯wɑ	iuɑ	ua [uɑ]	ya [yɑ]	jwa	wɑ	wœ	ɨuɑ	Qüe
假 (outer)	麻	II	open	a	a	aɨ (ɛɨ)	aː [ɑː], Gjaː [Gjɑː]	æ	æ	ɛ	ɣa	-a, Jia
	麻	II	closed	wa	ua	waɨ (wɛɨ)	waː [wɑː]	wæ	wæ	wɛ	ɣua	-ua
	麻	III-mixed	open	i̯a	ia	ia [iɑ]	ia [iɑ]	jæ	jæ	jɛ	ia	Jie, ŠRe
遇 (inner)	模	I	closed	uo	o	ɔ	uə̆ [uɔ]	u	u	ə	uo	-u
	魚	III-mixed	closed	i̯wo	iɔ	ɨə̆	iə̆ [iɛ], SRəə̆ [SRɤ] (yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ])	jo	œ	ø	ɨʌ	-ü, Fu, ŠRu
	虞	III-mixed	closed	i̯u	io	uə̆	yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ]	ju	ø	ø	ɨo

Palatal glide coda

Yunjing rhyme class	Qieyun rhyme class	division	rounding	Bernhard Karlgren	Li Rong	Edwin G. Pulleyblank		William H. Baxter	Abraham Y.S. Chan		Zhengzhang Shangfang	Standard Mandarin pronunciation
						EMC	LMC		Jinling	Luoyang
蟹 (outer)	咍	I	open	ɑ̌i	ɒi	əj	aj	oj	əj	əj	ʌi	-ai, Pei
	灰	I	closed	uɑ̌i	uɒi	wəj	uaj	woj	ʏj	ʏj	uʌi	-uei, PMei, lei, nei
	泰	I	open	ɑi	ɑi	aj	aj	ajH	ɑj	ɐj	ɑi	-ai, Pei
	泰	I	closed	wɑi	uɑi	waj	uaj	wajH	wɑj	wɐj	uɑi	-uei
	皆	II	open	ə̆i	ɛi	əɨj	aːj, Gjaːj	ɛj	ɑj	ɛj	ɣɛi	-ai, Qie; also Pei
	皆	II	closed	wə̆i	uɛi	wəɨj	waːj	wɛj	wɑj	wɛj	ɣuɛi	Kuai
	佳	II	open	ai	ɛ	aɨj	aːj, Gjaːj	ɛ (ɛɨ)	ɛ	ɛj	ɣɛ	-ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie; also Pa
	佳	II	closed	wai	uɛ	waɨj	waːj	wɛ (wɛɨ)	wɛ	wɛj	ɣuɛ	-ua; also wai
	夬	II	open	ai	ai	aɨj(s)	aːj, Gjaːj	æjH	æj	ɛj	ɣai	-ai, Qie
	夬	II	closed	wai	uai	waɨj(s)	waːj	wæjH	wæj	wɛj	ɣuai	Kuai
	祭	III/3	open	i̯ɛi	iɛi	iaj	iaj	jejH	ej	ej	ɣiᴇi	-i
	祭	III/4	open		jɛi	jiaj	PGjiaj	jiejH	jej	jej	iᴇi
	祭	III/3	closed	i̯wɛi	iuɛi	wiaj	yaj	jwejH	wej	wej	ɣiuᴇi	-uei
	祭	III/4	closed		juɛi	jwiaj	PGjyaj	jwiejH	wjej	wjej	iuᴇi
	廢	III-indep	open	i̯æi	iɐi	ɨaj	iaj	jojH	øj	øj	ɨɐi	fei, yi
	廢	III-indep	closed	i̯wæi	iuɐi	uaj	yaj	jwojH	wøj	wøj	ʉɐi	Kuei
	齊	IV	open	iei	ei	ɛj	PGjiaj, Aiaj	ej	ɐj	ɪj	ei	-i
	齊	IV	closed	iwei	uei	wɛj	Gjyaj	wej	wɐj	wɪj	wei	Kuei
止 (inner)	支	III/3	open	iě	ie	iə̆	i, SRṛ, STẓ	je	e	i	ɣiᴇ	-i, er < ny-; occ. Pei
	支	III/4	open		je	jiə̆	PGji	jie	je	ji	iᴇ
	支	III/3	closed	wiě	iue	wiə̆	yj, SRuj	jwe	we	wi	ɣiuᴇ	-uei, lei
	支	III/4	closed		jue	jwiə̆	PGjyj	jwie	wje	wji	iuᴇ
	脂	III/3	open	i	i	i	i, SRṛ, STẓ	ij	i	i	ɣiɪ	-i, er < ny-; occ. PMei
	脂	III/4	open		ji	ji	PGji	jij	ji	ji	iɪ
	脂	III/3	closed	wi	ui	wi	yj, SRuj	wij	wi	wi	ɣiuɪ	-uei, lei, yi?
	脂	III/4	closed		jui	jwi	PGjyj	jwij	wji	wji	iuɪ
	之	III-mixed	open	i	iə	ɨ	i, SRṛ, STẓ	i	i	e	ɨ	-i, er < ny-
	微	III-indep	open	ěi	iəi	ɨj	i	jɨj	yj	yj	ɨi	Ji, Fei
	微	III-indep	closed	wěi	iuəi	uj	yj	jwɨj	wyj	wyj	ʉi	Guei

Labial-velar glide coda

Yunjing rhyme class	Qieyun rhyme class	division	rounding	Bernhard Karlgren	Li Rong	Edwin G. Pulleyblank		William H. Baxter	Abraham Y.S. Chan		Zhengzhang Shangfang	Standard Mandarin pronunciation
						EMC	LMC		Jinling	Luoyang
效 (outer)	豪	I	open	ɑu	ɑu	aw	(u)aw	aw	ɑw	ɐw	ɑu	-ao
	肴	II	open	au	au	aɨw	aːw, Gjaːw	æw	ɛw	ɛw	ɣau	-ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao
	宵	III/3	open	i̯ɛu	iɛu	iaw	iaw	jew	ew	ew	ɣiᴇu	-iao, ŠRao
	宵	III/4	open		jɛu	jiaw	PGjiaw	jiew	jew	jew	iᴇu
	蕭	IV	open	ieu	eu	ɛw	PGjiaw, Aiaw	ew	ɪw	ɪw	eu
流 (inner)	侯	I	open	ə̆u	u	əw	əw	uw	ʉ	u	əu	-ou; also mu
	尤	III-mixed	open	iə̆u	iu	uw	iw, SRəw, Məw	juw	y	y	ɨu	-iou, fou, mou, ŠRou; also Sou < Š-
	幽	III/4	open	i̯ĕu	iĕu	jiw	jiw	jiw	iw	iw	iɪu	-iou

Labial codas

Yunjing rhyme class	Qieyun rhyme class	division	rounding	Bernhard Karlgren	Li Rong	Edwin G. Pulleyblank		William H. Baxter	Abraham Y.S. Chan		Zhengzhang Shangfang	Standard Mandarin pronunciation
						EMC	LMC		Jinling	Luoyang		-m	-p
咸 (outer)	覃	I	open	ɑ̌m	ɒm	əm	am	om	ɔm	ɔm	ʌm	-an	-a, Ke
	談	I	open	ɑm	ɑm	am	am	am	ɑm	ɐm	ɑm
	咸	II	open	ə̆m	ɐm	əɨm	aːm, Gjaːm	ɛm	ɛm	ɛm	ɣɛm	-an, Jian	Jia, Ša
	銜	II	open	am	am	aɨm	aːm, Gjaːm	æm	æm	ɛm	ɣam
	鹽	III/3	open	i̯ɛm	iɛm	iam	iam	jem	em	em	ɣiᴇm	-ian, ŠRan	-ie, Še
	鹽	III/4	open		jɛm	jiam	PGjiam	jiem	jem	jem	iᴇm
	嚴	III-indep	open	i̯æm	iɐm	ɨam	iam	jæm	øm	øm	ɨɐm	-ian, fan	-ie, fa
	凡	III-indep	closed	i̯wæm	iuɐm	uam	iam	jom/jwom?	œm	øm	ʉɐm
	添	IV	open	iem	em	ɛm	PGjiam, Aiam	em	ɪm	ɪm	em	-ian	Qie
深 (inner)	侵	III/3	open	i̯əm	iəm	im	im, SRəm	im	im	im	ɣiɪm	-in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š-	-i, Še < SR-
	侵	III/4	open		jəm	jim	PGjim	jim	jim	jim	iɪm

Dental codas

Yunjing rhyme class	Qieyun rhyme class	division	rounding	Bernhard Karlgren	Li Rong	Edwin G. Pulleyblank		William H. Baxter	Abraham Y.S. Chan		Zhengzhang Shangfang	Standard Mandarin pronunciation
						EMC	LMC		Jinling	Luoyang		-n	-t
山 (outer)	寒	I	open	ɑn	ɑn	an	an	an	ɑn	ɐn	ɑn	-an	-a, Ge, PMo
	桓	I	closed	uɑn	uɑn	wan	uan	wan	wɑn	wɐn	uɑn	-uan, PMan	-uo, PMo
	刪	II	open	an	an	aɨn	aːn, Gjaːn	æn	æn	ɛn	ɣan	-an, Jian	-a, Jia
	刪	II	closed	wan	uan	waɨn	waːn	wæn	wæn	wɛn	ɣuan	-uan	Kua
	山	II	open	ə̆n	ɛn	əɨn	aːn, Gjaːn	ɛn	ɛn	ɛn	ɣɛn	-an, Jian	-a, Jia
	山	II	closed	wə̆n	uɛn	wəɨn	waːn	wɛn	wɛn	wɛn	ɣuɛn	Kuan	Gua
	仙	III/3	open	i̯ɛn	iɛn	ian	ian	jen	en	en	ɣiᴇn	-ian, ŠRan	-ie, ŠRe
	仙	III/4	open		jɛn	jian	PGjian	jien	jen	jen	iᴇn
	仙	III/3	closed	i̯wɛn	iuɛn	wian	yan	jwen	wen	wen	ɣiuᴇn	-uan, Jüan; also lian	Jüe, lie, Šuo
	仙	III/4	closed		juɛn	jwian	PGjyan	jwien	wjen	wjen	iuᴇn
	元	III-indep	open	i̯æn	iɐn	ɨan	ian	jon	øn	øn	ɨɐn	Jian, Fan	Jie, fa
	元	III-indep	closed	i̯wæn	iuɐn	uan	yan	jwon	wøn	wøn	ʉɐn	Jüan, Fan	Jüe
	先	IV	open	ien	en	ɛn	PGjian, Aian	en	ɪn	ɪn	en	-ian	-ie
	先	IV	closed	iwen	uen	wɛn	jyan	wen	wɪn	wɪn	wen	Jüan	Qüe
臻 (inner)	痕	I	open	ən	ən	ən	ən	on	ən	ən	ən	Gen	Ke
	魂	I	closed	u̯ən	uən	wən	un	won	ʏn	ʏn	uən	-uen, PMen	-u, PMo, ne
	臻	III/3	open	i̯ɛn	iɛn	in	SRən	in	in	in	ɪn	-in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š-	-i, Še < SR-
	眞	III/3	open	i̯ēn	iēn	in	in, SRən	in	in	in	ɣiɪn
	眞	III/4	open		jēn	jin	PGjin	jin	jin	jin	iɪn
	眞	III/3	closed	i̯wēn	iuēn	win	yn	win	win	win	ɣiuɪn	-uen, Jün	-ü
	諄	III/3	closed	i̯uēn	iuēn	win	yn	win	win	win	ɣiuɪn
	諄	III/4	closed		juēn	jwin	PGjyn	jwin	jwin	jwin	iuɪn
	欣(殷?)	III-indep	open	i̯ən	iən	ɨn	in	jɨn	in	yn	ɨn	Jin	Ji
	文	III-indep	closed	i̯uən	iuən	un	yn, yt, SRut	jun	yn	yn	ɨun	Jün, Fen	Jü, Fu

Velar codas

Yunjing rhyme class	Qieyun rhyme class	division	rounding	Bernhard Karlgren	Li Rong	Edwin G. Pulleyblank		William H. Baxter	Abraham Y.S. Chan		Zhengzhang Shangfang	Standard Mandarin pronunciation
						EMC	LMC		Jinling	Luoyang		-ŋ	-k
宕 (outer)	唐	I	open	ɑŋ	ɑŋ	aŋ [ɑŋ]	aŋ [ɑŋ]	aŋ	ɑŋ	ɐŋ	ɑŋ	-ang	-uo, Ge, PMo; also lao; occ. Sao
	唐	I	closed	wɑŋ	uɑŋ	waŋ [wɑŋ]	uaŋ [uɑŋ]	waŋ	wɑŋ	wɐŋ	wɑŋ	Kuang	Kuo
	陽	III-mixed	open	i̯aŋ	iaŋ	ɨaŋ [ɨɑŋ]	iaŋ [iɑŋ], SRaːŋ [SRɑːŋ]	jaŋ	œŋ	œŋ	ɨɐŋ	-iang, Fang, ŠRang; also Šuang < SR-	-üe, ŠRuo; also Jiao
	陽	III-mixed	closed	i̯waŋ	iuaŋ	uaŋ [uɑŋ]	yaŋ [yɑŋ]	jwaŋ	wœŋ	wœŋ	ʉɐŋ	Kuang	Qüe
江 (outer)	江	II	open	ɔŋ	ɔŋ	aɨwŋ	aːwŋ, RXLʔwaːwŋ, Gjaːwŋ	æwŋ	ɔŋ	ɔŋ	ɣʌŋ	Qiang, Pang, Šuang < TR-	-uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, Pao; also Qiao, Po
曾 (inner)	登	I	open	əŋ	əŋ	əŋ	əə̆ŋ [ɤŋ]	oŋ	oŋ	oŋ	əŋ	-eng	-e, PMo; also Sei, lei
	登	I	closed	wəŋ	uəŋ	wəŋ	uə̆ŋ [uɔŋ]	woŋ	woŋ	woŋ	wəŋ	Kong	Kuo
	蒸	III-mixed	open	i̯əŋ	iəŋ	iŋ	iə̆ŋ [iɛŋ], iə̆k [iɛk], SRəə̆k [SRɤk]	iŋ	iŋ	iŋ	ɨŋ	-ing, ŠReng	-i, Še < SR-; also Se < SR-
	蒸	III-mixed	closed	i̯wəŋ	iuəŋ	wiŋ	yə̆ŋ [yɛŋ]	wiŋ	wiŋ	wiŋ	wɨŋ	unobserved	Jü
梗 (outer)	庚	II	open	æŋ	ɐŋ	aɨjŋ	aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ	æŋ	æŋ	ɛŋ	ɣæŋ	Jing, -eng; also Keng	-ai, Ge; also PMo, Se < Š-
	庚	II	closed	wæŋ	uɐŋ	waɨjŋ	waːjŋ	wæŋ	wæŋ	wɛŋ	wɣæŋ	Keng	unobserved
	耕	II	open	ɛŋ	ɛŋ	əɨjŋ	aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ	ɛŋ	ɛŋ	ɛŋ	ɣɛŋ	Jing, -eng; also Keng	-ai, Ge; also Se < Š-
	耕	II	closed	wɛŋ	uɛŋ	wəɨjŋ	waːjŋ	wɛŋ	wɛŋ	wɛŋ	wɣɛŋ	Kong	Kuo
	庚	III/3	open	i̯æŋ	iɐŋ	iajŋ	iajŋ	jæŋ	eŋ	jɛŋ	ɣiæŋ	-ing, Šeng	-i
	庚	III/3	closed	i̯wæŋ	iuɐŋ	wiajŋ	yajŋ	jwæŋ	weŋ	wjɛŋ	wɣiæŋ	Qiong	unobserved
	清	III/3	open	i̯ɛŋ	iɛŋ	iajŋ	iajŋ	jeŋ	eŋ	eŋ	iᴇŋ	-ing, Šeng	-i
	清	III/4	open		jɛŋ	jiajŋ	PGjiajŋ	jieŋ	jeŋ	jeŋ	iᴇŋ
	清	III/3	closed	i̯wɛŋ	iuɛŋ	wiajŋ	yajŋ	jweŋ	weŋ	weŋ	wiᴇŋ	Qiong, ying	yi
	清	III/4	closed		juɛŋ	jwiajŋ	jyajŋ	jwieŋ	wjeŋ	wjeŋ	wiᴇŋ
	青	IV	open	ieŋ	eŋ	ɛjŋ	PGjiajŋ, Aiajŋ	eŋ	ɪŋ	ɪŋ	eŋ	-ing	-i
	青	IV	closed	iweŋ	ueŋ	Kwɛjŋ	jyajŋ	weŋ	wɪŋ	wɪŋ	weŋ	Qiong	unobserved
通 (inner)	東	I	closed	uŋ	uŋ	əwŋ	əwŋ	uwŋ	ʉŋ	ʉŋ	uŋ	-ong, weng, PMeng; occ. Seng	-u; also wo
	冬	I	closed	uoŋ	oŋ	awŋ	əwŋ	owŋ	uŋ	əŋ	uoŋ
	東	III-mixed	closed	iuŋ	iuŋ	uwŋ	iwŋ, SRəwŋ, Məwŋ	juwŋ	yŋ	yŋ	ɨuŋ	-ong, Jiong, feng; also Kong	-u, Jü; also liu, ŠRou
	鍾	III-mixed	closed	i̯woŋ	ioŋ	uawŋ	ywŋ	jowŋ	øŋ	øŋ	ɨoŋ

References

Footnotes

Works cited

• Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
• ——; Sagart, Laurent (20 February 2010), Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, Version 1.00.
• Branner, David Prager (2006), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34, ISBN 978-90-272-4785-8. See also List of Corrigenda.
• Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese Towards a New Paradigm", T'oung Pao, 90 (1/3): 122–162, doi:10.1163/1568532042523149, JSTOR 4528958.
• Karlgren, Bernhard (1957), Grammata Serica Recensa, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, OCLC 1999753.
• Li, Fang-Kuei (1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", Monumenta Serica, 31, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287.
• Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999), Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-543-5.
• Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
• Pan, Wuyun; Zhang, Hongming (2015), "Chapter 6: Middle Chinese Phonology and Qieyun", in Wang, William S-Y; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1998-5633-6.
• Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1962), "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese", Asia Major, 9: 58–144, 206–265.
• —— (1970), "Late Middle Chinese, Part I" (PDF), Asia Major, 15: 197–239.
• —— (1971), "Late Middle Chinese, Part II" (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166.
• —— (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8.
• —— (1991), Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0366-3.
• Schuessler, Axel (2009), Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3264-3.

External links

• Introduction to Chinese Historical Phonology, Guillaume Jacques
• Historical Chinese Phonology/Philology at Technical Notes on the Chinese Language Dialects Dylan W.H. Sung