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Cuisine of Jerusalem

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Stews at Azura, an Iraqi/Kurdi Jewish restaurant at the Mahane Yehuda Market

The cuisine of Jerusalem reflects the long history of Jerusalem as a crossroads of cultures and religions. Millennia of trade, conquest, and migration have resulted in a unique fusion of culinary traditions, with significant influences from Jewish (predominantly Sephardic) and Levantine Arab cuisine (especially Palestinian).

Dishes in Jerusalem feature fresh, seasonal Mediterranean ingredients, with a strong emphasis on vegetables, fruits, olive oil, and herbs. Street food is a prominent aspect of the culinary scene, thriving in markets such as the Mahane Yehuda Market and the Arab souk of the Old City. Modern Jerusalem caters to a global palate, with a growing number of restaurants offering international fare alongside traditional dishes.

Jerusalem has several distinctive dishes, including the Jerusalem bagel, a long, oval-shaped bread typically topped with sesame seeds and served with za'atar; Jerusalem mixed grill, a dish made from chicken hearts, spleens, and liver mixed with bits of lamb and fried with onions and spices; and kubbeh, a type of dumpling made from bulgur or semolina filled with minced meat served in soup. Sephardic classics such as bourekas (savory pastries), biscochos (cookies), sofrito (a meat stew), orez shu'it (rice and beans), makaroni hamin (slow-cooked pasta), and pastelikos (meat-stuffed pastries) are also prevalent. Additionally, Ashkenazi Kugel Yerushalmi, a traditional noodle casserole, and Middle Eastern staples like hummus, falafel, shawarma, and knafeh, are integral to Jerusalem's culinary identity.

History

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There are literary and archaeological remnants that shed light on the Israelite cuisine of ancient Jerusalem. In Samuel II, David is said to have distributed ashishim, lentil pancakes, among the city's inhabitants.[1] Archaeological findings reveal traces of vanilla discovered in wine jars from the 7th to 6th centuries BCE, suggesting that local elites enjoyed vanilla-flavored wine—a notable early use of this spice in the Old World.[2] Abundant fish bones from the Iron Age suggest that fish, likely preserved rather than fresh due to the city's distance from the Mediterranean coast, were sold and consumed in the city. The Books of Chronicles, Zephaniah, and Nehemiah also mention a "Fish Gate" in the city.[3] In the Ophel area, large storage jars used for storing flour, oil, and honey were found in a structure destroyed during Nebuchadnezzar's siege in 587 BCE. A pithos with a palm tree inscription indicates that some jars contained date honey.[4] Additionally, the earliest archaeological evidence of citrus fruits in the Middle East dates back to the 5th and 6th centuries BCE, discovered in the Ramat Rachel area.[5]

In Crusader times, Queen Melisende established three parallel streets, known as the "Triple Market," in 1152. These streets, which remain largely intact, were named the Street of Herbs, the Street of Bad Cooking, and the Covered Street. The Street of Herbs was dedicated to selling herbs, fruit, and spices, the Covered Street focused on cloth, and the Street of Bad Cooking offered prepared food to pilgrims and locals.[4]

Bread sellers in Jerusalem, between 1890 and 1900

In the 16th century, bread, favored for its affordability and high nutritional value, was the predominant staple in Jerusalem, surpassing both meat and olive oil in importance. Meat was costly and less accessible, while olive oil, though cheaper, played a less central role in the diet.[6] Various types of bread, including kmaj (a pocket bread similar to pita, with a name of Persian origin[7]), mawi (pancakes made from wheat, semolina, and water[8]), sammun (bread rolls[9]), simid, tannuri, and tabbuni, were produced by bakeries, which often baked multiple times a day to meet the high demand.[6] Records from Jerusalem's Islamic court in the 17th century provide additional details about breads and baked goods available at the time, including kmaj, ka'ak (sesame bagels), and aljerk (a loaf filled with dates, cheese, and herbs, today known as maruk[10]).[11] Obadiah of Bertinoro, who visited Jerusalem in the late 15th century, described finding grapes larger than those in Romagna, Italy, and noted the sale of grape syrup.[12] Israel of Perusha, writing in the 16th century, noted that grapes were among the only fruits available in the city, and also mentioned the selling of grape syrup.[12]

Jerusalem's cuisine has evolved significantly over the past two centuries. In the early 19th century, the city housed about 9,000 residents, including 2,000 Jews from Sephardic, Musta'arabi, and Ashkenazi backgrounds. These communities maintained distinct culinary traditions from their countries of origin, blending with local Arab ingredients and cooking methods. This period marked the beginning of a unique Jerusalemite cuisine that combined various Jewish traditions with local Arab influences.[13] A significant role in shaping this culinary landscape was played by Sephardic Jews, descendants of those expelled from Spain, who arrived from the Ottoman Empire in the 17th and 18th centuries. Their influence led to a predominantly Sephardic character in the city's food culture.[14]

Mahane Yehuda Market in 1964

As Jerusalem's population grew, so did its Jewish community, eventually reaching two-thirds of the city's total. This growth brought further diversification to the culinary scene. The early 19th century saw an influx of Jews from Eastern and Western Europe, along with migrants from Turkey, Syria, the Balkans and North Africa. The arrival of Jews from the Maghreb in the 1840s, and later from Iran, Bukhara, Yemen, and Kurdistan in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, introduced new culinary influences. Each group brought unique ingredients and cooking techniques, further enriching Jerusalemite cuisine.[13]

In the post-World War II era and following the establishment of the State of Israel, Jerusalem continued to see a melding of culinary traditions. The influx of Jewish immigrants from around the world further enriched the city's food culture. Modern Jerusalemite cuisine is a dynamic blend of historical influences from Jewish communities, including Sephardic, Ashkenazi, and Kurdish, as well as Palestinian traditions.[15] Today, it reflects a fusion of ancient recipes and modern culinary practices.[13]

Following the 1967 War, there was an influx of Palestinian laborers from the West Bank. The number of Palestinian restaurants in Jerusalem increased, and East Jerusalem became a popular area for hummus restaurants.[16]

Breads and pastries

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Jerusalem bagel
Maaruk, a date-stuffed bread sold in a food stall at the Old City of Jerusalem
The Jerusalem kugel, a spiced noodle casserole commonly served on Shabbat

The ka’ak-al-quds or Jerusalem bagel is a traditional bread originating from Jerusalem, known for its unique oval shape.[17] It is softer and lighter than the classic round bagel. It is typically coated with toppings such as sesame seeds and served alongside za'atar, a Levantine herb blend,[18] and hard-boiled eggs.[17] A date-filled bread called maaruk, enriched with eggs and given a yellow hue from turmeric, can be found in the Old City.[19] The Yemenite Jewish community introduced jachnun to the city, and it became a staple in the local diet.[13] At Mahane Yehuda Market, challah, a braided bread traditionally made for Shabbat, and bourekas, a savory filled pastry of Sephardic origin, are sold.[20]

Yerushalmi kugel, a speciality of Jerusalem, is a unique dish combining sweet and savory flavors. Made with caramel, black pepper, and egg noodles, it develops a crisp exterior and a chewy interior when baked. This casserole, often found in Orthodox Jewish communities, is characterized by its rich, peppery, and sweet taste.[21] The dish may trace its origins to the 19th century, when Ashkenazi Jews brought kugel to Jerusalem, adapting its ingredients to local availability by incorporating caramel and a Sephardic-influenced sharpness.[22] Yerushalmi kugel can be served warm or cold, and reheated multiple times, making it a popular choice for Shabbat,[21] when it is commonly served at kiddush or as a side dish accompanying cholent.[23]

Main dishes

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Red kubbeh soup with pita, pickled cucumbers and hummus

Kubbeh, a dumpling soup of Iraqi Jewish origin, is an iconic dish of Jerusalem cuisine, often enjoyed as a pre-Shabbat meal during Friday lunch. Starting in the 1980s, this dish, which had been mostly eaten within the small Kurdish Jewish community, began appearing in simple eateries around Mahane Yehuda market, and gradually became popular among a wider audience.[14] The dish is served at restaurants such as Azura, Morduch, Ima and Rachmo.[14][24][25] Popular versions include kubbeh hamusta, a sour soup,[26] and kubbeh selek, made with a red beet broth.[27]

Jerusalem mixed-grill, a speciality of Jerusalem including chicken thighs, hearts, and livers, caramelized onions and spices

Jerusalem mixed grill is a dish believed to have originated from the Mahane Yehuda Market. It consists of chicken thighs, hearts, and livers cooked with baharat, a Middle Eastern spice blend typically containing cinnamon, allspice, coriander, black pepper, cardamom, and cloves, along with caramelized onions. Traditionally prepared on a griddle, it can be made in a regular pan as well and can also be served in a pita.[28]

Another popular dish in Jerusalem is sofrito, a stew of Sephardic Jewish origin. Beef sofrito, a mixture of beef, potatoes and spices, is served in places such as Azura[29] and Barood.[30] Azura, a renowned family restaurant in the Mahana Yehuda Market, often hailed as one of the country's finest "workers' restaurants",[31] serves alongside sofrito other traditional dishes such as kubbeh and lung stew.[32] Barood, located within the historic Feingold courtyard and established in 1995, is a gastropub known for its Sephardic cuisine, which also includes pastelikos, boycos and leek fritters.[30][32]

Makaroni hamin is a Jerusalemite variation of hamin (comparable to the Ashkenazi cholent), a slow-cooked stew traditionally served on Shabbat. This dish incorporates pasta (usually macaroni or bucatini), alongside chicken.[33][34]

Hummus served in The Eucalyptus restaurant, at Jerusalem's Artists' Colony

In the Old City of Jerusalem, several popular hummus eateries draw crowds, including Abu Shukri, Lina, Abu Kamal, and Arafat.[18][35] Abu Shukri, which Yotam Ottolenghi and Sami Tamimi call "a famous hummus spot" in the area,[35] is known for its hand-prepared hummus, also offers dishes like msabbaha (whole chickpeas mixed with tahini) and ful (spiced fava beans). Due to limited seating, it's common to find locals lining up for takeaway breakfasts.[17] The Butchers' Market is home to Kebab Abu Shaheen, a kebab restaurant managed by descendants of a Turkish Muslim family believed to have founded the establishment during the Ottoman period.[18]

Desserts

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Knafeh served at Jafar Sweets, a shop in the Old City of Jerusalem
Rugelach and other sweet pastries at the Mahane Yehuda Market
Halva of various tastes, including chocolate, rum and raisins, bamba, and coffee beans
Sufganiyot, jelly-doughnuts eaten in the Jewish holiday of Hannukah, sold in the Jewish Quarter

Traditional Palestinian desserts sold in Jerusalem sweet shops include helbeh and hareeseh, both made from semolina cakes.[17] Another Palestinian dessert, knafeh, is made with melted cheese and pastry dough.[36] One well-known knafeh shop is Jafar Sweets, established in 1951 in the Old City's Christian Quarter.[18][36]

In 2017, the first kosher knafeh shop, Ir David, opened in the Mahane Yehuda Market, quickly gaining popularity and inspiring the establishment of additional kosher knafeh shops.[37] Rugelach is also popular, notably at Marzipan, a bakery known for its gooey chocolate version of the pastry, which attracts large crowds.[38][39]

Café Kadosh, situated in downtown Jerusalem, is renowned as one of Israel's most popular and long-standing bakeries.[40][41] Established in 1967, this family-run establishment has earned acclaim for its classic European-style baked goods and dairy cuisine.[42] The café is also notable for its sufganiyot during the Jewish holiday of Hanukkah, which attract large crowds each year.[40]

In 2023, The Jerusalem Post reported that a number of ice cream parlors had opened in the preceding decade.[43]

International cuisine

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Alongside traditional Jerusalemite cuisine, an increasing number of restaurants in Jerusalem offer international fare. Notable examples include the Austrian Hospice in the Old City, renowned for serving Austrian specialties like veal schnitzel and apple strudel. In the Jewish Quarter, a Korean restaurant offers Korean dishes such as bibimbap, gimbap, tteokbokki, japchae and kimchi.[18] In the Mahane Yehuda Market, new restaurants have emerged offering a variety of kosher-certified international cuisines, including Georgian, Lebanese, American and South American.[29]

Events and festivals

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In 1992, the Tower of David museum held an innovative food exhibition named Ta-Arucha, curated by renowned food writer Sherry Ansky.[44] Around 2021, the Tower of David initiated "Eating in Jerusalem", an interdisciplinary historical culinary project which includes a weekly newsletter, stories and recipes shared via WhatsApp, a blog featuring scholarly articles on local ingredients, and in-person food tours in the Old City and Mahane Yehuda Market.[44]

In the 2010s and 2020s, the Jerusalem Food Truck Festival became a prominent summer event. The festival, held during July and August nights, features food trucks where top chefs from esteemed city restaurants prepared dishes. Alongside culinary offerings, the festival also includes shows and light exhibitions.[45][46] Originally held at Ben Hinnom Valley Park, in 2024 the venue was relocated to Armon HaNatsiv park.[47]

In 2017, Palestinian chef Izzeldin Bukhari established Sacred Cuisine, a company that organizes food tours, supper clubs, cooking classes, and other events centered on vegetarian Palestinian cuisine in Jerusalem.[48][49][50] One of his most popular tours explores the Old City and features foods like hummus, kras beid, freekeh, za'atar, mutabbaq, and halva.[51][52][53][54]

Outside Jerusalem

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In 2021, Shabour, a Parisian restaurant specializing in Jerusalemite cuisine and operated by Jerusalemite chef Assaf Granit, was awarded a Michelin star.[55]

References

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  1. ^ Levit, Michal (24 January 2023). "Bible to Table". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  2. ^ Amir, A.; Finkelstein, I.; Shalev, Y.; Uziel, J.; Chalaf, O.; Freud, L.; Neumann, R.; Gadot, Y. (2022). "Residue analysis evidence for wine enriched with vanilla consumed in Jerusalem on the eve of the Babylonian destruction in 586 BCE. PLoS ONE 17(3)". PLOS ONE. 17 (3): e0266085. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0266085. PMC 8963535. PMID 35349581.
  3. ^ Reich, Ronny; Shukron, Eli; Lernau, Omri (2007). "Recent Discoveries in the City of David, Jerusalem". Israel Exploration Journal. 57 (2): 160. ISSN 0021-2059. JSTOR 27927171.
  4. ^ a b Magness, Jodi (2024). Jerusalem Through The Ages: From Its Beginnings To The Crusades. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. pp. 98, 429. ISBN 978-0-19-093780-5.
  5. ^ Choufan, Matan (2 July 2021). "Peeling Back the Rind: Exploring the History of Citrus in the Middle East". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  6. ^ a b Cohen, Amnon (1989). Economic Life in Ottoman Jerusalem. Cambridge Studies in Islamic Civilisation. Cambridge, New York: Cambridge University Press. pp. 98–99. ISBN 978-0-521-36551-2.
  7. ^ "Kmaj (Pita) Recipe - Amr Msalha". Asif. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  8. ^ "Mawi (Wheat and Semolina Pan Cake) Recipe - Safa Boshnak". Asif. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  9. ^ "Samuni (Rolls)". Asif. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  10. ^ "Aljerk (Bread Stuffed With Dates and Spices) Recipe - Michal Bouton and Ana Shapiro". Asif. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  11. ^ Choufan, Matan (29 May 2022). "Grains and Bread in the Land of Israel in the 17th Century". Asif. Retrieved 22 July 2024.
  12. ^ a b Amar, Zohar. Agricultural Produce in the Land of Israel in the Middle Ages (in Hebrew). Jerusalem: Yad Izhak Ben Zvi. pp. 105, 114.
  13. ^ a b c d Choufan, Matan (9 December 2021). "מעורב ירושלמי: התפתחותו של המטבח הירושלמי היהודי" [Me'orav Yerushalmi: The Development of Jerusalem's Jewish Cuisine]. Asif (in Hebrew). Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  14. ^ a b c Gur, Janna (16 February 2022). "A Kurdish Treat Becomes a Jerusalem Staple". Tablet Magazine.
  15. ^ Choufan, Matan (9 December 2021). "The Jewish Kitchen of Jerusalem in Modern History". Asif. Retrieved 17 July 2024.
  16. ^ Hirsch, Dafna (November 2011). ""Hummus is best when it is fresh and made by Arabs": The gourmetization of hummus in Israel and the return of the repressed Arab". American Ethnologist. 38 (4): 617–630. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1425.2011.01326.x. ISSN 0094-0496.
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  19. ^ "Asif Exhibition: A City, Wheat, Bread". Asif. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  20. ^ "Where to eat in Jerusalem". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 27 October 2024.
  21. ^ a b Clark, Melissa (7 December 2020). "A Kugel That's Savory and Sweet (and Crispy, Too)". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  22. ^ "Peppery Jerusalem Kugel Recipe – Shmil Holland". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  23. ^ Prever, Victoria. "Times are frugal, revisit the kugel". The Jewish Chronicle. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  24. ^ "Fire causes 'significant damage' to renowned Ima restaurant in downtown Jerusalem". Times of Israel. 7 June 2024.
  25. ^ Ferst, Devra (10 August 2017). "An Iraqi-Kurdish-Israeli Dumpling Soup Makes Its Way To America". NPR.
  26. ^ "Kubbeh Hamusta Recipe – Sherri Ansky". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  27. ^ "Kubbeh Selek (Beet Broth Kubbeh) Recipe – Michael Solomonov". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  28. ^ Sifton, Sam (20 March 2019). "A Taste of Jerusalem in a Chicken Dinner". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  29. ^ a b Silver, Daniel (10 June 2019). "14 out-of-this-world eateries in Jerusalem's famous market". ISRAEL21c. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  30. ^ a b "Barood". Asif. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  31. ^ Choufan, Matan (19 March 2023). "How Writers and Musicians Helped Create the Myth of the Israeli 'Workers' Restaurant". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  32. ^ a b לוי, לין (2 June 2019). "20 מנות אייקוניות בירושלים" [20 Iconic dishes in Jerusalem]. Ynet (in Hebrew). Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  33. ^ "Chicken and Bucatini Hamin (Cholent) Recipe – Nechama Rivlin". Asif. Retrieved 10 July 2024.
  34. ^ "The Perfect Jewish Comfort Food: Hamin Macaroni". Ha'aretz.
  35. ^ a b Ottolenghi, Yotam; Tamimi, Sami (16 October 2012). Jerusalem: A Cookbook. Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-60774-395-8. Archived from the original on 13 August 2024. Retrieved 20 December 2023.
  36. ^ a b Nissenbaum, Dion; Abdul Karim, Fatima (4 June 2023). "A Trendy Dessert Stirs Up a Sticky Debate". The Wall Street Journal.
  37. ^ Levi, Sarah (28 November 2022). "Knafeh becomes an institution at Jerusalem's shuk". ISRAEL21c. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  38. ^ "Marzipan's famous rugelach coming to US". The Jerusalem Post. 5 June 2016. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  39. ^ "Top 5 bakeries in Jerusalem". The Jerusalem Post. 3 May 2012. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  40. ^ a b "The never-ending line: Jerusalem bakery a huge Hanukkah hit". The Jerusalem Post. 28 November 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  41. ^ "Cafe Kadosh moves to Tzohar kashrut after 'illogical' demands of rabbinate". The Jerusalem Post. 29 April 2021. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  42. ^ "City Bites: A European flare". The Jerusalem Post. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 8 September 2024.
  43. ^ "The inside scoop: What are Jerusalem's best ice cream parlors?". The Jerusalem Post. 1 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  44. ^ a b Tsapovsky, Flora (25 August 2021). "Expanding the Israeli Menu". Tablet Magazine.
  45. ^ "Tour Israel: What are the best Jerusalem foodie destinations?". The Jerusalem Post. 22 July 2023. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  46. ^ "Jerusalem's food truck fest: A gastronomic delight on wheels". The Jerusalem Post. Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  47. ^ Gamish, Rafi (2 July 2024). "מיקום חדש, הופעות חיות, מופע לייזר ונוף מרהיב – פסטיבל 'אוטו אוכל' נוחת בטיילת" [New location, live performances, laser show, and breathtaking views – the 'Auto Food' festival lands on the promenade]. כל העיר ירושלים (Kol Ha'Ir Jerusalem) (in Hebrew). Retrieved 8 July 2024.
  48. ^ Aghazarian, Arda (23 October 2022). "In Sufism, Food Is a Divine Gift—Izzeldin Bukhari Offers It to Celebrate the Heritage of His People and His City". Jerusalem Story.
  49. ^ Austin, Alice (8 December 2022). "The tour guide serving up Palestinian history through food". +972 Magazine. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
  50. ^ Rose, Emily (21 December 2022). "Jerusalem chef gives tourists a Palestinian taste of life in the Old City". Reuters.
  51. ^ Aghazarian, Arda (23 October 2022). "In Sufism, Food Is a Divine Gift—Izzeldin Bukhari Offers It to Celebrate the Heritage of His People and His City". Jerusalem Story.
  52. ^ Rose, Emily (21 December 2022). "Jerusalem chef gives tourists a Palestinian taste of life in the Old City". Reuters.
  53. ^ Missawa, Tatiana Yuri; Gouveia, Thiago Ruotolo (2022). "ONE YEAR LATER (2018)". Palestine: voices of resistance and traveler's memoirs. São Paulo: Sundermann. ISBN 978-65-87957-16-6.
  54. ^ Austin, Alice (8 December 2022). "The tour guide serving up Palestinian history through food". +972 Magazine. Retrieved 27 September 2024.
  55. ^ "Classic Jerusalem cuisine earns Assaf Granit a Michelin star". Times of Israel. 18 January 2021.
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