China
People's Republic of China | |
|---|---|
| Anthem: "March of the Volunteers" | |
 Location of the People's Republic of China | |
| Capital | Beijing 39°55′N 116°23′E / 39.917°N 116.383°E |
| Largest city by municipal boundary | Chongqing[a] |
| Largest city by urban population | Shanghai |
| Official languages | Standard Chinese (de facto)[2] |
| Simplified characters | |
| Ethnic groups (2020)[3] |
|
| Religion (2023)[4] |
|
| Demonym(s) | Chinese |
| Government | Unitary Marxist–Leninist one-party socialist republic |
| Xi Jinping | |
• Premier | Li Qiang |
| Zhao Leji | |
| Wang Huning | |
| Han Zheng | |
| Legislature | National People's Congress[d] |
| Formation | |
| c. 2070 BCE | |
| 221 BCE | |
| 1 January 1912 | |
| 1 October 1949 | |
| Area | |
• Total | 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi)[e][8] (3rd / 4th) |
• Water (%) | 2.8[5] |
| Population | |
• 2023 estimate |  1,409,670,000[9] (2nd) |
• Density | 145[10]/km2 (375.5/sq mi) (83rd) |
| GDP (PPP) | 2024 estimate |
• Total |  $37.072 trillion[f][11] (1st) |
• Per capita | $26,310[11] (79th) |
| GDP (nominal) | 2024 estimate |
• Total | $18.273 trillion[11] (2nd) |
• Per capita | $12,969[11] (73rd) |
| Gini (2021) |  35.7[12]medium inequality |
| HDI (2022) | 0.788[13] high (75th) |
| Currency | Renminbi (元/¥)[g] (CNY) |
| Time zone | UTC+8 (CST) |
| Calling code | |
| ISO 3166 code | CN |
| Internet TLD | |
.svg)
China,[h] officially the People's Republic of China (PRC),[i] is a country in East Asia. With a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the second-most populous country after India, representing 17.4% of the world population. China spans the equivalent of five time zones and borders fourteen countries by land.[j] With an area of nearly 9.6 million square kilometers (3,700,000 sq mi), it is the third-largest country by total land area.[k] The country is divided into 33 province-level divisions: 22 provinces,[l] five autonomous regions, four municipalities, and two semi-autonomous special administrative regions. Beijing is the country's capital, while Shanghai is its most populous city by urban area and largest financial center.
China is considered one of the cradles of civilization: the first human inhabitants in the region arrived during the Paleolithic. By the late 2nd millennium BCE, the earliest dynastic states had emerged in the Yellow River basin. The 8th–3rd centuries BCE saw a breakdown in the authority of the Zhou dynasty, accompanied by the emergence of administrative and military techniques, literature, philosophy, and historiography. In 221 BCE, China was unified under an emperor, ushering in more than two millennia of imperial dynasties including the Qin, Han, Tang, Yuan, Ming, and Qing. With the invention of gunpowder and paper, the establishment of the Silk Road, and the building of the Great Wall, Chinese culture flourished and has heavily influenced both its neighbors and lands further afield. However, China began to cede parts of the country in the late 19th century to various European powers by a series of unequal treaties.
After decades of Qing China on the decline, the 1911 Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty and the monarchy and the Republic of China (ROC) was established the following year. The country under the nascent Beiyang government was unstable and ultimately fragmented during the Warlord Era, which was ended upon the Northern Expedition conducted by the Kuomintang (KMT) to reunify the country. The Chinese Civil War began in 1927, when KMT forces purged members of the rival Chinese Communist Party (CCP), who proceeded to engage in sporadic fighting against the KMT-led Nationalist government. Following the country's invasion by the Empire of Japan in 1937, the CCP and KMT formed the Second United Front to fight the Japanese. The Second Sino-Japanese War eventually ended in a Chinese victory; however, the CCP and the KMT resumed their civil war as soon as the war ended. In 1949, the resurgent Communists established control over most of the country, proclaiming the People's Republic of China and forcing the Nationalist government to retreat to the island of Taiwan. The country was split, with both sides claiming to be the sole legitimate government of China. Following the implementation of land reforms, further attempts by the PRC to realize communism failed: the Great Leap Forward was largely responsible for the Great Chinese Famine that ended with millions of Chinese people having died, and the subsequent Cultural Revolution was a period of social turmoil and persecution characterized by Maoist populism. Following the Sino-Soviet split, the Shanghai Communiqué in 1972 would precipitate the normalization of relations with the United States. Economic reforms that began in 1978 moved the country away from a socialist planned economy towards an increasingly capitalist market economy, spurring significant economic growth. The corresponding movement for increased democracy and liberalization stalled after the Tiananmen Square protests and massacre in 1989.
China is a unitary one-party socialist republic led by the CCP. It is one of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council; the UN representative for China was changed from the ROC to the PRC in 1971. It is a founding member of several multilateral and regional organizations such as the AIIB, the Silk Road Fund, the New Development Bank, and the RCEP. It is a member of the BRICS, the G20, APEC, the SCO, and the East Asia Summit. Making up around one-fifth of the world economy, the Chinese economy is the world's largest economy by PPP-adjusted GDP, the second-largest economy by nominal GDP, and the second-wealthiest country, albeit ranking poorly in measures of democracy, human rights and religious freedom. The country has been one of the fastest-growing major economies and is the world's largest manufacturer and exporter, as well as the second-largest importer. China is a nuclear-weapon state with the world's largest standing army by military personnel and the second-largest defense budget. It is a great power, and has been described as an emerging superpower. China is known for its cuisine and culture, and has 59 UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the second-highest number of any country.
Etymology
The word "China" has been used in English since the 16th century; however, it was not used by the Chinese themselves during this period. Its origin has been traced through Portuguese, Malay, and Persian back to the Sanskrit word Cīna, used in ancient India.[16] "China" appears in Richard Eden's 1555 translation[m] of the 1516 journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa.[n][16] Barbosa's usage was derived from Persian Chīn (چین), which in turn derived from Sanskrit Cīna (चीन).[21] Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture, including the Mahabharata (5th century BCE) and the Laws of Manu (2nd century BCE).[22] In 1655, Martino Martini suggested that the word China is derived ultimately from the name of the Qin dynasty (221–206 BCE).[23][22] Although use in Indian sources precedes this dynasty, this derivation is still given in various sources.[24] The origin of the Sanskrit word is a matter of debate.[16] Alternative suggestions include the names for Yelang and the Jing or Chu state.[22][25]
The official name of the modern state is the "People's Republic of China" (simplified Chinese: 中华人民共和国; traditional Chinese: 中華人民共和國; pinyin: Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó). The shorter form is "China" (中国; 中國; Zhōngguó), from zhōng ('central') and guó ('state'), a term which developed under the Western Zhou dynasty in reference to its royal demesne.[o][p] It was used in official documents as an synonym for the state under the Qing.[28] The name Zhongguo is also translated as 'Middle Kingdom' in English.[29] China is sometimes referred to as "mainland China" or "the Mainland" when distinguishing it from the Republic of China or the PRC's Special Administrative Regions.[30][31][32][33]
History
Prehistory
Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China 2.25 million years ago.[34] The hominid fossils of Peking Man, a Homo erectus who used fire,[35] have been dated to between 680,000 and 780,000 years ago.[36] The fossilized teeth of Homo sapiens (dated to 125,000–80,000 years ago) have been discovered in Fuyan Cave.[37] Chinese proto-writing existed in Jiahu around 6600 BCE,[38] at Damaidi around 6000 BCE,[39] Dadiwan from 5800 to 5400 BCE, and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BCE. Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols (7th millennium BCE) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system.[38]
Early dynastic rule
According to traditional Chinese historiography, the Xia dynasty was established during the late 3rd millennium BCE, marking the beginning of the dynastic cycle that was understood to underpin China's entire political history. In the modern era, the Xia's historicity came under increasing scrutiny, in part due to the earliest known attestation of the Xia being written millennia after the date given for their collapse. In 1958, archaeologists discovered sites belonging to the Erlitou culture that existed during the early Bronze Age; they have since been characterized as the remains of the historical Xia, but this conception is often rejected.[40][41][42] The Shang dynasty that traditionally succeeded the Xia is the earliest for which there are both contemporary written records and undisputed archaeological evidence.[43] The Shang ruled much of the Yellow River valley until the 11th century BCE, with the earliest hard evidence dated c. 1300 BCE.[44] The oracle bone script, attested from c. 1250 BCE but generally assumed to be considerably older,[45][46] represents the oldest known form of written Chinese,[47] and is the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters.[48]
The Shang were overthrown by the Zhou, who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE, though the centralized authority of Son of Heaven was slowly eroded by fengjian lords. Some principalities eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou and continually waged war with each other during the 300-year Spring and Autumn period. By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th–3rd centuries BCE, there were seven major powerful states left.[49]
Imperial China
Qin and Han
The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six states, reunited China and established the dominant order of autocracy. King Zheng of Qin proclaimed himself the Emperor of the Qin dynasty, becoming the first emperor of a unified China. He enacted Qin's legalist reforms, notably the standardization of Chinese characters, measurements, road widths, and currency. His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes in Guangxi, Guangdong, and Northern Vietnam.[50] The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years, falling soon after the First Emperor's death.[51][52]
Following widespread revolts during which the imperial library was burned,[q] the Han dynasty emerged to rule China between 206 BCE and 220 CE, creating a cultural identity among its populace still remembered in the ethnonym of the modern Han Chinese.[51][52] The Han expanded the empire's territory considerably, with military campaigns reaching Central Asia, Mongolia, Korea, and Yunnan, and the recovery of Guangdong and northern Vietnam from Nanyue. Han involvement in Central Asia and Sogdia helped establish the land route of the Silk Road, replacing the earlier path over the Himalayas to India. Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world.[54] Despite the Han's initial decentralization and the official abandonment of the Qin philosophy of Legalism in favor of Confucianism, Qin's legalist institutions and policies continued to be employed by the Han government and its successors.[55]
Three Kingdoms, Jin, Northern and Southern dynasties
After the end of the Han dynasty, a period of strife known as Three Kingdoms followed, at the end of which Wei was swiftly overthrown by the Jin dynasty. The Jin fell to civil war upon the ascension of a developmentally disabled emperor; the Five Barbarians then rebelled and ruled northern China as the Sixteen States. The Xianbei unified them as the Northern Wei, whose Emperor Xiaowen reversed his predecessors' apartheid policies and enforced a drastic sinification on his subjects. In the south, the general Liu Yu secured the abdication of the Jin in favor of the Liu Song. The various successors of these states became known as the Northern and Southern dynasties, with the two areas finally reunited by the Sui in 581.[citation needed]
Sui, Tang and Song
The Sui restored the Han to power through China, reformed its agriculture, economy and imperial examination system, constructed the Grand Canal, and patronized Buddhism. However, they fell quickly when their conscription for public works and a failed war in northern Korea provoked widespread unrest.[56][57] Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties, Chinese economy, technology, and culture entered a golden age.[58] The Tang dynasty retained control of the Western Regions and the Silk Road,[59] which brought traders to as far as Mesopotamia and the Horn of Africa,[60] and made the capital Chang'an a cosmopolitan urban center. However, it was devastated and weakened by the An Lushan rebellion in the 8th century.[61] In 907, the Tang disintegrated completely when the local military governors became ungovernable. The Song dynasty ended the separatist situation in 960, leading to a balance of power between the Song and the Liao dynasty. The Song was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade.[62]
Between the 10th and 11th century CE, the population of China doubled to around 100 million people, mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism, in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang,[63] and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts, as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of complexity.[64] However, the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jin dynasty. In 1127, Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin–Song wars. The remnants of the Song retreated to southern China.[65]
Yuan
The Mongol conquest of China began in 1205 with the campaigns against Western Xia by Genghis Khan,[66] who also invaded Jin territories.[67] In 1271, the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty, which conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion, the population of Song China was 120 million citizens; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300.[68] A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty as the Hongwu Emperor. Under the Ming dynasty, China enjoyed another golden age, developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture. It was during this period that admiral Zheng He led the Ming treasure voyages throughout the Indian Ocean, reaching as far as East Africa.[69]
Ming
In the early Ming dynasty, China's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing. With the budding of capitalism, philosophers such as Wang Yangming critiqued and expanded Neo-Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations.[70] The scholar-official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements, which, together with the famines and defense against Japanese invasions of Korea (1592–1598) and Later Jin incursions led to an exhausted treasury.[71] In 1644, Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng. The Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing dynasty, then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui, overthrew Li's short-lived Shun dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty.[72]
Qing
The Qing dynasty, which lasted from 1644 until 1912, was the last imperial dynasty of China. The Ming-Qing transition (1618–1683) cost 25 million lives, but the Qing appeared to have restored China's imperial power and inaugurated another flowering of the arts.[73] After the Southern Ming ended, the further conquest of the Dzungar Khanate added Mongolia, Tibet and Xinjiang to the empire.[74] Meanwhile, China's population growth resumed and shortly began to accelerate. It is commonly agreed that pre-modern China's population experienced two growth spurts, one during the Northern Song period (960–1127), and other during the Qing period (around 1700–1830).[75] By the High Qing era China was possibly the most commercialized country in the world, and imperial China experienced a second commercial revolution by the end of the 18th century.[76] On the other hand, the centralized autocracy was strengthened in part to suppress anti-Qing sentiment with the policy of valuing agriculture and restraining commerce, like the Haijin during the early Qing period and ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition, causing some social and technological stagnation.[77][78]
Fall of the Qing dynasty
In the mid-19th century, the Opium Wars with Britain and France forced China to pay compensation, open treaty ports, allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals, and cede Hong Kong to the British[79] under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking, the first of what have been termed as the "unequal treaties". The First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) resulted in Qing China's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula, as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan.[80] The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which tens of millions of people died, especially in the White Lotus Rebellion, the failed Taiping Rebellion that ravaged southern China in the 1850s and 1860s and the Dungan Revolt (1862–1877) in the northwest. The initial success of the Self-Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by a series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s.[81]
In the 19th century, the great Chinese diaspora began. Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876–1879, in which between 9 and 13 million people died.[82] The Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan in 1898 to establish a modern constitutional monarchy, but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi. The ill-fated anti-foreign Boxer Rebellion of 1899–1901 further weakened the dynasty. Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms known as the late Qing reforms, the Xinhai Revolution of 1911–1912 ended the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China.[83] Puyi, the last Emperor, abdicated in 1912.[84]
Establishment of the Republic and World War II
On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, and Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (KMT) was proclaimed provisional president.[85] In March 1912, the presidency was given to Yuan Shikai, a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China. In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army, he was forced to abdicate and re-establish the republic in 1916.[86] After Yuan Shikai's death in 1916, China was politically fragmented. Its Beijing-based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless; regional warlords controlled most of its territory.[87][88] During this period, China participated in World War I and saw a far-reaching popular uprising (the May Fourth Movement).[89]
In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political maneuverings known collectively as the Northern Expedition.[90][91] The Kuomintang moved the nation's capital to Nanjing and implemented "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sen's Three Principles of the People program for transforming China into a modern democratic state.[92][93] The Kuomintang briefly allied with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) during the Northern Expedition, though the alliance broke down in 1927 after Chiang violently suppressed the CCP and other leftists in Shanghai, marking the beginning of the Chinese Civil War.[94] The CCP declared areas of the country as the Chinese Soviet Republic (Jiangxi Soviet) in November 1931 in Ruijin, Jiangxi. The Jiangxi Soviet was wiped out by the KMT armies in 1934, leading the CCP to initiate the Long March and relocate to Yan'an in Shaanxi. It would be the base of the communists before major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949.
In 1931, Japan invaded and occupied Manchuria. Japan invaded other parts of China in 1937, precipitating the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945), a theater of World War II. The war forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the CCP. Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population; as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died.[95] An estimated 40,000 to 300,000 Chinese were massacred in Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation.[96] China, along with the UK, the United States, and the Soviet Union, were recognized as the Allied "Big Four" in the Declaration by United Nations.[97][98] Along with the other three great powers, China was one of the four major Allies of World War II, and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war.[99][100] After the surrender of Japan in 1945, Taiwan, including the Penghu, was handed over to Chinese control; however, the validity of this handover is controversial.[101]
People's Republic
China emerged victorious but war-ravaged and financially drained. The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war. Constitutional rule was established in 1947, but because of the ongoing unrest, many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.[101] Afterwards, the CCP took control of most of mainland China, and the ROC government retreated offshore to Taiwan.
On 1 October 1949, CCP Chairman Mao Zedong formally proclaimed the People's Republic of China in Tiananmen Square, Beijing.[103] In 1950, the PRC captured Hainan from the ROC[104] and annexed Tibet.[105] However, remaining Kuomintang forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s.[106] The CCP consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the Land Reform Movement, which included the state-tolerated executions of between 1 and 2 million landlords by peasants and former tenants.[107] Though the PRC initially allied closely with the Soviet Union, the relations between the two communist nations gradually deteriorated, leading China to develop an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons.[108]
The Chinese population increased from 550 million in 1950 to 900 million in 1974.[109] However, the Great Leap Forward, an idealistic massive industrialization project, resulted in an estimated 15 to 55 million deaths between 1959 and 1961, mostly from starvation.[110][111] In 1964, China detonated its first atomic bomb.[112] In 1966, Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution, sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval that lasted until Mao's death in 1976. In October 1971, the PRC replaced the ROC in the United Nations, and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council.[113]
Reforms and contemporary history
After Mao's death, the Gang of Four was arrested by Hua Guofeng and held responsible for the Cultural Revolution. The Cultural Revolution was rebuked, with millions rehabilitated. Deng Xiaoping took power in 1978, and instituted large-scale political and economic reforms, together with the "Eight Elders", most senior and influential members of the party. The government loosened its control and the communes were gradually disbanded.[114] Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized. While foreign trade became a major focus, special economic zones (SEZs) were created. Inefficient state-owned enterprises (SOEs) were restructured and some closed. This marked China's transition away from planned economy.[115] China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982.[116]
In 1989, there were protests such those in Tiananmen Square, and then throughout the entire nation.[117] Zhao Ziyang was put under house arrest for his sympathies to the protests and was replaced by Jiang Zemin. Jiang continued economic reforms, closing many SOEs and trimming down "iron rice bowl" (life-tenure positions).[118][119][120] China's economy grew sevenfold during this time.[118] British Hong Kong and Portuguese Macau returned to China in 1997 and 1999, respectively, as special administrative regions under the principle of one country, two systems. The country joined the World Trade Organization in 2001.[118]
At the 16th CCP National Congress in 2002, Hu Jintao succeeded Jiang as the general secretary.[118] Under Hu, China maintained its high rate of economic growth, overtaking the United Kingdom, France, Germany and Japan to become the world's second-largest economy.[121] However, the growth also severely impacted the country's resources and environment,[122][123] and caused major social displacement.[124][125] Xi Jinping succeeded Hu as paramount leader at the 18th CCP National Congress in 2012. Shortly after his ascension to power, Xi launched a vast anti-corruption crackdown,[126] that prosecuted more than 2 million officials by 2022.[127] During his tenure, Xi has consolidated power unseen since the initiation of economic and political reforms.[128]
Geography
China's landscape is vast and diverse, ranging from the Gobi and Taklamakan Deserts in the arid north to the subtropical forests in the wetter south. The Himalaya, Karakoram, Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from much of South and Central Asia. The Yangtze and Yellow Rivers, the third- and sixth-longest in the world, respectively, run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard. China's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14,500 km (9,000 mi) long and is bounded by the Bohai, Yellow, East China and South China seas. China connects through the Kazakh border to the Eurasian Steppe.
The territory of China lies between latitudes 18° and 54° N, and longitudes 73° and 135° E. The geographical center of China is marked by the Center of the Country Monument at 35°50′40.9″N 103°27′7.5″E / 35.844694°N 103.452083°E. China's landscapes vary significantly across its vast territory. In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea, there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains, while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, broad grasslands predominate. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges, while the central-east hosts the deltas of China's two major rivers, the Yellow River and the Yangtze River. Other major rivers include the Xi, Mekong, Brahmaputra and Amur. To the west sit major mountain ranges, most notably the Himalayas. High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north, such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert. The world's highest point, Mount Everest (8,848 m), lies on the Sino-Nepalese border.[129] The country's lowest point, and the world's third-lowest, is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake (−154 m) in the Turpan Depression.[130]
Climate
China's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons, which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer. In the winter, northern winds coming from high-latitude areas are cold and dry; in summer, southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist.[132]
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts, particularly the Gobi Desert.[133][134] Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms, prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring, which then spread to other parts of East Asia, including Japan and Korea. Water quality, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in China's relations with other countries. Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people.[135] According to academics, in order to limit climate change in China to 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) electricity generation from coal in China without carbon capture must be phased out by 2045.[136] With current policies, the GHG emissions of China will probably peak in 2025, and by 2030 they will return to 2022 levels. However, such pathway still leads to three-degree temperature rise.[137]
Official government statistics about Chinese agricultural productivity are considered unreliable, due to exaggeration of production at subsidiary government levels.[138][139] Much of China has a climate very suitable for agriculture and the country has been the world's largest producer of rice, wheat, tomatoes, eggplant, grapes, watermelon, spinach, and many other crops.[140] In 2021,12 percent of global permanent meadows and pastures belonged to China, as well as 8% of global cropland.[141]
Biodiversity
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries,[142] lying in two of the world's major biogeographic realms: the Palearctic and the Indomalayan. By one measure, China has over 34,687 species of animals and vascular plants, making it the third-most biodiverse country in the world, after Brazil and Colombia.[143] The country is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity;[144] its National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan was received by the convention in 2010.[145]
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals (the third-highest in the world),[146] 1,221 species of birds (eighth),[147] 424 species of reptiles (seventh)[148] and 333 species of amphibians (seventh).[149] Wildlife in China shares habitat with, and bears acute pressure from, one of the world's largest population of humans. At least 840 animal species are threatened, vulnerable or in danger of local extinction, due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction, pollution and poaching for food, fur and traditional Chinese medicine.[150] Endangered wildlife is protected by law, and as of 2005[update], the country has over 2,349 nature reserves, covering a total area of 149.95 million hectares, 15 percent of China's total land area.[151] Most wild animals have been eliminated from the core agricultural regions of east and central China, but they have fared better in the mountainous south and west.[152][153] The Baiji was confirmed extinct on 12 December 2006.[154]
China has over 32,000 species of vascular plants,[155] and is home to a variety of forest types. Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country, supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear, along with over 120 bird species.[156] The understory of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo. In higher montane stands of juniper and yew, the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons. Subtropical forests, which are predominate in central and southern China, support a high density of plant species including numerous rare endemics. Tropical and seasonal rainforests, though confined to Yunnan and Hainan, contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China.[156] China has over 10,000 recorded species of fungi.[157]
Environment
In the early 2000s, China has suffered from environmental deterioration and pollution due to its rapid pace of industrialization.[158][159] Regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent, though they are poorly enforced, frequently disregarded in favor of rapid economic development.[160] China has the second-highest death toll because of air pollution, after India, with approximately 1 million deaths.[161][162] Although China ranks as the highest CO2 emitting country,[163] it only emits 8 tons of CO2 per capita, significantly lower than developed countries such as the United States (16.1), Australia (16.8) and South Korea (13.6).[164] Greenhouse gas emissions by China are the world's largest.[164] The country has significant water pollution problems; only 89.4% of China's national surface water was graded suitable for human consumption by the Ministry of Ecology and Environment in 2023.[165]
China has prioritized clamping down on pollution, bringing a significant decrease in air pollution in the 2010s.[166] In 2020, the Chinese government announced its aims for the country to reach its peak emissions levels before 2030, and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060 in line with the Paris Agreement,[167] which, according to Climate Action Tracker, would lower the expected rise in global temperature by 0.2–0.3 degrees – "the biggest single reduction ever estimated by the Climate Action Tracker".[167]
China is the world's leading investor in renewable energy and its commercialization, with $546 billion invested in 2022;[168] it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local-scale renewable energy projects.[169][168] Long heavily relying on non-renewable energy sources such as coal, China's adaptation of renewable energy has increased significantly in recent years, with their share increasing from 26.3 percent in 2016 to 31.9 percent in 2022.[170] In 2023, 60.5% of China's electricity came from coal (largest producer in the world), 13.2% from hydroelectric power (largest), 9.4% from wind (largest), 6.2% from solar energy (largest), 4.6% from nuclear energy (second-largest), 3.3% from natural gas (fifth-largest), and 2.2% from bioenergy (largest); in total, 31% of China's energy came from renewable energy sources.[171] Despite its emphasis on renewables, China remains deeply connected to global oil markets and next to India, has been the largest importer of Russian crude oil in 2022.[172][173]
Political geography
China is the third-largest country in the world by land area after Russia, and the third- or fourth-largest country in the world by total area.[r] China's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9,600,000 km2 (3,700,000 sq mi).[174] Specific area figures range from 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica,[14] to 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook,[6] and The World Factbook.[5]
China has the longest combined land border in the world, measuring 22,117 km (13,743 mi) and its coastline covers approximately 14,500 km (9,000 mi) from the mouth of the Yalu River (Amnok River) to the Gulf of Tonkin.[5] China borders 14 nations and covers the bulk of East Asia, bordering Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar in Southeast Asia; India, Bhutan, Nepal, Pakistan[s] and Afghanistan in South Asia; Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia; and Russia, Mongolia, and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia. It is narrowly separated from Bangladesh and Thailand to the southwest and south, and has several maritime neighbors such as Japan, Philippines, Malaysia, and Indonesia.[175]
China has resolved its land borders with 12 out of 14 neighboring countries, having pursued substantial compromises in most of them.[176][177][178] China currently has a disputed land border with India[179] and Bhutan.[180] China is additionally involved in maritime disputes with multiple countries over territory in the East and South China Seas, such as the Senkaku Islands and the entirety of South China Sea Islands.[181][182]
Government and politics
The People's Republic of China is a one-party state governed by the Chinese Communist Party (CCP). The CCP is officially guided by socialism with Chinese characteristics, which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances.[183] The Chinese constitution states that the PRC "is a socialist state governed by a people's democratic dictatorship that is led by the working class and based on an alliance of workers and peasants," that the state institutions "shall practice the principle of democratic centralism,"[184] and that "the defining feature of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party."[185]
The PRC officially terms itself as a democracy, using terms such as "socialist consultative democracy",[186] and "whole-process people's democracy".[187] However, the country is commonly described as an authoritarian one-party state and a dictatorship,[188][189] with among the heaviest restrictions worldwide in many areas, most notably against freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, free formation of social organizations, freedom of religion and free access to the Internet.[190] China has consistently been ranked amongst the lowest as an "authoritarian regime" by the Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index, ranking at 148th out of 167 countries in 2023.[191] Other sources suggest that terming China as "authoritarian" does not sufficiently account for the multiple consultation mechanisms that exist in Chinese government.[192]
Chinese Communist Party
According to the CCP constitution, its highest body is the National Congress held every five years.[193] The National Congress elects the Central Committee, who then elects the party's Politburo, Politburo Standing Committee and the general secretary (party leader), the top leadership of the country.[193] The general secretary holds ultimate power and authority over party and state and serves as the informal paramount leader.[194] The current general secretary is Xi Jinping, who took office on 15 November 2012.[195] At the local level, the secretary of the CCP committee of a subdivision outranks the local government level; CCP committee secretary of a provincial division outranks the governor while the CCP committee secretary of a city outranks the mayor.[196]
Government
The government in China is under the sole control of the CCP.[197] The CCP controls appointments in government bodies, with most senior government officials being CCP members.[197]
The National People's Congress (NPC), with nearly 3,000-members, is constitutionally the "highest organ of state power",[184] though it has been also described as a "rubber stamp" body.[198] The NPC meets annually, while the NPC Standing Committee, around 150 members elected from NPC delegates, meets every couple of months.[198] Elections are indirect and not pluralistic, with nominations at all levels being controlled by the CCP.[187] The NPC is dominated by the CCP, with another eight minor parties having nominal representation under the condition of upholding CCP leadership.[199]
The president is elected by the NPC. The presidency is the ceremonial state representative, but not the constitutional head of state. The incumbent president is Xi Jinping, who is also the general secretary of the CCP and the chairman of the Central Military Commission, making him China's paramount leader and supreme commander of the Armed Forces. The premier is the head of government, with Li Qiang being the incumbent. The premier is officially nominated by the president and then elected by the NPC, and has generally been either the second- or third-ranking member of the Politburo Standing Committee (PSC). The premier presides over the State Council, China's cabinet, composed of four vice premiers, state councilors, and the heads of ministries and commissions.[184] The Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference (CPPCC) is a political advisory body that is critical in China's "united front" system, which aims to gather non-CCP voices to support the CCP. Similar to the people's congresses, CPPCC's exist at various division, with the National Committee of the CPPCC being chaired by Wang Huning, fourth-ranking member of the PSC.[200]
The governance of China is characterized by a high degree of political centralization but significant economic decentralization.[201]: 7 Policy instruments or processes are often tested locally before being applied more widely, resulting in a policy that involves experimentation and feedback.[202]: 14 Generally, central government leadership refrains from drafting specific policies, instead using the informal networks and site visits to affirm or suggest changes to the direction of local policy experiments or pilot programs.[203]: 71 The typical approach is that central government leadership begins drafting formal policies, law, or regulations after policy has been developed at local levels.[203]: 71
Administrative divisions
The PRC is constitutionally a unitary state divided into 23 provinces,[t] five autonomous regions (each with a designated minority group), and four direct-administered municipalities—collectively referred to as "mainland China"—as well as the special administrative regions (SARs) of Hong Kong and Macau.[204] The PRC regards the island of Taiwan as its Taiwan Province, Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province, although all these territories are governed by the Republic of China (ROC).[205][33] Geographically, all 31 provincial divisions of mainland China can be grouped into six regions: North China, East China, Southwestern China, Northwestern China, South Central China, and Northeast China.[206]
| Provinces (省) |
|
|---|---|
| Claimed Province |
Taiwan (台湾省), governed by the Republic of China |
| Autonomous regions (自治区) |
|
| Municipalities (直辖市) | |
| Special administrative regions (特别行政区) |
Foreign relations
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 179 United Nation members states and maintains embassies in 174. As of 2024[update], China has one of the largest diplomatic networks of any country in the world.[207] In 1971, the PRC replaced the Republic of China (ROC) as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council.[208] It is a member of intergovernmental organizations including the G20,[209] the SCO,[210] the BRICS,[211] the East Asia Summit,[212] and the APEC.[213] China was also a former member and leader of the Non-Aligned Movement, and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries.[214]
The PRC officially maintains the one-China principle, which holds the view that there is only one sovereign state in the name of China, represented by the PRC, and that Taiwan is part of that China.[215] The unique status of Taiwan has led to countries recognizing the PRC to maintain unique "one-China policies" that differ from each other; some countries explicitly recognize the PRC's claim over Taiwan, while others, including the U.S. and Japan, only acknowledge the claim.[215] Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan,[216] especially in the matter of armament sales.[217] Most countries have switched recognition from the ROC to the PRC since the latter replaced the former in the UN in 1971.[218]
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence, and is also driven by the concept of "harmony without uniformity", which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences.[219] This policy may have led China to support or maintain close ties with states that are regarded as dangerous and repressive by Western nations, such as Sudan,[220] North Korea and Iran.[221] China's close relationship with Myanmar has involved support for its ruling governments as well as for its ethnic rebel groups,[222] including the Arakan Army.[223] China has a close political, economic and military relationship with Russia,[224] and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council.[225][226][227] China's relationship with the United States is complex, and includes deep trade ties but significant political differences.[228]
Since the early 2000s, China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co-operation.[229][230][231] It maintains extensive and highly diversified trade links with the European Union, and became its largest trading partner for goods.[232] China is increasing its influence in Central Asia[233] and South Pacific.[234] The country has strong trade ties with ASEAN countries[235] and major South American economies,[236] and is the largest trading partner of Brazil, Chile, Peru, Uruguay, Argentina, and several others.[237]
In 2013, China initiated the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), a large global infrastructure building initiative with funding on the order of $50–100 billion per year.[238] BRI could be one of the largest development plans in modern history.[239] It has expanded significantly over the last six years and, as of April 2020[update], includes 138 countries and 30 international organizations. In addition to intensifying foreign policy relations, the focus is particularly on building efficient transport routes, especially the maritime Silk Road with its connections to East Africa and Europe. However many loans made under the program are unsustainable and China has faced a number of calls for debt relief from debtor nations.[240][241]
Military
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) is considered one of the world's most powerful militaries and has rapidly modernized in the recent decades.[242] It has also been accused of technology theft by some countries.[243][244][245] Since 2024, it consists of four services: the Ground Force (PLAGF), the Navy (PLAN), the Air Force (PLAAF) and the Rocket Force (PLARF). It also has four independent arms: the Aerospace Force, the Cyberspace Force, the Information Support Force, and the Joint Logistics Support Force, the first three of which were split from the disbanded Strategic Support Force (PLASSF).[246] Its nearly 2.2 million active duty personnel is the largest in the world. The PLA holds the world's third-largest stockpile of nuclear weapons,[247][248] and the world's second-largest navy by tonnage.[249] China's official military budget for 2023 totalled US$224 billion (1.55 trillion Yuan), the second-largest in the world, though SIPRI estimates that its real expenditure that year was US$296 billion, making up 12% of global military spending and accounting for 1.7% of the country's GDP.[250] According to SIPRI, its military spending from 2012 to 2021 averaged US$215 billion per year or 1.7 per cent of GDP, behind only the United States at US$734 billion per year or 3.6 per cent of GDP.[251] The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission (CMC) of the party and the state; though officially two separate organizations, the two CMCs have identical membership except during leadership transition periods and effectively function as one organization. The chairman of the CMC is the commander-in-chief of the PLA.[252]
Sociopolitical issues and human rights
The situation of human rights in China has attracted significant criticism from foreign governments, foreign press agencies, and non-governmental organizations, alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial, forced confessions, torture, restrictions of fundamental rights, and excessive use of the death penalty.[190][253] Since its inception, Freedom House has ranked China as "not free" in its Freedom in the World survey,[190] while Amnesty International has documented significant human rights abuses.[253] The Chinese constitution states that the "fundamental rights" of citizens include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, the right to a fair trial, freedom of religion, universal suffrage, and property rights. However, in practice, these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state.[254][255] China has limited protections regarding LGBT rights.[256]
Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling CCP are tolerated, censorship of political speech and information are amongst the harshest in the world and routinely used to prevent collective action.[257] China also has the most comprehensive and sophisticated Internet censorship regime in the world, with numerous websites being blocked.[258] The government suppresses popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to "social stability".[259] China additionally uses a massive espionage network of cameras, facial recognition software, sensors, and surveillance of personal technology as a means of social control of persons living in the country.[260]
China is regularly accused of large-scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang,[262][263][264] where significant numbers of ethnic minorities reside, including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression.[265][266] Since 2017, the Chinese government has been engaged in a harsh crackdown in Xinjiang, with around one million Uyghurs and other ethnic and religion minorities being detained in internment camps aimed at changing the political thinking of detainees, their identities, and their religious beliefs.[267] According to Western reports, political indoctrination, torture, physical and psychological abuse, forced sterilization, sexual abuse, and forced labor are common in these facilities.[268] According to a 2020 Foreign Policy report, China's treatment of Uyghurs meets the UN definition of genocide,[269] while a separate UN Human Rights Office report said they could potentially meet the definitions for crimes against humanity.[270] The Chinese authorities have also cracked down on dissent in Hong Kong, especially after the passage of a national security law in 2020.[271]
.jpg)
In 2017 and 2020, the Pew Research Center ranked the severity of Chinese government restrictions on religion as being among the world's highest, despite ranking religious-related social hostilities in China as low in severity.[272][273] The Global Slavery Index estimated that in 2016 more than 3.8 million people (0.25% of the population) were living in "conditions of modern slavery", including victims of human trafficking, forced labor, forced marriage, child labor, and state-imposed forced labor. The state-imposed re-education through labor (laojiao) system was formally abolished in 2013, but it is not clear to what extent its practices have stopped.[274] The much larger reform through labor (laogai) system includes labor prison factories, detention centers, and re-education camps; the Laogai Research Foundation has estimated in June 2008 that there were nearly 1,422 of these facilities, though it cautioned that this number was likely an underestimate.[275]
Public views of government
Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption.[276] Nonetheless, international surveys show the Chinese public have a high level of satisfaction with their government.[201]: 137 These views are generally attributed to the material comforts and security available to large segments of the Chinese populace as well as the government's attentiveness and responsiveness.[201] : 136 According to the World Values Survey (2022), 91% of Chinese respondents have significant confidence in their government.[201]: 13 A Harvard University survey published in July 2020 found that citizen satisfaction with the government had increased since 2003, also rating China's government as more effective and capable than ever in the survey's history.[277]
Economy
China has the world's second-largest economy in terms of nominal GDP,[278] and the world's largest in terms of purchasing power parity (PPP).[279] As of 2022[update], China accounts for around 18% of the global economy by nominal GDP.[280] China is one of the world's fastest-growing major economies,[281] with its economic growth having been almost consistently above 6 percent since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978.[282] According to the World Bank, China's GDP grew from $150 billion in 1978 to $17.96 trillion by 2022.[283] It ranks at 64th at nominal GDP per capita, making it an upper-middle income country.[284] Of the world's 500 largest companies, 135 are headquartered in China.[285] As of at least 2024, China has the world's second-largest equity markets and futures markets, as well as the third-largest bond market.[286]: 153
China was one of the world's foremost economic powers throughout the arc of East Asian and global history. The country had one of the largest economies in the world for most of the past two millennia,[287] during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline.[54][288] Since economic reforms began in 1978, China has developed into a highly diversified economy and one of the most consequential players in international trade. Major sectors of competitive strength include manufacturing, retail, mining, steel, textiles, automobiles, energy generation, green energy, banking, electronics, telecommunications, real estate, e-commerce, and tourism. China has three out of the ten largest stock exchanges in the world[289]—Shanghai, Hong Kong and Shenzhen—that together have a market capitalization of over $15.9 trillion, as of October 2020[update].[290] China has four (Shanghai, Hong Kong, Beijing, and Shenzhen) out of the world's top ten most competitive financial centers, which is more than any other country in the 2020 Global Financial Centres Index.[291]
Modern-day China is often described as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism.[293][294] The state dominates in strategic "pillar" sectors such as energy production and heavy industries, but private enterprise has expanded enormously, with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008.[295][296][297] According to official statistics, privately owned companies constitute more than 60% of China's GDP.[298]
China has been the world's largest manufacturing nation since 2010, after overtaking the U.S., which had been the largest for the previous hundred years.[299][300] China has also been the second-largest in high-tech manufacturing country since 2012, according to US National Science Foundation.[301] China is the second-largest retail market after the United States.[302] China leads the world in e-commerce, accounting for over 37% of the global market share in 2021.[303] China is the world's leader in electric vehicle consumption and production, manufacturing and buying half of all the plug-in electric cars (BEV and PHEV) in the world as of 2022[update].[304] China is also the leading producer of batteries for electric vehicles as well as several key raw materials for batteries.[305]
Tourism
China received 65.7 million international visitors in 2019,[306] and in 2018 was the fourth-most-visited country in the world.[306] It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism; Chinese tourists made an estimated 6 billion travels within the country in 2019.[307] China hosts the world's second-largest number of World Heritage Sites (56) after Italy, and is one of the most popular tourist destinations (first in the Asia-Pacific).
Wealth
.jpg)
China accounted for 17.9% of the world's total wealth in 2021, second highest in the world after the U.S.[308] China brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history[309][310]—between 1978 and 2018, China reduced extreme poverty by 800 million.[201]: 23 From 1990 to 2018, the proportion of the Chinese population living with an income of less than $1.90 per day (2011 PPP) decreased from 66.3% to 0.3%, the share living with an income of less than $3.20 per day from 90.0% to 2.9%, and the share living with an income of less than $5.50 per day decreased from 98.3% to 17.0%.[311]
From 1978 to 2018, the average standard of living multiplied by a factor of twenty-six.[312] Wages in China have grown significantly in the last 40 years—real (inflation-adjusted) wages grew seven-fold from 1978 to 2007.[313] Per capita incomes have also risen significantly – when the PRC was founded in 1949, per capita income in China was one-fifth of the world average; per capita incomes now equal the world average itself.[312] China's development is highly uneven. Its major cities and coastal areas are far more prosperous compared to rural and interior regions.[314] It has a high level of economic inequality,[315] which has increased quickly after the economic reforms,[316] though has decreased significantly in the 2010s.[317] In 2021, China's Gini coefficient was 0.357, according to the World Bank.[12]
As of March 2024[update], China was second in the world, after the U.S., in total number of billionaires and total number of millionaires, with 473 Chinese billionaires[318] and 6.2 million millionaires.[308] In 2019, China overtook the U.S. as the home to the highest number of people who have a net personal wealth of at least $110,000, according to the global wealth report by Credit Suisse.[319][320] China had 85 female billionaires as of January 2021[update], two-thirds of the global total.[321] China has had the world's largest middle-class population since 2015;[322] the middle-class grew to 500 million by 2024.[323]
China in the global economy
China has been a member of the WTO since 2001 and is the world's largest trading power.[324] By 2016, China was the largest trading partner of 124 countries.[325] China became the world's largest trading nation in 2013 by the sum of imports and exports, as well as the world's largest commodity importer, accounting for roughly 45% of maritime's dry-bulk market.[326][327]
China's foreign exchange reserves reached US$3.246 trillion as of March 2024[update], making its reserves by far the world's largest.[328] In 2022, China was amongst the world's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment (FDI), attracting $180 billion, though most of these were speculated to be from Hong Kong.[329] In 2021, China's foreign exchange remittances were $US53 billion making it the second-largest recipient of remittances in the world.[330] China also invests abroad, with a total outward FDI of $147.9 billion in 2023,[331] and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies.[332]
Economists have argued that the renminbi is undervalued, due to currency intervention from the Chinese government, giving China an unfair trade advantage.[333] China has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods.[334][335] The U.S. government has also alleged that China does not respect intellectual property (IP) rights and steals IP through espionage operations.[336] In 2020, Harvard University's Economic Complexity Index ranked complexity of China's exports 17th in the world, up from 24th in 2010.[337]
The Chinese government has promoted the internationalization of the renminbi in order to wean off of its dependence on the U.S. dollar as a result of perceived weaknesses of the international monetary system.[338] The renminbi is a component of the IMF's special drawing rights and the world's fourth-most traded currency as of 2023[update].[339] However, partly due to capital controls that make the renminbi fall short of being a fully convertible currency, it remains far behind the Euro, the U.S. Dollar and the Japanese Yen in international trade volumes.[340]
Science and technology
Historical
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming dynasty.[341] Ancient and medieval Chinese discoveries and inventions, such as papermaking, printing, the compass, and gunpowder (the Four Great Inventions), became widespread across East Asia, the Middle East and later Europe. Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers.[342][343] By the 17th century, the Western World surpassed China in scientific and technological advancement.[344] The causes of this early modern Great Divergence continue to be debated by scholars.[345]
After repeated military defeats by the European colonial powers and Imperial Japan in the 19th century, Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self-Strengthening Movement. After the Communists came to power in 1949, efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union, in which scientific research was part of central planning.[346] After Mao's death in 1976, science and technology were promoted as one of the Four Modernizations,[347] and the Soviet-inspired academic system was gradually reformed.[348]
Modern era
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution, China has made significant investments in scientific research[349] and is quickly catching up with the U.S. in R&D spending.[350][351] China officially spent around 2.6% of its GDP on R&D in 2023, totaling to around $458.5 billion.[352] According to the World Intellectual Property Indicators, China received more applications than the U.S. did in 2018 and 2019 and ranked first globally in patents, utility models, trademarks, industrial designs, and creative goods exports in 2021.[353][354][355] It was ranked 11th in the Global Innovation Index in 2024, a considerable improvement from its rank of 35th in 2013.[356][357][358] Chinese supercomputers ranked among the fastest in the world.[359][u] Its efforts to develop the most advanced semiconductors and jet engines have seen delays and setbacks.[360][361]
China is developing its education system with an emphasis on science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM).[362] Its academic publication apparatus became the world's largest publisher of scientific papers in 2016.[363][364][365] In 2022, China overtook the US in the Nature Index, which measures the share of published articles in leading scientific journals.[366][367]
Space program
The Chinese space program started in 1958 with some technology transfers from the Soviet Union. However, it did not launch the nation's first satellite until 1970 with the Dong Fang Hong I, which made China the fifth country to do so independently.[368]
In 2003, China became the third country in the world to independently send humans into space with Yang Liwei's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5. As of 2023, eighteen Chinese nationals have journeyed into space, including two women. In 2011, China launched its first space station testbed, Tiangong-1.[369] In 2013, a Chinese robotic rover Yutu successfully touched down on the lunar surface as part of the Chang'e 3 mission.[370]
In 2019, China became the first country to land a probe—Chang'e 4—on the far side of the Moon.[371] In 2020, Chang'e 5 successfully returned Moon samples to the Earth, making China the third country to do so independently.[372] In 2021, China became the third country to land a spacecraft on Mars and the second one to deploy a rover (Zhurong) on Mars.[373] China completed its own modular space station, the Tiangong, in low Earth orbit on 3 November 2022.[374][375][376] On 29 November 2022, China performed its first in-orbit crew handover aboard the Tiangong.[377][378]
In May 2023, China announced a plan to land humans on the Moon by 2030.[379] To that end, China has been developing a lunar-capable super-heavy launcher, the Long March 10, a new crewed spacecraft, and a crewed lunar lander.[380][381]
China sent Chang'e 6 on 3 May 2024, which conducted the first lunar sample return from Apollo Basin on the far side of the Moon.[382] This is China's second lunar sample return mission, the first was achieved by Chang'e 5 from the lunar near side 4 years ago.[383] It also carried a Chinese rover called Jinchan to conduct infrared spectroscopy of lunar surface and imaged Chang'e 6 lander on lunar surface.[384] The lander-ascender-rover combination was separated with the orbiter and returner before landing on 1 June 2024, at 22:23 UTC. It landed on the Moon's surface on 1 June 2024.[385][386] The ascender was launched back to lunar orbit on 3 June 2024, at 23:38 UTC, carrying samples collected by the lander, which later completed another robotic rendezvous, before docking in lunar orbit. The sample container was then transferred to the returner, which landed on Inner Mongolia in June 2024, completing China's far side extraterrestrial sample return mission.
Infrastructure
After a decades-long infrastructural boom,[387] China has produced numerous world-leading infrastructural projects: it has the largest high-speed rail network,[388] the most supertall skyscrapers,[389] the largest power plant (the Three Gorges Dam),[390] and a global satellite navigation system with the largest number of satellites.[391]
Telecommunications
China is the largest telecom market in the world and currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country, with over 1.7 billion subscribers, as of February 2023[update]. It has the largest number of internet and broadband users, with over 1.09 billion Internet users as of December 2023[update][392]—equivalent to around 77.5% of its population.[393] By 2018, China had more than 1 billion 4G users, accounting for 40% of world's total.[394] China is making rapid advances in 5G—by late 2018, China had started large-scale and commercial 5G trials.[395] As of December 2023[update], China had over 810 million 5G users and 3.38 million base stations installed.[396]
China Mobile, China Unicom and China Telecom, are the three large providers of mobile and internet in China. China Telecom alone served more than 145 million broadband subscribers and 300 million mobile users; China Unicom had about 300 million subscribers; and China Mobile, the largest of them all, had 925 million users, as of 2018[update].[397] Combined, the three operators had over 3.4 million 4G base-stations in China.[398] Several Chinese telecommunications companies, most notably Huawei and ZTE, have been accused of spying for the Chinese military.[399]
China has developed its own satellite navigation system, dubbed BeiDou, which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012[400] as well as global services by the end of 2018.[401] Beidou followed GPS and GLONASS as the third completed global navigation satellite.[402]
Transport
.jpg)
Since the late 1990s, China's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways. In 2022, China's highways had reached a total length of 177,000 km (110,000 mi), making it the longest highway system in the world.[403] China has the world's largest market for automobiles,[404][405] having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production. The country is the world's largest exporter of cars by number as of 2023.[406][407] A side-effect of the rapid growth of China's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents.[408] In urban areas, bicycles remain a common mode of transport, despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2023[update], there are approximately 200 million bicycles in China.[409]
China's railways, which are operated by the state-owned China State Railway Group Company, are among the busiest in the world, handling a quarter of the world's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world's tracks in 2006.[410] As of 2023[update], the country had 159,000 km (98,798 mi) of railways, the second-longest network in the world.[411] The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday, when the world's largest annual human migration takes place.[412] China's high-speed rail (HSR) system started construction in the early 2000s. By the end of 2023, high speed rail in China had reached 45,000 kilometers (27,962 miles) of dedicated lines alone, making it the longest HSR network in the world.[413] Services on the Beijing–Shanghai, Beijing–Tianjin, and Chengdu–Chongqing lines reach up to 350 km/h (217 mph), making them the fastest conventional high speed railway services in the world. With an annual ridership of over 2.3 billion passengers in 2019, it is the world's busiest.[414] The network includes the Beijing–Guangzhou high-speed railway, the single longest HSR line in the world, and the Beijing–Shanghai high-speed railway, which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world.[415] The Shanghai maglev train, which reaches 431 km/h (268 mph), is the fastest commercial train service in the world.[416] Since 2000, the growth of rapid transit systems in Chinese cities has accelerated.[417] As of December 2023[update], 55 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation.[418] As of 2020[update], China boasts the five longest metro systems in the world with the networks in Shanghai, Beijing, Guangzhou, Chengdu and Shenzhen being the largest.
The civil aviation industry in China is mostly state-dominated, with the Chinese government retaining a majority stake in the majority of Chinese airlines. The top three airlines in China, which collectively made up 71% of the market in 2018, are all state-owned. Air travel has expanded rapidly in the last decades, with the number of passengers increasing from 16.6 million in 1990 to 551.2 million in 2017.[419] China had approximately 259 airports in 2024.[420]
China has over 2,000 river and seaports, about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping.[421] Of the fifty busiest container ports, 15 are located in China, of which the busiest is the Port of Shanghai, also the busiest port in the world.[422] The country's inland waterways are the world's sixth-longest, and total 27,700 km (17,212 mi).[423]
Water supply and sanitation
Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization, as well as water scarcity, contamination, and pollution.[424] According to the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation, about 36% of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation in 2015.[425][needs update] The ongoing South–North Water Transfer Project intends to abate water shortage in the north.[426]
Demographics
.jpg)
The 2020 Chinese census recorded the population as approximately 1,411,778,724. About 17.95% were 14 years old or younger, 63.35% were between 15 and 59 years old, and 18.7% were over 60 years old.[427] Between 2010 and 2020, the average population growth rate was 0.53%.[427]
Given concerns about population growth, China implemented a two-child limit during the 1970s, and, in 1979, began to advocate for an even stricter limit of one child per family. Beginning in the mid-1980s, however, given the unpopularity of the strict limits, China began to allow some major exemptions, particularly in rural areas, resulting in what was actually a "1.5"-child policy from the mid-1980s to 2015; ethnic minorities were also exempt from one-child limits.[428] The next major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013, allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child.[429] In 2016, the one-child policy was replaced in favor of a two-child policy.[430] A three-child policy was announced on 31 May 2021, due to population aging,[430] and in July 2021, all family size limits as well as penalties for exceeding them were removed.[431] In 2023, the total fertility rate was reported to be 1.09, ranking among the lowest in the world.[432] In 2023, National Bureau of Statistics estimated that the population fell 850,000 from 2021 to 2022, the first decline since 1961.[433]
According to one group of scholars, one-child limits had little effect on population growth[434] or total population size.[435] However, these scholars have been challenged.[436] The policy, along with traditional preference for boys, may have contributed to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth.[437][438] The 2020 census found that males accounted for 51.2% of the total population.[439] However, China's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953, when males accounted for 51.8% of the population.[440]
The cultural preference for male children, combined with the one-child policy, led to an excess of female child orphans in China, and in the 1990s through around 2007, there was an active stream of adoptions of (mainly female) babies by American and other foreign parents.[441] However, increased restrictions by the Chinese Government slowed foreign adoptions significantly in 2007 and again in 2015.[442]
Urbanization
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades. The percent of the country's population living in urban areas increased from 20% in 1980 to over 66% in 2023.[443][444][445] China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million,[446] including the 17 megacities as of 2021[update][447][448] (cities with a population of over 10 million) of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing, Chengdu, Guangzhou, Shenzhen, Tianjin, Xi'an, Suzhou, Zhengzhou, Wuhan, Hangzhou, Linyi, Shijiazhuang, Dongguan, Qingdao and Changsha.[449] The total permanent population of Chongqing, Shanghai, Beijing and Chengdu is above 20 million.[450] Shanghai is China's most populous urban area[451][452] while Chongqing is its largest city proper, the only city in China with a permanent population of over 30 million.[453] The figures in the table below are from the 2020 census, and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits; a different ranking exists for total municipal populations. The large "floating populations" of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult;[454] the figures below include only long-term residents.
| Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | Rank | Name | Province | Pop. | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Shanghai .jpg) Beijing |
1 | Shanghai | SH | 24,281,400 | 11 | Hong Kong | HK | 7,448,900 |  Guangzhou  Shenzhen |
| 2 | Beijing | BJ | 19,164,000 | 12 | Zhengzhou | HA | 7,179,400 | ||
| 3 | Guangzhou | GD | 13,858,700 | 13 | Nanjing | JS | 6,823,500 | ||
| 4 | Shenzhen | GD | 13,438,800 | 14 | Xi'an | SN | 6,642,100 | ||
| 5 | Tianjin | TJ | 11,744,400 | 15 | Jinan | SD | 6,409,600 | ||
| 6 | Chongqing | CQ | 11,488,000 | 16 | Shenyang | LN | 5,900,000 | ||
| 7 | Dongguan | GD | 9,752,500 | 17 | Qingdao | SD | 5,501,400 | ||
| 8 | Chengdu | SC | 8,875,600 | 18 | Harbin | HL | 5,054,500 | ||
| 9 | Wuhan | HB | 8,652,900 | 19 | Hefei | AH | 4,750,100 | ||
| 10 | Hangzhou | ZJ | 8,109,000 | 20 | Changchun | JL | 4,730,900 | ||
- ^ Population of Hong Kong as of 2018 estimate[456]
- ^ The data of Chongqing in the list is the data of "Metropolitan Developed Economic Area", which contains two parts: "City Proper" and "Metropolitan Area". The "City proper" are consist of 9 districts: Yuzhong, Dadukou, Jiangbei, Shapingba, Jiulongpo, Nan'an, Beibei, Yubei, & Banan, has the urban population of 5,646,300 as of 2018. And the "Metropolitan Area" are consist of 12 districts: Fuling, Changshou, Jiangjin, Hechuan, Yongchuan, Nanchuan, Qijiang, Dazu, Bishan, Tongliang, Tongnan, & Rongchang, has the urban population of 5,841,700.[457] Total urban population of all 26 districts of Chongqing are up to 15,076,600.
Ethnic groups
China legally recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups, who comprise the Zhonghua minzu. The largest of these nationalities are the Han Chinese, who constitute more than 91% of the total population.[427] The Han Chinese – the world's largest single ethnic group[458] – outnumber other ethnic groups in every place excluding Tibet, Xinjiang,[459] Linxia,[460] and autonomous prefectures like Xishuangbanna.[461] Ethnic minorities account for less than 10% of the population of China, according to the 2020 census.[427] Compared with the 2010 population census, the Han population increased by 60,378,693 persons, or 4.93%, while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 11,675,179 persons, or 10.26%.[427] The 2020 census recorded a total of 845,697 foreign nationals living in mainland China.[462]
Languages
There are as many as 292 living languages in China.[463] The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family, which contains Mandarin (spoken by 80% of the population),[464][465] and other varieties of Chinese language: Jin, Wu, Min, Hakka, Yue, Xiang, Gan, Hui, Ping and unclassified Tuhua (Shaozhou Tuhua and Xiangnan Tuhua).[466] Languages of the Tibeto-Burman branch, including Tibetan, Qiang, Naxi and Yi, are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Other ethnic minority languages in southwestern China include Zhuang, Thai, Dong and Sui of the Tai-Kadai family, Miao and Yao of the Hmong–Mien family, and Wa of the Austroasiatic family. Across northeastern and northwestern China, local ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu, Mongolian and several Turkic languages: Uyghur, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Salar and Western Yugur.[467] Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea. Sarikoli, the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang, is an Indo-European language. Taiwanese indigenous peoples, including a small population on the mainland, speak Austronesian languages.[468]
Standard Chinese, a variety based on the Beijing dialect of Mandarin, is the national language of China, having de facto official status.[2] It is used as a lingua franca between people of different linguistic backgrounds.[469] In the autonomous regions of China, other languages may also serve as a lingua franca, such as Uyghur in Xinjiang, where governmental services in Uyghur are constitutionally guaranteed.[470]
Religion
[471][472][473][474]
■ Chinese folk religion (including Confucianism, Taoism, and groups of Chinese Buddhism)
■ Buddhism tout court
■ Islam
■ Ethnic minorities' indigenous religions
■ Mongolian folk religion
■ Northeast China folk religion influenced by Tungus and Manchu shamanism; widespread Shanrendao
Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China's constitution, although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution.[184] The government of the country is officially atheist. Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the National Religious Affairs Administration, under the United Front Work Department.[475]
Over the millennia, the Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements. The "three doctrines" of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism have historically shaped Chinese culture,[476][477] enriching a theological and spiritual framework of traditional religion which harks back to the early Shang and Zhou dynasty. Chinese folk religion, which is framed by the three doctrines and by other traditions,[478] consists in allegiance to the shen, who can be deities of the surrounding nature or ancestral principles of human groups, concepts of civility, culture heroes, many of whom feature in Chinese mythology and history.[479] Amongst the most popular cults of folk religion are those of the Yellow Emperor, embodiment of the God of Heaven and one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese people,[480][481] of Mazu (goddess of the seas),[480] Guandi (god of war and business), Caishen (god of prosperity and richness), Pangu and many others. In the early decades of the 21st century, the Chinese government has been engaged in a rehabilitation of folk cults—formally recognizing them as "folk beliefs" as distinguished from doctrinal religions,[482] and often reconstructing them into forms of "highly curated" civil religion[483]—as well as in a national and international promotion of Buddhism.[484] China is home to many of the world's tallest religious statues, representing either deities of Chinese folk religion or enlightened beings of Buddhism; the tallest of all is the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan.
Statistics on religious affiliation in China are difficult to gather due to complex and varying definitions of religion and the diffusive nature of Chinese religious traditions. Scholars note that in China there is no clear boundary between the three doctrines and local folk religious practices.[476] Chinese religions or some of their currents are also definable as non-theistic and humanistic, since they do not hold that divine creativity is completely transcendent, but that it is inherent in the world and in particular in the human being.[485] According to studies published in 2023, compiling demographic analyses conducted throughout the 2010s and the early 2020s, 70% of the Chinese population believed in or practiced Chinese folk religion—among them, with an approach of non-exclusivity, 33.4% may be identified as Buddhists, 19.6% as Taoists, and 17.7% as adherents of other types of folk religion.[4] Of the remaining population, 25.2% are fully non-believers or atheists, 2.5% are adherents of Christianity, and 1.6% are adherents of Islam.[4] Chinese folk religion also comprises a variety of salvationist doctrinal organized movements which emerged since the Song dynasty.[486] There are also ethnic minorities in China who maintain their own indigenous religions, while major religions characteristic of specific ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism among Tibetans, Mongols and Yugurs,[487] and Islam among the Hui, Uyghur, Kazakh,[488] and Kyrgyz peoples, and other ethnicities in the northern and northwestern regions of the country.
Education
Compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school, which together last for nine years from the age of 6 and 15.[491] The Gaokao, China's national university entrance exam, is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions. Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level.[492] More than 10 million Chinese students graduated from vocational colleges every year.[493] In 2023, about 91.8 percent of students continued their education at a three-year senior secondary school, while 60.2 percent of secondary school graduates were enrolled in higher education.[494]
China has the largest education system in the world,[495] with about 291 million students and 18.92 million full-time teachers in over 498,300 schools in 2023.[496] Annual education investment went from less than US$50 billion in 2003 to more than US$817 billion in 2020.[497][498] However, there remains an inequality in education spending. In 2010, the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥20,023, while in Guizhou, one of the poorest provinces, only totalled ¥3,204.[499] China's literacy rate has grown dramatically, from only 20% in 1949 and 65.5% in 1979,[500] to 97% of the population over age 15 in 2020.[501]
As of 2023[update], China has over 3,074 universities, with over 47.6 million students enrolled in mainland China, giving China the largest higher education system in the world.[502][503] As of 2023[update], China had the world's highest number of top universities.[504][505] Currently, China trails only the United States and the United Kingdom in terms of representation on lists of the top 200 universities according to the 2023 Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities, a composite ranking system of three world-most followed university rankings (ARWU+QS+ THE).[506] China is home to two of the highest-ranking universities (Tsinghua University and Peking University) in Asia and emerging economies, according to the Times Higher Education World University Rankings[507] and the QS World University Rankings.[508] These universities are members of the C9 League, an alliance of elite Chinese universities offering comprehensive and leading education.[509]
Health
The National Health Commission, together with its counterparts in the local commissions, oversees the health needs of the population.[510] An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s. The Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign, which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene, as well as treating and preventing several diseases. Diseases such as cholera, typhoid and scarlet fever, which were previously rife in China, were nearly eradicated by the campaign.[511]
After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978, the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition, although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared. Healthcare in China became mostly privatized, and experienced a significant rise in quality. In 2009, the government began a three-year large-scale healthcare provision initiative worth US$124 billion.[512] By 2011, the campaign resulted in 95% of China's population having basic health insurance coverage.[513] By 2022, China had established itself as a key producer and exporter of pharmaceuticals, producing around 40 percent of active pharmaceutical ingredients in 2017.[514]
As of 2023[update], the life expectancy at birth exceeds 78 years.[515]: 163 As of 2021[update], the infant mortality rate is 5 per thousand.[516] Both have improved significantly since the 1950s.[v] Rates of stunting, a condition caused by malnutrition, have declined from 33.1% in 1990 to 9.9% in 2010.[519] Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities, China has several emerging public health problems, such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution,[520] hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers,[521] and an increase in obesity among urban youths.[522][523] In 2010, air pollution caused 1.2 million premature deaths in China.[524] Chinese mental health services are inadequate.[525] China's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks, such as SARS in 2003, although this has since been largely contained.[526] The COVID-19 pandemic was first identified in Wuhan in December 2019;[527][528] pandemic led the government to enforce strict public health measures intended to completely eradicate the virus, a goal that was eventually abandoned in December 2022 after protests against the policy.[529][530]
Culture and society
Since ancient times, Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism. Chinese culture, in turn, has heavily influenced East Asia and Southeast Asia.[532] For much of the country's dynastic era, opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations, which have their origins in the Han dynasty.[533] The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, such as the belief that calligraphy, poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama. Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward-looking national perspective.[534] Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today.[535]
Today, the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society. With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution, various forms of traditional Chinese art, literature, music, film, fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival,[537][538] and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide.[539] Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted.[540]
Architecture
Chinese architecture has developed over millennia in China and has remained a vestigial source of perennial influence on the development of East Asian architecture,[541][542][543] including in Japan, Korea, and Mongolia.[544] and minor influences on the architecture of Southeast and South Asia including the countries of Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia, Vietnam and the Philippines.[545][546]
Chinese architecture is characterized by bilateral symmetry, use of enclosed open spaces, feng shui (e.g. directional hierarchies),[547] a horizontal emphasis, and an allusion to various cosmological, mythological or in general symbolic elements. Chinese architecture traditionally classifies structures according to type, ranging from pagodas to palaces.[548][544]
Chinese architecture varies widely based on status or affiliation, such as whether the structures were constructed for emperors, commoners, or for religious purposes. Other variations in Chinese architecture are shown in vernacular styles associated with different geographic regions and different ethnic heritages, such as the stilt houses in the south, the Yaodong buildings in the northwest, the yurt buildings of nomadic people, and the Siheyuan buildings in the north.[549]
Literature
Chinese literature has its roots in the Zhou dynasty's literary tradition.[550] The classical texts of China encompass a wide range of thoughts and subjects, such as the calendar, military, astrology, herbology, and geography, as well as many others.[551] Among the most significant early works are the I Ching and the Shujing, which are part of the Four Books and Five Classics. These texts were the cornerstone of the Confucian curriculum sponsored by the state throughout the dynastic periods. Inherited from the Classic of Poetry, classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty. Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively. Chinese historiography began with the Shiji, the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty-Four Histories, which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore.[552] Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty, Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical, town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin, Romance of the Three Kingdoms, Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber.[553] Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong and Liang Yusheng,[554] it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the Chinese sphere of influence.[555]
In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty, Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens. Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature.[556] Various literary genres, such as misty poetry, scar literature, young adult fiction and the xungen literature, which is influenced by magic realism,[557] emerged following the Cultural Revolution. Mo Yan, a xungen literature author, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012.[558]
Music
Chinese music covers a highly diverse range of music from traditional music to modern music. Chinese music dates back before the pre-imperial times. Traditional Chinese musical instruments were traditionally grouped into eight categories known as bayin (八音). Traditional Chinese opera is a form of musical theatre in China originating thousands of years and has regional style forms such as Beijing and Cantonese opera.[559] Chinese pop (C-Pop) includes mandopop and cantopop. Chinese hip hop and Hong Kong hip hop have become popular.[560]
Fashion
Hanfu is the historical clothing of the Han people in China. The qipao or cheongsam is a popular Chinese female dress.[561] The hanfu movement has been popular in contemporary times and seeks to revitalize Hanfu clothing.[562] China Fashion Week is the country's only national-level fashion festival.[563]
Cinema
Cinema was first introduced to China in 1896 and the first Chinese film, Dingjun Mountain, was released in 1905.[564] China has the largest number of movie screens in the world since 2016;[565] China became the largest cinema market in 2020.[566][567] The top three highest-grossing films in China as of 2023[update] were The Battle at Lake Changjin (2021), Wolf Warrior 2 (2017), and Hi, Mom (2021).[568]
Cuisine
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse, drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety, in which the most influential are known as the "Eight Major Cuisines", including Sichuan, Cantonese, Jiangsu, Shandong, Fujian, Hunan, Anhui, and Zhejiang cuisines.[569] Chinese cuisine is known for its breadth of cooking methods and ingredients.[570] China's staple food is rice in the northeast and south, and wheat-based breads and noodles in the north. Bean products such as tofu and soy milk remain a popular source of protein. Pork is now the most popular meat in China, accounting for about three-fourths of the country's total meat consumption.[571] There is also the vegetarian Buddhist cuisine and the pork-free Chinese Islamic cuisine. Chinese cuisine, due to the area's proximity to the ocean and milder climate, has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables. Offshoots of Chinese food, such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese cuisine, have emerged in the Chinese diaspora.
Sports
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures. There is evidence that archery (shèjiàn) was practiced during the Western Zhou dynasty. Swordplay (jiànshù) and cuju, a sport loosely related to association football[572] date back to China's early dynasties as well.[573]
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture, with morning exercises such as qigong and tai chi widely practiced,[574] and commercial gyms and private fitness clubs are gaining popularity.[575] Basketball is the most popular spectator sport in China.[576] The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association also have a huge national following amongst the Chinese populace, with native-born and NBA-bound Chinese players and well-known national household names such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian being held in high esteem.[577] China's professional football league, known as Chinese Super League, is the largest football market in East Asia.[578] Other popular sports include martial arts, table tennis, badminton, swimming and snooker. China is home to a huge number of cyclists, with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012[update].[579] China has the world's largest esports market.[580] Many more traditional sports, such as dragon boat racing, Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are also popular.[581]
China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932, although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952. China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, where its athletes received 48 gold medals – the highest number of any participating nation that year.[582] China also won the most medals at the 2012 Summer Paralympics, with 231 overall, including 95 gold.[583][584] In 2011, Shenzhen hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade. China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2014 Summer Youth Olympics in Nanjing, the first country to host both regular and Youth Olympics. Beijing and its nearby city Zhangjiakou collaboratively hosted the 2022 Winter Olympics, making Beijing the first dual Olympic city by holding both the Summer Olympics and the Winter Olympics.[585][586]
See also
Notes
- ^ The size of Chonqging Municipality is about that of the country of Austria. University of Washington professor Kam Wing Chan argued that Chongqing's status is more akin to that of a province rather than a city.[1]
- ^ Paramount leader of China, who holds the titles of:
- ^ Chairman of the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference
- ^ While not an upper house of the legislature, the Chinese People's Political Consultative Conference exists as an advisory body. However, much of the parliamentary functions are held by the Standing Committee of the National People's Congress when ordinary congress is not in session.
- ^ UN figure for mainland China, which excludes Hong Kong, Macau, and Taiwan.[6] It also excludes the Trans-Karakoram Tract (5,180 km2 (2,000 sq mi)), Aksai Chin (38,000 km2 (15,000 sq mi)) and other territories in dispute with India. The total area of China is listed as 9,572,900 km2 (3,696,100 sq mi) by the Encyclopædia Britannica.[7]
- ^ GDP figures exclude Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Macau.
- ^ The Hong Kong dollar is used in Hong Kong and Macau, while the Macanese pataca is used in Macau only.
- ^ Chinese: 中国; pinyin: Zhōngguó
- ^ Chinese: 中华人民共和国; pinyin: Zhōnghuá rénmín gònghéguó
- ^ China's border with Pakistan is disputed by India, which claims the entire Kashmir region as its territory. China is tied with Russia as having the most land borders of any country.
- ^ The total area ranking relative to the United States depends on the measurement of the total areas of both countries. See list of countries and dependencies by area for more information. The following two primary sources represent the range of estimates of China's and the United States' total areas.
- The Encyclopædia Britannica lists China as world's third-largest country (after Russia and Canada) with a total area of 9,572,900 km2,[7] and the United States as fourth-largest at 9,525,067 km2.[14]
- The CIA World Factbook lists China as the fourth-largest country (after Russia, Canada and the United States) with a total area of 9,596,960 km2,[5] and the United States as the third-largest at 9,833,517 km2.[15]
Notably, the Encyclopædia Britannica specifies the United States' area (excluding coastal and territorial waters) as 9,525,067 km2, which is less than either source's figure given for China's area.[14] Therefore, it is unclear which country has a larger area including coastal and territorial waters.
The United Nations Statistics Division's figure for the United States is 9,833,517 km2 (3,796,742 sq mi) and China is 9,596,961 km2 (3,705,407 sq mi). These closely match the CIA World Factbook figures and similarly include coastal and territorial waters for the United States, but exclude coastal and territorial waters for China.[excessive detail?] - ^ Excluding the disputed Taiwan Province. See § Administrative divisions.
- ^ "... Next into this, is found the great China, whose king is thought to be the greatest prince in the world, and is named Santoa Raia".[17][18]
- ^ "... The Very Great Kingdom of China".[19] (Portuguese: ... O Grande Reino da China ...).[20]
- ^ Its earliest extant use is on the ritual bronze vessel He zun, where it apparently refers to only the Shang's immediate demesne conquered by the Zhou.[26]
- ^ Its meaning "Zhou's royal demesne" is attested from the 6th-century BC Classic of History, which states "Huangtian bestowed the lands and the peoples of the central state to the ancestors" (皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王).[27]
- ^ Owing to Qin Shi Huang's earlier policy involving the "burning of books and burying of scholars", the destruction of the confiscated copies at Xianyang was an event similar to the destructions of the Library of Alexandria in the west. Even those texts that did survive had to be painstakingly reconstructed from memory, luck, or forgery.[53] The Old Texts of the Five Classics were said to have been found hidden in a wall at the Kong residence in Qufu. Mei Ze's "rediscovered" edition of the Book of Documents was only shown to be a forgery in the Qing dynasty.
- ^ According to the Encyclopædia Britannica, the total area of the United States, at 9,522,055 km2 (3,676,486 sq mi), is slightly smaller than that of China. Meanwhile, the CIA World Factbook states that China's total area was greater than that of the United States until the coastal waters of the Great Lakes was added to the United States' total area in 1996. From 1989 through 1996, the total area of US was listed as 9,372,610 km2 (3,618,780 sq mi) (land area plus inland water only). The listed total area changed to 9,629,091 km2 (3,717,813 sq mi) in 1997 (with the Great Lakes areas and the coastal waters added), to 9,631,418 km2 (3,718,711 sq mi) in 2004, to 9,631,420 km2 (3,718,710 sq mi) in 2006, and to 9,826,630 km2 (3,794,080 sq mi) in 2007 (territorial waters added).
- ^ China's border with Pakistan and part of its border with India falls in the disputed region of Kashmir. The area under Pakistani administration is claimed by India, while the area under Indian administration is claimed by Pakistan.
- ^ The People's Republic of China claims the islands of Taiwan and Penghu, which it does not control, as its disputed 23rd province, i.e. Taiwan Province; along with Kinmen and Matsu Islands as part of Fujian Province. These are controlled by the Taipei-based Republic of China (ROC). See § Administrative divisions for more details.
- ^ Some of the chips used were not domestically developed until Sunway TaihuLight in 2016. China has not submitted newer entries to TOP500 amid tensions with the United States.
- ^ The national life expectancy at birth rose from about 31 years in 1949 to 75 years in 2008,[517] and infant mortality decreased from 300 per thousand in the 1950s to around 33 per thousand in 2001.[518]
References
- ^ "The world's biggest cities: How do you measure them?". BBC. 29 January 2012. Retrieved 2024-08-08.
- ^ a b Adamson, Bob; Feng, Anwei (27 December 2021). Multilingual China: National, Minority and Foreign Languages. Routledge. p. 90. ISBN 978-1-0004-8702-2.
Despite not being defined as such in the Constitution, Putonghua enjoys de facto status of the official language in China and is legislated as the standard form of Chinese.
- ^ "Main Data of the Seventh National Population Census". Stats.gov.cn. Archived from the original on 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2021-07-25.
- ^ a b c 2023 approximations of the statistics from the China Family Panel Studies (CFPS) of the year 2018, as contained in the following analyses:
- "Measuring Religion in China" (PDF). Pew Research Center. 30 August 2023. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-09-09."Measuring Religions in China". 30 August 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-09-30. A compilation of statistics from reliable surveys held throughout the 2010s and early 2020s, with an emphasis on the CFPS 2018.
- Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina (2023). "Statistics on Religions and Churches in the People's Republic of China – Update for the Year 2022" (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. XIII. China Zentrum: 18–44. ISSN 2192-9289. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-06-23.
- Zhang, Chunni; Lu, Yunfeng; He, Sheng (2021). "Exploring Chinese folk religion: Popularity, diffuseness, and diversities" (PDF). Chinese Journal of Sociology. 7 (4). SAGE Publications: 575–592. doi:10.1177/2057150X211042687. ISSN 2057-150X. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-10-15.
- ^ a b c d "China". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2013-11-23. (Archived 2013 edition.)
- ^ a b "Demographic Yearbook—Table 3: Population by sex, rate of population increase, surface area and density" (PDF). UN Statistics. 2007. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-12-24. Retrieved 2010-07-31.
- ^ a b "China". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2019-07-27. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
- ^ "Total surface area as of 19 January 2007". United Nations Statistics Division. Archived from the original on 2023-12-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Master, Farah (17 January 2024). "China's population drops for second year, with record low birth rate". Reuters. Retrieved 2024-01-17.
- ^ "Population density (people per km2 of land area)". IMF. Archived from the original on 2015-05-16. Retrieved 2015-05-16.
- ^ a b c d "World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (China)". www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 2024-11-11.
- ^ a b "Gini index – China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2024-03-19. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
- ^ "Human Development Report 2023/24" (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-03-13. Retrieved 2024-03-13.
- ^ a b c "United States". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2015-05-28. Retrieved 2017-12-04.
- ^
This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the public domain: "United States". The World Factbook (2024 ed.). Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2016-07-03. (Archived 2016 edition.)
- ^ a b c "China". Oxford English Dictionary. Archived from the original on 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2024-03-28.ISBN 0-1995-7315-8
- ^ Eden, Richard (1555), Decades of the New World, p. 230 Archived 11 August 2023 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ Myers, Henry Allen (1984). Western Views of China and the Far East, Volume 1. Asian Research Service. p. 34.
- ^ Barbosa, Duarte (1918). Dames, Mansel Longworth (ed.). The Book of Duarte Barbosa. Vol. II. London: Asian Educational Services. p. 211. ISBN 978-8-1206-0451-3.
- ^ Barbosa, Duarte (1946). Augusto Reis Machado (ed.). Livro em que dá Relação do que Viu e Ouviu no Oriente. Lisbon: Agência Geral das Colónias. Archived from the original on 2008-10-22.. (in Portuguese)
- ^ "China Archived 21 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000). Boston and New York: Houghton-Mifflin.
- ^ a b c Wade, Geoff. "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name 'China' Archived 17 November 2017 at the Wayback Machine". Sino-Platonic Papers, No. 188, May 2009, p. 20.
- ^ Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis, Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2.
- ^ Bodde, Derk (1986). "The state and empire of Ch'in". In Denis Twitchett; Michael Loewe (eds.). The Cambridge History of China: Volume 1, The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. Cambridge University Press. p. 20. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243278.003. ISBN 978-0-5212-4327-8.
- ^ Yule, Henry (1866). Cathay and the Way Thither. Asian Educational Services. pp. 3–7. ISBN 978-8-1206-1966-1.
- ^ Chen Zhi (9 November 2004). "From Exclusive Xia to Inclusive Zhu-Xia: The Conceptualisation of Chinese Identity in Early China". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. 14 (3): 185–205. doi:10.1017/S135618630400389X. JSTOR 25188470. S2CID 162643600.
- ^ 《尚書》, 梓材. (in Chinese)
- ^ Wilkinson, Endymion (2000). Chinese History: A Manual. Harvard-Yenching Institute Monograph No. 52. Harvard University Asia Center. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-6740-0249-4.
- ^ Tang, Xiaoyang; Guo, Sujian; Guo, Baogang (2010). Greater China in an Era of Globalization. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. pp. 52–53. ISBN 978-0-7391-3534-1.
- ^ "Two 'Chinese' flags in Chinatown 美國唐人街兩面「中國」國旗之爭". BBC. Archived from the original on 2020-12-02. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
- ^ "Chou Hsi-wei on Conflict Zone". Deutsche Welle. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
So-called 'China', we call it 'Mainland', we are 'Taiwan'. Together we are 'China'.
- ^ "China-Taiwan Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2020-07-26. Retrieved 2020-11-05.
- ^ a b "What's behind China-Taiwan tensions?". BBC News. 6 November 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-11-07. Retrieved 2022-11-10.
- ^ Ciochon, Russell; Larick, Roy (1 January 2000). "Early Homo erectus Tools in China". Archaeology. Archived from the original on 2020-01-06. Retrieved 2012-11-30.
- ^ "The Peking Man World Heritage Site at Zhoukoudian". UNESCO. Archived from the original on 2016-06-23. Retrieved 2013-03-06.
- ^ Shen, G.; Gao, X.; Gao, B.; Granger, De (March 2009). "Age of Zhoukoudian Homo erectus determined with (26)Al/(10)Be burial dating". Nature. 458 (7235): 198–200. doi:10.1038/nature07741. PMID 19279636. S2CID 19264385.
- ^ Rincon, Paul (14 October 2015). "Fossil teeth place humans in Asia '20,000 years early'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2017-08-17. Retrieved 2015-10-14.
- ^ a b Rincon, Paul (17 April 2003). "'Earliest writing' found in China". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2012-03-20. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
- ^ Qiu Xigui (2000) Chinese Writing English translation of 文字學概論 by Gilbert L. Mattos and Jerry Norman Early China Special Monograph Series No. 4. Berkeley: The Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies, University of California, Berkeley. ISBN 978-1-5572-9071-7
- ^ Tanner, Harold M. (2009). China: A History. Hackett. pp. 35–36. ISBN 978-0-8722-0915-2.
- ^ "Bronze Age China". National Gallery of Art. Archived from the original on 2013-07-25. Retrieved 2013-07-11.
- ^ China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. City University of Hong Kong Press. 2007. p. 25. ISBN 978-9-6293-7140-1.
- ^ Pletcher, Kenneth (2011). The History of China. Britannica Educational Publishing. p. 35. ISBN 978-1-6153-0181-2.
- ^ Fowler, Jeaneane D.; Fowler, Merv (2008). Chinese Religions: Beliefs and Practices. Sussex Academic Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-8451-9172-6.
- ^ Boltz, William G. (February 1986). "Early Chinese Writing". World Archaeology. 17 (3): 436. doi:10.1080/00438243.1986.9979980. JSTOR 124705.
- ^ Keightley, David N. (Autumn 1996). "Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China". Representations. 56 (Special Issue: The New Erudition): 68–95. doi:10.2307/2928708. JSTOR 2928708. S2CID 145426302.
- ^ Hollister, Pam (1996). "Zhengzhou". In Schellinger, Paul E.; Salkin, Robert M. (eds.). International Dictionary of Historic Places: Asia and Oceania. Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. p. 904. ISBN 978-1-8849-6404-6.
- ^ Allan, Keith (2013). The Oxford Handbook of the History of Linguistics. Oxford University Press. p. 4. ISBN 978-0-1995-8584-7.
- ^ "Warring States". Encyclopædia Britannica. 15 September 2023. Archived from the original on 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Sima, Qian (1993) [c. 91 BCE]. Records of the Grand Historian. Translated by Watson, Burton. Hong Kong: Columbia University Press. pp. 11–12. ISBN 0-231-08165-0.
- ^ a b Bodde, Derk (1986). "The State and Empire of Ch'in". In Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Loewe (eds.). The Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 BC – AD 220. The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 20–102. ISBN 0-521-24327-0.
- ^ a b Lewis, Mark Edward (2007). The Early Chinese Empires: Qin and Han. Belknap. ISBN 978-0-6740-2477-9.
- ^ Cotterell, Arthur (2011). The Imperial Capitals of China. Pimlico. pp. 35–36.
- ^ a b Dahlman, Carl J.; Aubert, Jean-Eric (2001). China and the Knowledge Economy: Seizing the 21st Century (Report). WBI Development Studies. Herndon, VA: World Bank Publications. ERIC ED460052.
- ^ Goucher, Candice; Walton, Linda (2013). World History: Journeys from Past to Present. Vol. 1: From Human Origins to 1500 CE. Routledge. p. 108. ISBN 978-1-1350-8822-4.
- ^ Lee, Ki-Baik (1984). A new history of Korea. Harvard University Press. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-6746-1576-2.
- ^ Graff, David Andrew (2002). Medieval Chinese warfare, 300–900. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 0-4152-3955-9.
- ^ Adshead, S. A. M. (2004). T'ang China: The Rise of the East in World History. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 54. doi:10.1057/9780230005518_2. ISBN 9780230005518.
- ^ Nishijima, Sadao (1986). "The Economic and Social History of Former Han". In Twitchett, Denis; Loewe, Michael (eds.). Cambridge History of China: Volume I: the Ch'in and Han Empires, 221 B.C. – A.D. 220. Cambridge University Press. pp. 545–607. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521243278.012. ISBN 978-0-5212-4327-8.
- ^ Bowman, John S. (2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. pp. 104–105.
- ^ China: Five Thousand Years of History and Civilization. City University of HK Press. 2007. p. 71. ISBN 978-9-6293-7140-1.
- ^ Paludan, Ann (1998). Chronicle of the Chinese Emperors. Thames & Hudson. p. 136. ISBN 0-5000-5090-2.
- ^ Huang, Siu-Chi (1999). Essentials of Neo-Confucianism: Eight Major Philosophers of the Song and Ming Periods. Greenwood. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-3132-6449-8.
- ^ "Northern Song dynasty (960–1127)". Metropolitan Museum of Art. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2013-11-27.
- ^ Gernet, Jacques (1962). Daily Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasion, 1250–1276. Stanford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-8047-0720-6. OCLC 1029050217.
- ^ May, Timothy (2012). The Mongol Conquests in World History. Reaktion. p. 1211. ISBN 978-1-8618-9971-2.
- ^ Weatherford, Jack (2004). "Tale of Three Rivers". Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. Random House. p. 95. ISBN 978-0-6098-0964-8.
- ^ Ho, Ping-ti (1970). "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China". Études Song. 1 (1): 33–53.
- ^ Rice, Xan (25 July 2010). "Chinese archaeologists' African quest for sunken ship of Ming admiral". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2016-12-27. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ "Wang Yangming (1472–1529)". Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Archived from the original on 2013-11-09. Retrieved 2013-12-09.
- ^ 论明末士人阶层与资本主义萌芽的关系. 8 April 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-09-09. Retrieved 2015-09-02.
- ^ "Qing dynasty". Britannica. Archived from the original on 2018-03-09. Retrieved 2022-11-10.
- ^ Roberts, John M. (1997). A Short History of the World. Oxford University Press. p. 272. ISBN 0-1951-1504-X.
- ^ Fletcher, Joseph (1978). "Ch'ing Inner Asia c. 1800". In John K. Fairbank (ed.). The Cambridge History of China. Vol. 10, Part 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 37. doi:10.1017/CHOL9780521214476.003. ISBN 978-1-1390-5477-5.
- ^ Deng, Kent (2015). China's Population Expansion and Its Causes during the Qing Period, 1644–1911 (PDF). p. 1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-03-09. Retrieved 2023-08-28.
- ^ Rowe, William (2010). China's Last Empire – The Great Qing. Harvard University Press. p. 123. ISBN 9780674054554.
- ^ 中国通史·明清史. 九州出版社. 2010. pp. 104–112. ISBN 978-7-5108-0062-7.
- ^ 中华通史·第十卷. 花城出版社. 1996. p. 71. ISBN 978-7-5360-2320-8.
- ^ Embree, Ainslie; Gluck, Carol (1997). Asia in Western and World History: A Guide for Teaching. M.E. Sharpe. p. 597. ISBN 1-5632-4265-6.
- ^ "Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 2021-09-20. Retrieved 2022-01-16.
- ^ Enhan (李恩涵), Li (2004). 近代中國外交史事新研. 臺灣商務印書館. p. 78. ISBN 978-9-5705-1891-7.
- ^ "Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk". Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 1995. Archived from the original on 2023-10-30. Retrieved 2013-07-03.
- ^ Xiaobing, Li (2007). A History of the Modern Chinese Army. University Press of Kentucky. pp. 13, 26–27. ISBN 978-0-8131-2438-4.
- ^ "The abdication decree of Emperor Puyi (1912)". Chinese Revolution. 4 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2023-04-10. Retrieved 2021-05-29.
- ^ Tamura, Eileen (1997) China: Understanding Its Past. Volume 1. University of Hawaii Press ISBN 0-8248-1923-3 p.146
- ^ Haw, Stephen (2006). Beijing: A Concise History. Taylor & Francis. p. 143. ISBN 0-4153-9906-8.
- ^ Elleman, Bruce (2001). Modern Chinese Warfare. Routledge. p. 149. ISBN 0-4152-1474-2.
- ^ Hutchings, Graham (2003). Modern China: A Guide to a Century of Change. Harvard University Press. p. 459. ISBN 0-6740-1240-2.
- ^ Panda, Ankit (5 May 2015). "The Legacy of China's May Fourth Movement". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2024-02-22. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Zarrow, Peter (2005). China in War and Revolution, 1895–1949. Routledge. p. 230. ISBN 0-4153-6447-7.
- ^ Leutner, M. (2002). The Chinese Revolution in the 1920s: Between Triumph and Disaster. Routledge. p. 129. ISBN 0-7007-1690-4.
- ^ Tien, Hung-Mao (1972). Government and Politics in Kuomintang China, 1927–1937. Vol. 53. Stanford University Press. pp. 60–72. ISBN 0-8047-0812-6.
- ^ Zhao, Suisheng (2000). China and Democracy: Reconsidering the Prospects for a Democratic China. Routledge. p. 43. ISBN 0-4159-2694-7.
- ^ Apter, David Ernest; Saich, Tony (1994). Revolutionary Discourse in Mao's Republic. Harvard University Press. p. 198. ISBN 0-6747-6780-2.
- ^ "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan". BBC. Archived from the original on 2015-11-28. Retrieved 2013-07-14.
- ^ "Judgement: International Military Tribunal for the Far East" Archived 4 August 2018 at the Wayback Machine. Chapter VIII: Conventional War Crimes (Atrocities). November 1948. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ "The Moscow Declaration on general security". Yearbook of the United Nations 1946–1947. United Nations. 1947. p. 3. OCLC 243471225. Archived from the original on 2015-05-18. Retrieved 2015-04-25.
- ^ "Declaration by United Nations". United Nations. Archived from the original on 2017-05-25. Retrieved 2015-06-20.
- ^ Hoopes, Townsend, and Douglas Brinkley FDR and the Creation of the U.N. (Yale University Press, 1997)
- ^ Gaddis, John Lewis (1972). The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947. Columbia University Press. pp. 24–25. ISBN 978-0-2311-2239-9.
- ^ a b Tien, Hung-mao (1991). "The Constitutional Conundrum and the Need for Reform". In Feldman, Harvey (ed.). Constitutional Reform and the Future of the Republic of China. M.E. Sharpe. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-8733-2880-7.
- ^ 李丹青. "What's behind the founding ceremony of the PRC?". www.chinadaily.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-02-18.
- ^ Westcott, Ben; Lee, Lily (30 September 2019). "They were born at the start of Communist China. 70 years later, their country is unrecognizable". CNN. Archived from the original on 2019-12-15.
- ^ "Red Capture of Hainan Island". The Tuscaloosa News. 9 May 1950. Archived from the original on 2023-08-10.
- ^ "The Tibetans" (PDF). University of Southern California. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-10-16. Retrieved 2013-07-20.
- ^ Garver, John W. (1997). The Sino-American alliance: Nationalist China and American Cold War strategy in Asia. M.E. Sharpe. p. 169. ISBN 978-0-7656-0025-7.
- ^ Busky, Donald (2002). Communism in History and Theory. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-2759-7733-7.
- ^ "A Country Study: China". loc.gov. Archived from the original on 2016-06-12. Retrieved 2017-10-03.
- ^ Holmes, Madelyn (2008). Students and teachers of the new China: thirteen interviews. McFarland. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-7864-3288-2.
- ^ Mirsky, Jonathan (9 December 2012). "Unnatural Disaster". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2012-12-11. Retrieved 2012-12-07.
- ^ Holmes, Leslie (2009). Communism: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-1995-5154-5.
Most estimates of the number of Chinese dead are in the range of 15 to 30 million.
- ^ "1964: China's first atomic bomb explodes". china.org.cn. Archived from the original on 2023-03-22. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
- ^ Kao, Michael Y. M. (1988). "Taiwan's and Beijing's Campaigns for Unification". In Feldman, Harvey; Kao, Michael Y. M.; Kim, Ilpyong J. (eds.). Taiwan in a Time of Transition. Paragon House. p. 188.
- ^ Hamrin, Carol Lee; Zhao, Suisheng (15 January 1995). Decision-making in Deng's China: Perspectives from Insiders. M.E. Sharpe. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7656-3694-2.
- ^ Hart-Landsberg, Martin; Burkett, Paul (March 2005). China and Socialism: Market Reforms and Class Struggle. Monthly Review Press. ISBN 978-1-5836-7123-8. ("Review". Monthly Review. 28 February 2001. Archived from the original on 2009-01-05. Retrieved 2008-10-30.)
- ^ "Primary Source Document with Questions (DBQs) CONSTITUTION OF THE PEOPLE ' S REPUBLIC OF CHINA (1982)" (PDF). Columbia College.
- ^ Harding, Harry (December 1990). "The Impact of Tiananmen on China's Foreign Policy". National Bureau of Asian Research. Archived from the original on 2014-04-04. Retrieved 2013-11-28.
- ^ a b c d "Jiang Zemin, who guided China's economic rise, dies". Associated Press. 30 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2023-04-03. Retrieved 2022-11-30.
- ^ "China Gets Down to Business at Party Congress". Los Angeles Times. 13 September 1997. Archived from the original on 2022-10-18. Retrieved 2020-01-12.
- ^ Vogel, Ezra (2011). Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. Belknap Press. p. 682. ISBN 978-0-6747-2586-7.
- ^ Orlik, Tom (16 November 2012). "Charting China's Economy: A Decade Under Hu Jintao". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 2016-12-21. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ Carter, Shan; Cox, Amanda; Burgess, Joe; Aigner, Erin (26 August 2007). "China's Environmental Crisis". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2012-01-16. Retrieved 2012-05-16.
- ^ Griffiths, Daniel (16 April 2004). "China worried over pace of growth". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-11-18. Retrieved 2006-04-16.
- ^ China: Migrants, Students, Taiwan Archived 27 December 2016 at the Wayback Machine UC Davis Migration News January 2006
- ^ Cody, Edward (28 January 2006). "In Face of Rural Unrest, China Rolls Out Reforms". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2017-10-14. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ "China's anti-corruption campaign expands with new agency". BBC News. 20 March 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-09-24. Retrieved 2019-09-13.
- ^ Marquis, Christopher; Qiao, Kunyuan (15 November 2022). Mao and Markets: The Communist Roots of Chinese Enterprise. Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/j.ctv3006z6k. ISBN 978-0-3002-6883-6. JSTOR j.ctv3006z6k. S2CID 253067190.
- ^ Wingfield-Hayes, Rupert (23 October 2022). "Xi Jinping's party is just getting started". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2023-03-17. Retrieved 2022-10-23.
- ^ "Nepal and China agree on Mount Everest's height". BBC News. 8 April 2010. Archived from the original on 2018-07-12. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ "Lowest Places on Earth". National Park Service. 28 February 2015. Archived from the original on 2015-02-07. Retrieved 2013-12-02.
- ^ Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). "Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution". Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD...580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
- ^ Regional Climate Studies of China. Springer. 2008. p. 1. ISBN 978-3-5407-9242-0.
- ^ Waghorn, Terry (7 March 2011). "Fighting Desertification". Forbes. Archived from the original on 2017-07-29. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
- ^ "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm". BBC News. 17 April 2006. Archived from the original on 2009-01-01. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
- ^ Reilly, Michael (24 November 2008). "Himalaya glaciers melting much faster". NBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-10-23. Retrieved 2011-09-21.
- ^ China's New Growth Pathway: From the 14th Five-Year Plan to Carbon Neutrality (PDF) (Report). Energy Foundation China. December 2020. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2020-12-16.
- ^ Lui, Swithin (19 May 2022). "Guest post: Why China is set to significantly overachieve its 2030 climate goals". Carbon Brief. Archived from the original on 2022-05-23. Retrieved 2022-05-24.
- ^ Chow, Gregory (2006) Are Chinese Official Statistics Reliable? CESifo Economic Studies 52. 396–414. 10.1093/cesifo/ifl003.
- ^ Liu G, Wang X, Baiocchi G, Casazza M, Meng F, Cai Y, Hao Y, Wu F, Yang Z (October 2020). "On the accuracy of official Chinese crop production data: Evidence from biophysical indexes of net primary production". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 117 (41): 25434–25444. Bibcode:2020PNAS..11725434L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1919850117. PMC 7568317. PMID 32978301.
- ^ "Countries by commodity". FAOSTAT. Archived from the original on 2020-06-29. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. 2023. doi:10.4060/cc8166en. ISBN 978-9-2513-8262-2. Archived from the original on 2023-12-15. Retrieved 2023-12-13.
- ^ Williams, Jann (10 December 2009). "Biodiversity Theme Report". Environment.gov.au. Archived from the original on 2011-08-11. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
- ^ Countries with the Highest Biological Diversity Archived 26 March 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
- ^ "Country Profiles – China". Convention on Biological Diversity. Archived from the original on 2023-12-09. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
- ^ "translation: China Biodiversity Conservation Strategy and Action Plan. Years 2011–2030" (PDF). Convention on Biological Diversity. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2012-12-09.
- ^ IUCN Initiatives – Mammals – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012 Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.
- ^ Countries with the most bird species Archived 16 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
- ^ Countries with the most reptile species Archived 16 February 2013 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
- ^ IUCN Initiatives – Amphibians – Analysis of Data – Geographic Patterns 2012 Archived 12 May 2013 at the Wayback Machine. IUCN. Retrieved 24 April 2013. Data does not include species in Taiwan.
- ^ Top 20 countries with most endangered species IUCN Red List Archived 24 April 2013 at the Wayback Machine. 5 March 2010. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
- ^ "Nature Reserves". China Internet Information Center. Archived from the original on 2010-11-15. Retrieved 2013-12-02.
- ^ Turvey, Samuel (2013). "Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence". Quaternary Science Reviews. 76: 156–166. Bibcode:2013QSRv...76..156T. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030.
- ^ Lander, Brian; Brunson, Katherine (2018). "Wild Mammals of Ancient North China". The Journal of Chinese History. 2 (2). Cambridge University Press: 291–312. doi:10.1017/jch.2017.45. S2CID 90662935.
- ^ Turvey, Samuel (2008). Witness to Extinction: How we failed to save the Yangtze River dolphin. Oxford University Press.
- ^ Countries with the most vascular plant species Archived 12 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Mongabay.com. 2004 data. Retrieved 24 April 2013.
- ^ a b China (3 ed.). Rough Guides. 2003. p. 1213. ISBN 978-1-8435-3019-0.
- ^ Conservation Biology: Voices from the Tropics. John Wiley & Sons. 2013. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-1186-7981-4.
- ^ Ma, Xiaoying; Ortalano, Leonard (2000). Environmental Regulation in China. Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 1. ISBN 978-0-8476-9399-3.
- ^ "China acknowledges 'cancer villages'". BBC News. 22 February 2013. Archived from the original on 2024-03-21. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
- ^ Soekov, Kimberley (28 October 2012). "Riot police and protesters clash over China chemical plant". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2016-04-10. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ "Is air quality in China a social problem?". Center for Strategic and International Studies. ChinaPower Project. 15 February 2016. Archived from the original on 2020-03-26. Retrieved 2020-03-26.
- ^ "Ambient air pollution: A global assessment of exposure and burden of disease". World Health Organization. Archived from the original on 2016-09-28. Retrieved 2018-04-28.
- ^ Chestney, Nina (10 June 2013). "Global carbon emissions hit record high in 2012". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2013-11-19. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
- ^ a b "Each Country's Share of CO2 Emissions". Union of Concerned Scientists. August 2020. Archived from the original on 2019-10-15. Retrieved 2020-10-30.
- ^ "2023 State of Ecology & Environment Report Review". China Water Risk. 25 June 2024. Retrieved 2024-10-18.
- ^ Jayaram, Kripa; Kay, Chris; Murtaugh, Dan (14 June 2022). "China Reduced Air Pollution in 7 Years as Much as US Did in Three Decades". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2023-11-07. Retrieved 2024-01-13.
- ^ a b "China going carbon neutral before 2060 would lower warming projections by around 0.2 to 0.3 degrees C". Climate Action Tracker. 23 September 2020. Archived from the original on 2024-02-11. Retrieved 2020-09-27.
- ^ a b Schonhardt, Sara (30 January 2023). "China Invests $546 Billion in Clean Energy, Far Surpassing the U.S." Scientific American. Archived from the original on 2023-05-19. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
- ^ Meng, Meng (5 January 2017). "China to plow $361 billion into renewable fuel by 2020". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-07-27. Retrieved 2018-05-28.
- ^ Maguire, Gavin (23 November 2022). "Column: China on track to hit new clean & dirty power records in 2022". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-04-16. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ "Global Electricity Review 2024: Analysis of key power sector emitters in 2023". Ember. 8 May 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ Perkins, Robert (7 October 2022). "Russian seaborne crude exports slide to 12-month low as EU ban, price caps loom". S&P Global. Archived from the original on 2022-10-14.
- ^ International Energy Agency (24 February 2022). "Oil Market and Russian Supply – Russian supplies to global energy markets". IEA. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ^ Ma, Jin Shuang; Liu, Quan Riu (February 1998). "The Present Situation and Prospects of Plant Taxonomy in China". Taxon. 47 (1). Wiley: 67–74. doi:10.2307/1224020. JSTOR 1224020.
- ^ Wei, Yuwa (2014). "China and ITS Neighbors". Willamette Journal of International Law and Dispute Resolution. 22 (1). Willamette University College of Law: 105–136. JSTOR 26210500.
- ^ "Groundless to view China as expansionist, says Beijing after PM Modi's Ladakh visit". India Today. 3 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2023-08-10. Retrieved 2020-08-13.
- ^ Fravel, M. Taylor (1 October 2005). "Regime Insecurity and International Cooperation: Explaining China's Compromises in Territorial Disputes". International Security. 30 (2): 46–83. doi:10.1162/016228805775124534. S2CID 56347789.
- ^ Fravel, M. Taylor (2008). Strong Borders, Secure Nation: Cooperation and Conflict in China's Territorial Disputes. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-6911-3609-7.
- ^ "India-China dispute: The border row explained in 400 words". BBC News. 14 December 2022. Archived from the original on 2022-04-20. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "Bhutan wants a border deal with China: Will India accept?". BBC News. 26 April 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "China denies preparing war over South China Sea shoal". BBC News. 12 May 2012. Archived from the original on 2020-02-07. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ "How uninhabited islands soured China-Japan ties". BBC News. 27 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2018-07-10. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ "Xi reiterates adherence to socialism with Chinese characteristics". Xinhua News Agency. 5 January 2013. Archived from the original on 2016-02-01. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
- ^ a b c d "Constitution of the People's Republic of China". National People's Congress. 20 November 2019. Archived from the original on 2023-07-02. Retrieved 2021-03-20.
- ^ Wei, Changhao (11 March 2018). "Annotated Translation: 2018 Amendment to the P.R.C. Constitution (Version 2.0)". NPC Observer. Archived from the original on 2018-12-22. Retrieved 2019-08-22.
- ^ Jia, Qinglin (1 January 2013). "The Development of Socialist Consultative Democracy in China". Qiushi. Archived from the original on 2017-03-09. Retrieved 2018-05-13.
- ^ a b "Democracy". Decoding China. Heidelberg University. 4 February 2021. Archived from the original on 2022-08-16. Retrieved 2022-08-22.
- ^ Ringen, Stein (2016). The Perfect Dictatorship: China in the 21st Century. Hong Kong University Press. p. 3. ISBN 978-9-8882-0893-7.
- ^ Qian, Isabelle; Xiao, Muyi; Mozur, Paul; Cardia, Alexander (21 June 2022). "Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2022-07-23.
- ^ a b c "Freedom in the World 2024: China". Freedom House. 2024. Retrieved 2024-04-05.
- ^ "Where democracy is most at risk". The Economist. 14 February 2024. ISSN 0013-0613. Archived from the original on 2024-02-14. Retrieved 2024-02-15.
- ^ Laikwan, Pang (2024). One and All: The Logic of Chinese Sovereignty. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. p. 1. ISBN 978-1-5036-3881-5.
- ^ a b Ruwitch, John (13 October 2022). "China's major party congress is set to grant Xi Jinping a 3rd term. And that's not all". NPR. Archived from the original on 2022-10-14. Retrieved 2022-10-15.
- ^ Hernández, Javier C. (25 October 2017). "China's 'Chairman of Everything': Behind Xi Jinping's Many Titles". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2017-10-25. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
Mr. Xi's most important title is general secretary, the most powerful position in the Communist Party. In China's one party system, this ranking gives him virtually unchecked authority over the government.
- ^ Phillips, Tom (24 October 2017). "Xi Jinping becomes most powerful leader since Mao with China's change to constitution". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2017-10-24. Retrieved 2017-10-24.
- ^ Lawrence, Susan V.; Lee, Mari Y. (24 November 2021). "China's Political System in Charts: A Snapshot Before the 20th Party Congress". Congressional Research Service. Archived from the original on 2022-06-16. Retrieved 2022-12-20.
- ^ a b Ma, Josephine (17 May 2021). "Party-state relations under China's Communist Party: separation of powers, control over government and reforms". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2023-05-28. Retrieved 2023-06-23.
- ^ a b "How China is Ruled: National People's Congress". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2020-04-13. Retrieved 2009-07-14.
- ^ "China: Nipped In The Bud – Background". Human Rights Watch. Archived from the original on 2021-04-16. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
- ^ Tiezzi, Shannon (4 March 2021). "What Is the CPPCC Anyway?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2022-08-21.
- ^ a b c d e Jin, Keyu (2023). The New China Playbook: Beyond Socialism and Capitalism. Viking. ISBN 978-1-9848-7828-1.
- ^ Heilmann, Sebastian (2018). Red Swan: How Unorthodox Policy-Making Facilitated China's Rise. The Chinese University of Hong Kong Press. ISBN 978-9-6299-6827-4.
- ^ a b Brussee, Vincent (2023). Social Credit: The Warring States of China's Emerging Data Empire. Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-9-8199-2188-1.
- ^ "Administrative Division". State Council of the People's Republic of China. 26 August 2014. Archived from the original on 2022-07-09. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
- ^ Chang, Bi-yu (2015). Place, Identity, and National Imagination in Post-war Taiwan. Routledge. pp. 35–40, 46–60. ISBN 978-1-3176-5812-2.
- ^ Brown, Kerry (2013). Contemporary China. Macmillan International Higher Education – University of Sydney. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-1372-8159-3.
- ^ "Global Diplomacy Index – Country Rank". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2024-02-26.
- ^ Chang, Eddy (22 August 2004). "Perseverance will pay off at the UN". The Taipei Times. Archived from the original on 2007-08-06.
- ^ "About G20". G20. Archived from the original on 2023-08-25. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
- ^ "Riyadh joins Shanghai Cooperation Organization as ties with Beijing grow". Reuters. 29 March 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-10-11. Retrieved 2023-11-22.
- ^ "Bric summit ends in China with plea for more influence". BBC News. 14 April 2011. Archived from the original on 2024-02-25. Retrieved 2011-10-24.
- ^ "EAS Participating Countries". East Asia Summit. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
- ^ "About APEC". Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation. September 2021. Archived from the original on 2024-03-21. Retrieved 2023-07-04.
- ^ "China says communication with other developing countries at Copenhagen summit transparent". People's Daily. 21 December 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-12-22. Retrieved 2019-01-31.
- ^ a b Drun, Jessica (28 December 2017). "One China, Multiple Interpretations". Center for Advanced China Research. Archived from the original on 2020-03-09. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
- ^ "Taiwan's Ma to stopover in US: report". Agence France-Presse. 12 January 2010. Archived from the original on 2015-09-09.
- ^ Macartney, Jane (1 February 2010). "China says US arms sales to Taiwan could threaten wider relations". The Times. Archived from the original on 2023-07-12. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ Hale, Erin (25 October 2021). "Taiwan taps on United Nations' door, 50 years after departure". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2023-01-29. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
- ^ Keith, Ronald C. China from the inside out – fitting the People's republic into the world. PlutoPress. pp. 135–136.
- ^ Timothy Webster (17 May 2013). "China's Human Rights Footprint in Africa". Case Western Reserve University School of Law. pp. 628 and 638. Archived from the original on 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Martel, William C. (29 June 2012). "An Authoritarian Axis Rising?". The Diplomat. Archived from the original on 2013-12-16.
- ^ Maria Siow (27 March 2021). "Could Myanmar's ethnic armed groups turn the tide against the junta, with a little help from Beijing?". South China Morning Post. Archived from the original on 2023-11-27. Retrieved 2023-11-27.
- ^ DAVID BREWSTER (8 November 2022). "How China, India and Bangladesh could be drawn into Myanmar's conflict". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 2024-02-24. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Davidson, Helen (16 March 2022). "How close are China and Russia and where does Beijing stand on Ukraine?". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2022-03-22. Retrieved 2023-01-11.
- ^ "Energy to dominate Russia President Putin's China visit". BBC News. 5 June 2012. Archived from the original on 2024-02-14. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ Gladstone, Rick (19 July 2012). "Friction at the U.N. as Russia and China Veto Another Resolution on Syria Sanctions". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2012-11-15.
- ^ "Xi Jinping: Russia-China ties 'guarantee world peace'". BBC News. 23 March 2013. Archived from the original on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2013-03-23.
- ^ Martin, Eric; Monteiro, Ana (7 February 2023). "US-China Goods Trade Hits Record Even as Political Split Widens". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2023-05-02. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ McLaughlin, Abraham (30 March 2005). "A rising China counters US clout in Africa". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on 2007-08-16. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ Lyman, Princeton (21 July 2005). "China's Rising Role in Africa". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2007-07-15. Retrieved 2007-06-26.
- ^ Politzer, Malia (6 August 2008). "China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration". Migration Policy Institute. Archived from the original on 2023-12-02. Retrieved 2013-01-26.
- ^ Timsit, Annabelle (15 February 2021). "China dethroned the US as Europe's top trade partner in 2020". Quartz. Archived from the original on 2023-10-02. Retrieved 2021-03-18.
- ^ Wolff, Stefan (24 May 2023). "How China is increasing its influence in central Asia as part of global plans to offer an alternative to the west". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Owen Greene; Christoph Bluth (9 February 2024). "China's increasing political influence in the south Pacific has sparked an international response". The Conversation. Archived from the original on 2024-03-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ "ASEAN Statistical Yearbook 2022" (PDF). ASEAN. December 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-05-16. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "The U.S. and China Are Battling for Influence in Latin America, and the Pandemic Has Raised the Stakes". Time. 4 February 2021. Archived from the original on 2024-03-23. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
- ^ Garrison, Cassandra (14 December 2020). "In Latin America, a Biden White House faces a rising China". Reuters. Archived from the original on 2023-11-08. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
- ^ Dollar, David (October 2020). "Seven years into China's Belt and Road". Brookings. Archived from the original on 2023-05-30. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
- ^ Cai, Peter. "Understanding China's Belt and Road Initiative". Lowy Institute. Archived from the original on 2022-09-01. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
- ^ Kynge, James; Sun, Yu (30 April 2020). "China faces wave of calls for debt relief on 'Belt and Road' projects". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2022-10-28.
- ^ Broadman, Harry G. (2007). Africa's Silk Road: China and India's New Economic Frontier. World Bank. hdl:10986/7186. ISBN 978-0-8213-6835-0. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- Wolf D. Hartmann; Wolfgang Maennig; Run Wang (2017). Chinas neue Seidenstraße Kooperation statt Isolation - der Rollentausch im Welthandel. Frankfurter Allgemeine Buch. p. 59. ISBN 978-3-9560-1224-2.
- Hernig, Marcus (2018). Die Renaissance der Seidenstrasse : der Weg des chinesischen Drachens ins Herz Europas. FinanzBuch Verlag (FBV). p. 112. ISBN 978-3-9597-2138-7.
- de Wilt, Harry (17 December 2019). "Is 'One Belt, One Road' a China Crisis for North Sea Main Ports?". World Cargo News. 17. Archived from the original on 2023-10-18. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
- Santevecchi, Guido (November 2019). "Di Maio e la Via della Seta: «Faremo i conti nel 2020», siglato accordo su Trieste". Corriere della Sera. 5. Archived from the original on 2023-10-18. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Maizland, Lindsay (5 February 2020). "China's Modernizing Military". Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on 2022-08-14. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
- ^ "Russia up in arms over Chinese theft of military technology". Nikkei Asia. Archived from the original on 2024-02-08. Retrieved 2024-02-01.
- ^ "Chinese Spy Sentenced to 20 Years for Trying to Steal US Aviation Trade Secrets". NBC New York. 17 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2024-02-01. Retrieved 2024-02-01.
- ^ "Office of Public Affairs | Chinese National Admits to Stealing Sensitive Military Program Documents From United Technologies | United States Department of Justice". www.justice.gov. 19 December 2016. Archived from the original on 2024-02-01. Retrieved 2024-02-01.
- ^ "Chinese PLA embraces a new system of services and arms: Defense spokesperson - China Military". eng.chinamil.com.cn. Archived from the original on 2024-04-20. Retrieved 2024-04-20.
- ^ "Which Countries Have the Most Nuclear Weapons?". Visual Capitalist. 30 September 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-08-10. Retrieved 2021-11-27.
- ^ "Chinese Nuclear Program". Atomic Heritage Foundation. 19 July 2018. Archived from the original on 2020-08-06. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Lendon, Brad (6 March 2021). "Analysis: China has built the world's largest navy. Now what's Beijing going to do with it?". CNN. Archived from the original on 2022-08-10. Retrieved 2022-08-14.
- ^ "Trends in Military Expenditure 2023" (PDF). Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. April 2024. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2024-05-15. Retrieved 2024-04-22.
- ^ "SIPRI Military Expenditure Database". Stockholm International Peace Research Institute. Archived from the original on 2022-11-08. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ "What China's New Central Military Commission Tells Us About Xi's Military Strategy". Asia Society. Archived from the original on 2022-12-21. Retrieved 2022-12-21.
- ^ a b "China". Amnesty International. Archived from the original on 2023-05-15. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ Sorman, Guy (2008). Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century. Encounter Books. pp. 46, 152. ISBN 978-1-5940-3284-4.
- ^ "China: Events of 2021". World Report 2022: China. Human Rights Watch. 2 December 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-05-17. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ "For China's LGBTQ community, safe spaces are becoming harder to find". NBC News. 13 June 2023. Archived from the original on 2024-01-19. Retrieved 2023-08-08.
- ^ King, Gary; Pan, Jennifer; Roberts, Margaret E. (May 2013). "How Censorship in China Allows Government Criticism but Silences Collective Expression" (PDF). American Political Science Review. 107 (2): 326–343. doi:10.1017/S0003055413000014. S2CID 53577293. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2015-03-06.
Our central theoretical finding is that, contrary to much research and commentary, the purpose of the censorship program is not to suppress criticism of the state or the Communist Party.
- ^ "Freedom on the Net: 2022". Freedom House. 2022. Archived from the original on 2023-01-23. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ Christian Göbel and Lynette H. Ong, "Social unrest in China." Long Briefing, Europe China Research and Academic Network (ECRAN) (2012) p 18 Archived 16 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine. Chatham House
- ^ Qian, Isabelle; Xiao, Muyi; Mozur, Paul; Cardia, Alexander (21 June 2022). "Four Takeaways From a Times Investigation Into China's Expanding Surveillance State". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ "Uighurs: 'Credible case' China carrying out genocide". BBC News. 8 February 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-02-08. Retrieved 2021-02-08.
- ^ Anna Morcom (June 2018). "The Political Potency of Tibetan Identity in Pop Music and Dunglen". Himalaya. 38. Royal Holloway, University of London. Archived from the original on 2021-10-02. Retrieved 2021-10-18.
- ^ "Dalai Lama hits out over burnings". BBC. 7 November 2011. Archived from the original on 2019-11-03. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Asat, Rayhan; Yonah Diamond (15 July 2020). "The World's Most Technologically Sophisticated Genocide Is Happening in Xinjiang". Foreign Policy. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ Hatton, Celia (27 June 2013). "China 'moves two million Tibetans'". BBC News. Archived from the original on 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2013-06-27.
- ^ "Fresh unrest hits China's Xinjiang". BBC News. 29 June 2013. Archived from the original on 2024-01-20. Retrieved 2013-06-29.
- ^ Graham-Harrison, Emma; Garside, Juliette (24 November 2019). "'Allow no escapes': leak exposes reality of China's vast prison camp network". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2024-03-14. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ Khatchadourian, Raffi (5 April 2021). "Surviving the Crackdown in Xinjiang". The New Yorker. Archived from the original on 2021-04-10. Retrieved 2023-03-19.
- ^ "China Suppression Of Uighur Minorities Meets U.N. Definition Of Genocide, Report Says". NPR. 4 July 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-10-19. Retrieved 2020-09-28.
- ^ Cumming-Bruce, Nick; Ramzy, Austin (31 August 2022). "U.N. Says China May Have Committed 'Crimes Against Humanity' in Xinjiang". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-09-01. Retrieved 2022-09-01.
- ^ "Hong Kong national security law: What is it and is it worrying?". BBC News. 28 June 2022. Archived from the original on 2020-05-28. Retrieved 2022-08-12.
- ^ "3. Middle East still home to highest levels of restrictions on religion, although levels have declined since 2016". Pew Research Center. 15 July 2019. Archived from the original on 2024-01-06. Retrieved 2024-01-06.
- ^ "3. Small changes in median scores for government restrictions, social hostilities involving religion in 2020". Pew Research Center. 29 November 2022. Archived from the original on 2024-01-06. Retrieved 2024-01-02.
- ^ "China". Global Slavery Index. 2016. Archived from the original on 2016-07-06. Retrieved 2018-03-13.
- ^ "Laogai Handbook: 2007–2008" (PDF). Laogai Research Foundation. 2008. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-12-25. Retrieved 2024-03-28.
- ^ "China sounds alarm over fast growing gap between rich and poor". Associated Press. 11 May 2002. Archived from the original on 2014-06-10. Retrieved 2013-02-01.
- ^ Zhao, Suisheng (2023). The dragon roars back: transformational leaders and dynamics of Chinese foreign policy. Stanford University Press. p. 163. ISBN 978-1-5036-3088-8.
- ^ Kollewe, Justin McCurry Julia (14 February 2011). "China overtakes Japan as world's second-largest economy". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2019-07-19. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
- ^ "GDP PPP (World Bank)". World Bank. 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-02-19. Retrieved 2019-02-18.
- ^ "World Economic Outlook Database, April 2023". International Monetary Fund. April 2023. Archived from the original on 2023-04-13. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "Overview". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
- ^ "GDP growth (annual %) – China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2022-05-31. Retrieved 2018-05-25.
- ^ "GDP (current US$) – China". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2019-09-06. Retrieved 2023-07-07.
- ^ "GDP PPP (World Bank)". World Bank. 2018. Archived from the original on 2019-09-02. Retrieved 2019-02-18.
- ^ "Global 500". Fortune Global 500. Archived from the original on 2023-01-16. Retrieved 2023-08-03.
- ^ Curtis, Simon; Klaus, Ian (2024). The Belt and Road City: Geopolitics, Urbanization, and China's Search for a New International Order. New Haven and London: Yale University Press. doi:10.2307/jj.11589102. ISBN 978-0-3002-6690-0. JSTOR jj.11589102.
- ^ Maddison, Angus (2007). Contours of the World Economy 1–2030 AD: Essays in Macro-Economic History. Oxford University Press. p. 379. ISBN 978-0-1916-4758-1.
- ^ "Angus Maddison. Chinese Economic Performance in the Long Run. Development Centre Studies" (PDF). p. 29. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2017-09-15.
- ^ "Top 10 Largest Stock Exchanges in the World By Market Capitalization". ValueWalk. 19 February 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-05-15. Retrieved 2019-11-28.
- ^ "China's Stock Market Tops $10 Trillion First Time Since 2015". Bloomberg L.P. 13 October 2020. Archived from the original on 2020-10-31. Retrieved 2020-10-28.
- ^ "The Global Financial Centres Index 28" (PDF). Long Finance. September 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2020-09-26.
- ^ "World Bank World Development Indicators". World Bank. Archived from the original on 2014-12-20. Retrieved 2014-12-08.
- ^ Pearson, Margaret; Rithmire, Meg; Tsai, Kellee S. (1 September 2021). "Party-State Capitalism in China". Current History. 120 (827): 207–213. doi:10.1525/curh.2021.120.827.207.
- ^ Pearson, Margaret M.; Rithmire, Meg; Tsai, Kellee S. (1 October 2022). "China's Party-State Capitalism and International Backlash: From Interdependence to Insecurity". International Security. 47 (2): 135–176. doi:10.1162/isec_a_00447.
- ^ John Lee. "Putting Democracy in China on Hold". The Center for Independent Studies. 26 July 2008. Retrieved 16 July 2013.
- ^ "China Is a Private-Sector Economy". Bloomberg Businessweek. 22 August 2005. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
- ^ "Microsoft Word – China2bandes.doc" (PDF). OECD. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-10-10. Retrieved 2010-04-27.
- ^ Hancock, Tom (30 March 2022). "China Crackdowns Shrink Private Sector's Slice of Big Business". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2024-03-28. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
- ^ Marsh, Peter (13 March 2011). "China noses ahead as top goods producer". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ Levinson, Marc (21 February 2018). "U.S. Manufacturing in International Perspective" (PDF). Federation of American Scientists. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
- ^ "Report – S&E Indicators 2018". nsf.gov. Archived from the original on 2023-09-23. Retrieved 2019-07-08.
- ^ Shane, Daniel (23 January 2019). "China will overtake the US as the world's biggest retail market this year". CNN. Archived from the original on 2024-04-25. Retrieved 2019-02-18.
- ^ Cameron, Isabel (9 August 2022). "China continues to lead global ecommerce market with over $2 trillion sales in 2022". Charged. Archived from the original on 2023-12-02. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
- ^ Baraniuk, Chris (11 October 2022). "China's electric car market is booming but can it last?". BBC News. Retrieved 2023-04-13.
- ^ "China Dominates the Global Lithium Battery Market". Institute for Energy Research. 9 September 2020. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
- ^ a b "UNWTO World Tourism Barometer and Statistical Annex, December 2020 | World Tourism Organization". UNWTO World Tourism Barometer (English Version). 18 (7): 1–36. 18 December 2020. doi:10.18111/wtobarometereng.2020.18.1.7.
- ^ Liang, Xinlu (19 August 2021). "How has China's travel industry been hurt by the coronavirus pandemic, and when will tourism recover?". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ a b Shorrocks, Anthony; Davies, James; Lluberas, Rodrigo (2022). Global Wealth Databook 2022 (PDF). Credit Suisse Research Institute.
- ^ "China lifting 800 million people out of poverty is historic: World Bank". Business Standard India. Press Trust of India. 13 October 2017. Retrieved 2019-02-22.
- ^ Four Decades of Poverty Reduction in China: Drivers, Insights for the World, and the Way Ahead. World Bank Publications. 2022. p. ix. ISBN 978-1-4648-1878-3.
By any measure, the speed and scale of China's poverty reduction is historically unprecedented.
- ^ "Is China Succeeding at Eradicating Poverty?". Center for Strategic and International Studies. 23 October 2020. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
- ^ a b Bergsten, C. Fred (2022). The United States vs. China: The Quest for Global Economic Leadership. Polity Press. ISBN 978-1-5095-4735-7.
- ^ "Rising Wages: Has China Lost Its Global Labor Advantage?". iza.org. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
- ^ King, Stephen (2 February 2016). "China's path to tackling regional inequality". Financial Times.
- ^ Duggan, Jennifer (12 January 2013). "Income inequality on the rise in China". Al Jazeera. Archived from the original on 2013-07-22. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
- ^ Tobin, Damian (29 June 2011). "Inequality in China: Rural poverty persists as urban wealth balloons". BBC News. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
- ^ "Just how Dickensian is China?". The Economist. 2 October 2021. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ "Forbes World's Billionaires List: The Richest People in the World 2023". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ Khan, Yusuf (22 October 2019). "China has overtaken the US to have the most wealthy people in the world | Markets Insider". Business Insider. Retrieved 2019-11-12.[permanent dead link]
- ^ Dawkins, David (21 October 2019). "China Overtakes U.S. In Global Household Wealth Rankings 'Despite' Trade Tensions – Report". Forbes. Retrieved 2019-11-12.
- ^ Chen, Qin (27 March 2021). "China is now home to two-thirds of the world's top women billionaires, four times more than the US, Hurun research institute reveals". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2021-03-28.
- ^ Zheping, Huang (14 October 2015). "China's middle class has overtaken the US's to become the world's largest". Quartz. Retrieved 2019-06-22.
- ^ Zuo, Mandy (3 March 2024). "China's middle-income population passes 500 million mark, state-owned newspaper says". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ He, Laura (13 January 2023). "China's exports plunge as global demand weakens, but trade with Russia hits record high". CNN. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
- ^ Desjardins, Jeff (27 April 2016). "Four Maps Showing China's Rising Dominance in Trade". Visual Capitalist. Retrieved 2019-12-04.
- ^ Monaghan, Angela (10 January 2014). "China surpasses US as world's largest trading nation". The Guardian. Retrieved 2019-12-04.
- ^ Paris, Costas (27 April 2021). "China's Imports of Commodities Drive a Boom in Dry-Bulk Shipping". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2021-04-29.
- ^ "China forex reserves rise to $3.246 trln in March". Reuters. 7 April 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "China Foreign Investment Posts Record Slump as Covid Zero Ended". Bloomberg News. 19 January 2023. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ "With $87 billion, India beats China as top remittance recipient in 2021". India Today. 21 July 2022. Retrieved 2023-05-15.
- ^ Chow, Loletta (5 February 2024). "Overview of China outbound investment of 2023". Ernst & Young. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "Being eaten by the dragon". The Economist. 11 November 2010.
- ^ He, Laura (4 June 2021). "China's stronger currency means difficult choices for Beijing". CNN Business. CNN. Retrieved 2022-07-27.
- ^ "Intellectual Property Rights" (PDF). Asia Business Council. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. September 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-03-26. Retrieved 2012-01-13.
- ^ "MIT CIS: Publications: Foreign Policy Index". MIT Center for International Studies. Archived from the original on 2007-02-14. Retrieved 2010-05-15.
- ^ "China theft of technology is biggest law enforcement threat to US, FBI says". The Guardian. 6 February 2020. Retrieved 2022-12-19.
- ^ Hancock, Tom (26 January 2023). "The US Hasn't Noticed That China-Made Cars Are Taking Over the World". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ Huang, Yukon (Fall 2013). "Does Internationalizing the RMB Make Sense for China?" (PDF). Cato Journal. Retrieved 2014-07-28.
- ^ Kawate, Iori (23 December 2023). "China's yuan rises to 4th most used currency in global settlements". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "RMB now 8th most widely traded currency in the world". Society for Worldwide Interbank Financial Telecommunication. Archived from the original on 2015-11-05. Retrieved 2013-10-10.
- ^ Tom (1989), 99; Day & McNeil (1996), 122; Needham (1986e), 1–2, 40–41, 122–123, 228.
- ^ "In Our Time: Negative Numbers". BBC News. 9 March 2006. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
- ^ Struik, Dirk J. (1987). A Concise History of Mathematics. New York: Dover Publications. pp. 32–33. "In these matrices we find negative numbers, which appear here for the first time in history."
- ^ Chinese Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science and Technology. Vol. 179. Kluwer Academic Publishers. 1996. pp. 137–138. ISBN 978-0-7923-3463-7.
- ^ Frank, Andre (2001). "Review of The Great Divergence". Journal of Asian Studies. 60 (1): 180–182. doi:10.2307/2659525. JSTOR 2659525.
- ^ Yu, Q. Y. (1999). The Implementation of China's Science and Technology Policy. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 2. ISBN 978-1-5672-0332-5.
- ^ Vogel, Ezra F. (2011). Deng Xiaoping and the Transformation of China. Harvard University Press. p. 129. ISBN 978-0-6740-5544-5.
- ^ DeGlopper, Donald D. (1987). "Soviet Influence in the 1950s". China: a country study. Library of Congress.
- ^ Jia, Hepeng (9 September 2014). "R&D share for basic research in China dwindles". Chemistry World. Archived from the original on 2015-02-19. Retrieved 2020-01-21.
- ^ Normile, Dennis (10 October 2018). "Surging R&D spending in China narrows gap with United States". Science. Retrieved 2019-02-20.
- ^ "China Has Surpassed the U.S. in R&D Spending, According to New National Academy of Arts and Sciences Report – ASME". asme.org. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
- ^ "China's R&D expenditure exceeds 3.3 trln yuan in 2023: minister". State Council of the People's Republic of China. 5 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (2021). Global Innovation Index 2021: Tracking Innovation Through the COVID-19 Crisis (14th ed.). World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.44315. ISBN 978-9-2805-3249-4.
- ^ "World Intellectual Property Indicators: Filings for Patents, Trademarks, Industrial Designs Reach Record Heights in 2018". wipo.int. Retrieved 2020-05-10.
- ^ "China Becomes Top Filer of International Patents in 2019". wipo.int. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
- ^ World Intellectual Property Organization (2024). Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship (PDF). Geneva. p. 18. doi:10.34667/tind.50062. ISBN 978-92-805-3681-2. Retrieved 2024-10-01.
{{cite book}}:|website=ignored (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Dutta, Soumitra; Lanvin, Bruno; Wunsch-Vincent, Sacha; León, Lorena Rivera; World Intellectual Property Organization (2022). Global Innovation Index 2022: What Is the Future of Innovation Driven Growth?. Global Innovation Index (15th ed.). World Intellectual Property Organization. doi:10.34667/tind.46596. ISBN 978-9-2805-3432-0. Retrieved 2022-09-29.
- ^ "Global Innovation Index". INSEAD Knowledge. 28 October 2013. Archived from the original on 2021-09-02. Retrieved 2021-09-02.
- ^ "China retakes supercomputer crown". BBC News. 17 June 2013. Retrieved 2013-06-18.
- ^ Zhu, Julie (14 December 2022). "Exclusive: China readying $143 billion package for its chip firms in face of U.S. curbs". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-12-23.
- ^ Day, Lewin (28 July 2020). "80 Years From Invention, China Is Struggling With Jet Engines". HackADay Insider.
- ^ Colvin, Geoff (29 July 2010). "Desperately seeking math and science majors". CNN Business. Archived from the original on 2010-10-17. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
- ^ Orszag, Peter R. (12 September 2018). "China is Overtaking the U.S. in Scientific Research". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2019-02-20. Retrieved 2019-02-19.
- ^ Tollefson, Jeff (18 January 2018). "China declared world's largest producer of scientific articles". Nature. 553 (7689): 390. Bibcode:2018Natur.553..390T. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-00927-4.
- ^ Koshikawa, Noriaki (8 August 2020). "China passes US as world's top researcher, showing its R&D might". Nikkei Asia. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
- ^ Baker, Simon (19 May 2023). "China overtakes United States on contribution to research in Nature Index". Nature. doi:10.1038/d41586-023-01705-7. PMID 37208516.
- ^ Hawkins, Amy (24 May 2023). "China overtakes US in contributions to nature and science journals". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-09-23.
- ^ Long, Wei (25 April 2000). "China Celebrates 30th Anniversary of First Satellite Launch". Space daily. Archived from the original on 2016-05-15.
- ^ Amos, Jonathan (29 September 2011). "Rocket launches Chinese space lab". BBC News. Retrieved 2012-05-20.
- ^ Rincon, Paul (14 December 2013). "China lands Jade Rabbit robot rover on Moon". BBC News. Retrieved 2014-07-26.
- ^ Lyons, Kate. "Chang'e 4 landing: China probe makes historic touchdown on far side of the moon". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 2019-01-03. Retrieved 2019-01-03.
- ^ "Moon rock samples brought to Earth for first time in 44 years". The Christian Science Monitor. 17 December 2020. Retrieved 2021-02-23.
- ^ "China succeeds on country's first Mars landing attempt with Tianwen-1". NASASpaceFlight.com. 15 May 2021. Retrieved 2021-05-15.
- ^ China 'N Asia Spaceflight [@CNSpaceflight] (3 November 2022). "Official completion time of #Mengtian relocation is 01:32UTC" (Tweet). Retrieved 2022-11-03 – via Twitter.
- ^ Skibba, Ramin. "China Is Now a Major Space Power". Wired. Retrieved 2022-11-04.
- ^ "Celestial second fiddle no more, China completes its space station". Washington Post. Retrieved 2022-11-24.
- ^ "Chinese astronauts meet in space for historic crew handover". Spaceflight Now. Retrieved 2022-12-16.
- ^ Woo, Ryan; Liangping, Gao (30 November 2022). "Chinese astronauts board space station in historic mission". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-12-16.
- ^ Wang, Vivian (29 May 2023). "China Announces Plan to Land Astronauts on Moon by 2030". The New York Times.
- ^ Jones, Andrew (6 March 2022). "China wants its new rocket for astronaut launches to be reusable". Space.com. Retrieved 2023-10-05.
- ^ Jones, Andrew (17 July 2023). "China sets out preliminary crewed lunar landing plan". spacenews.com. Retrieved 2023-07-24.
- ^ Jones, Andrew [@AJ_FI] (25 April 2023). "China's Chang'e-6 sample return mission (a first ever lunar far side sample-return) is scheduled to launch in May 2024, and expected to take 53 days from launch to return module touchdown. Targeting southern area of Apollo basin (~43º S, 154º W)" (Tweet) – via Twitter.
- ^ Jones, Andrew (10 January 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 probe arrives at spaceport for first-ever lunar far side sample mission". SpaceNews. Retrieved 2024-01-10.
- ^ Jones, Andrew (6 May 2024). "China's Chang'e-6 is carrying a surprise rover to the moon". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on 2024-05-08. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
- ^ Jones, Andrew (1 June 2024). "Chang'e-6 lands on far side of the moon to collect unique lunar samples". SpaceNews. Retrieved 2024-06-01.
- ^ Yu, Seger [@SegerYu] (1 June 2024). "落月时刻 2024-06-02 06:23:15.861" (Tweet) (in Chinese) – via Twitter.
- ^ Qu, Hongbin. "China's infrastructure builds foundation for growth". HSBC. Archived from the original on 2022-05-28. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
- ^ "China has built the world's largest bullet-train network". The Economist. 13 January 2017. Retrieved 2020-09-13.
- ^ "Countries or Jurisdictions Ranked by Number of 150m+ Completed Buildings". The Skyscraper Center. Retrieved 2020-11-30.
- ^ "Three Gorges Dam: The World's Largest Hydroelectric Plant". United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
- ^ Gao, Ryan Woo (12 June 2020). "China set to complete Beidou network rivalling GPS in global navigation". Reuters. Retrieved 2020-12-01.
- ^ "The 50th Statistical Report on China's Internet Development". CNNIC. August 2023.
- ^ "China Internet Overview". China Internet Watch. 29 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "China breaks 1B 4G subscriber mark". Mobile World Live. 22 January 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
- ^ Woyke, Elizabeth. "China is racing ahead in 5G. Here's what that means". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
- ^ Zuo, Mandy (29 March 2024). "China's 5G market set to expand, fuel economic growth as tech solidifies status as pillar industry". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "Blog: China operator H1 2018 scorecard". Mobile World Live. 21 August 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
- ^ "China ranked in top 5 for 4G penetration". TechNode. 8 November 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-23.
- ^ Engleman, Eric (8 October 2012). "Huawei, ZTE Provide Opening for China Spying, Report Says". Bloomberg News. Retrieved 2012-10-26.
- ^ "China's Beidou GPS-substitute opens to public in Asia". BBC News. 27 December 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-27.
- ^ "China Is Building a $9 Billion Rival to the American-Run GPS". Bloomberg News. 26 November 2018. Retrieved 2019-02-21.
- ^ Elmer, Keegan (3 August 2020). "China promises state support to keep BeiDou satellite system at cutting edge". South China Morning Post. Retrieved 2020-08-22.
- ^ "多我国高速公路通车里程稳居世界第一" [China's expressway mileage ranks first in the world]. State Council of the People's Republic of China. 23 November 2023. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "China overtakes US as world's biggest car market". The Guardian. 8 January 2010. Retrieved 2023-06-07.
- ^ Ho, Patricia Jiayi (12 January 2010). "China Overtakes U.S. to Become Largest Auto Market". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
- ^ Harley, Michael. "China Overtakes Japan As The World's Biggest Exporter Of Passenger Cars". Forbes. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
- ^ "China overtakes Japan as world's top car exporter". BBC News. 19 May 2023. Retrieved 2023-06-06.
- ^ "Road Traffic Accidents Increase Dramatically Worldwide". Population Reference Bureau. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
- ^ "China has 200 million bicycles in use: industry association". China Daily. 17 September 2023. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ "Chinese Railways Carry Record Passengers, Freight". Xinhua. 21 June 2007.
- ^ "中国国家铁路集团有限公司2023年统计公报" [China State Railway Group Co., Ltd. Statistical Bulletin 2023] (in Chinese). 1 March 2024. Archived from the original on 2024-04-08. Retrieved 2024-04-08.
- ^ "China's trains desperately overcrowded for Lunar New Year". The Seattle Times. 22 January 2009.
- ^ "China's operating high-speed railway hits 45,000 km". People's Daily. 9 April 2024. Retrieved 2024-04-22.
- ^ 陈子琰. "China's railways report 3.57b passenger trips in 2019". China Daily. Retrieved 2021-03-10.
- ^ "China opens world's longest high-speed rail route". BBC. 26 December 2012. Retrieved 2012-12-26.
- ^ Jones, Ben (7 December 2022). "Flying without wings: The world's fastest trains". CNN Travel. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ Areddy, James T. (10 November 2013). "China's Building Push Goes Underground". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2013-11-16.
- ^ "China's urban rail transit trips skyrocket 130% in December 2023". China Daily. 13 January 2024. Retrieved 2024-05-21.
- ^ Du, Harry (26 September 2018). "How is Commercial Aviation Propelling China's Economic Development?". ChinaPower Project. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
- ^ "China adds 43 civil transport airports in 5 years". State Council of the People's Republic of China. 18 February 2021. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "China's Global Network of Shipping Ports Reveal Beijing's Strategy". VOA. 13 September 2021. Retrieved 2022-09-15.
- ^ "The Top 50 Container Ports". World Shipping Council. Washington, D.C. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
- ^ "Waterways – The World Factbook". The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. Retrieved 2022-07-14.
- ^ Hook, Leslie (14 May 2013). "China: High and dry: Water shortages put a brake on economic growth". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2013-05-15.
- ^ "Website of the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation" (PDF). JMP (WHO and UNICEF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 14 February 2016.
- ^ Freeman, Carla. "Quenching the Dragon's Thirst: The South-North Water Transfer Project—Old Plumbing for New China?" (PDF). Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ a b c d e "Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 2)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 11 May 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-05-11. Retrieved 2021-05-11.
- ^ Kızlak, Kamuran (21 June 2021). "Çin'de üç çocuk: Siz yapın, biz bakalım" [Three children in China: You do it, we'll see]. BirGün (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 2022-08-16.
- ^ "China formalizes easing of one-child policy". USA Today. 28 December 2013. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ a b Birtles, Bill (31 May 2021). "China introduces three-child policy to alleviate problem of ageing population". ABC News. Retrieved 2021-05-31.
- ^ Cheng, Evelyn (21 July 2021). "China scraps fines, will let families have as many children as they'd like". CNBC. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ^ Qi, Liyan (19 August 2023). "China's Fertility Rate Dropped Sharply, Study Shows". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2023-12-12.
- ^ Ng, Kelly (17 January 2023). "China's population falls for first time since 1961". BBC News. Retrieved 2023-01-17.
- ^ Feng, Wang; Yong, Cai; Gu, Baochang (2012). "Population, Policy, and Politics: How Will History Judge China's One-Child Policy?" (PDF). Population and Development Review. 38: 115–129. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4457.2013.00555.x. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2019-06-06. Retrieved 2018-05-16.
- ^ Whyte, Martin K.; Wang, Feng; Cai, Yong (2015). "Challenging Myths about China's One-Child Policy" (PDF). The China Journal. 74: 144–159. doi:10.1086/681664. PMC 6701844. PMID 31431804. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
- ^ Goodkind, Daniel (2017). "The Astonishing Population Averted by China's Birth Restrictions: Estimates, Nightmares, and Reprogrammed Ambitions". Demography. 54 (4): 1375–1400. doi:10.1007/s13524-017-0595-x. PMID 28762036. S2CID 13656899.
- ^ Parry, Simon (9 January 2005). "Shortage of girls forces China to criminalize selective abortion". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 2022-01-10. Retrieved 2012-10-22.
- ^ "Chinese facing shortage of wives". BBC News. 12 January 2007. Retrieved 2009-03-23.
- ^ "Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 4)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 11 May 2021. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "Chinese mainland gender ratios most balanced since 1950s: census data". Xinhua News Agency. 20 October 2011. Archived from the original on 2011-09-11. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
- ^ The Chinese Adoption Effect by Diane Clehane, Vanity Fair, August 2008 Issue. Last access 31 August 2024.
- ^ Adoption in China: Past, Present and Yet to Come by Margaret Gyznar, Georgia Journal of International and Comparative Law, 17 May 2017. See pages 40–42. Last access 31 August 2024.
- ^ "Urban population (% of total)". World Bank. Retrieved 2018-05-28.
- ^ "Where China's future will happen". The Economist. 16 April 2014. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
- ^ "Statistical communiqué of the People's Republic of China on the 2023 national economic and social development". National Bureau of Statistics of China. Retrieved 2024-03-07.
- ^ FlorCruz, Jaime A. (20 January 2012). "China's urban explosion: A 21st century challenge". CNN. Retrieved 2015-02-18.
- ^ Wong, Maggie Hiufu. "Megacities and more: A guide to China's most impressive urban centers". CNN. Retrieved 2020-10-26.
- ^ 张洁. "Chongqing, Chengdu top new first-tier cities by population". China Daily. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ "17 Chinese cities have a population of over 10 million in 2021". www.ecns.cn. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
- ^ 孙迟. "China's inland rides waves of innovation, new opportunities". global.chinadaily.com.cn. Retrieved 2022-05-31.
Chengdu and Chongqing are now two of the only four cities (the other two are Beijing and Shanghai) in China with populations of more than 20 million.
- ^ Demographia (March 2013). Demographia World Urban Areas (PDF) (9th ed.). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2013-05-01.
- ^ OECD Urban Policy Reviews: China 2015. OECD. 18 April 2015. p. 37. doi:10.1787/9789264230040-en. ISBN 978-9-2642-3003-3.
- ^ 2015年重庆常住人口3016.55万人 继续保持增长态势 (in Chinese). Chongqing News. 28 January 2016. Archived from the original on 29 January 2016. Retrieved 13 February 2016.
- ^ Francesco Sisci. "China's floating population a headache for census". The Straits Times. 22 September 2000.
- ^ Ministry of Housing and Urban-Rural Development of the People's Republic of China(MOHURD) (2021). 中国城市建设统计年鉴2020 [China Urban Construction Statistical Yearbook 2018] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Statistic Publishing House.
- ^ August 2018 (PDF). Hong Kong Monthly Digest of Statistics (Report). Census and Statistics Department. August 2018. p. 4.
- ^ Chongqing Statistics Bureau (2019). 重庆统计年鉴2019 [Chongqing Statistical Yearbook 2019] (in Chinese). Beijing: China Statistic Publishing House. p. 613. ISBN 978-7-5037-8854-3.
- ^ Lilly, Amanda (7 July 2009). "A Guide to China's Ethnic Groups". The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 2013-12-09. Retrieved 2023-05-19.
- ^ China's Geography: Globalization and the Dynamics of Political, Economic, and Social Change. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. 2011. p. 102. ISBN 978-0-7425-6784-9.
- ^ Zhang, Bo; Druijven, Peter; Strijker, Dirk (17 September 2017). "A tale of three cities: negotiating ethnic identity and acculturation in northwest China". Journal of Cultural Geography. 35 (1). University of Groningen: 44–74. doi:10.1080/08873631.2017.1375779. ISSN 0887-3631.
The major Muslim groups in Linxia are the Hui and the Dongxiang, accounting for 31.6% and 26.0% of the population, respectively, while the Han group makes up 39.7% (The Sixth National Census).
- ^ "Ecosystem services and management of Long Forest created by Dai Indigenous People in Xishuangbanna, China". Open Case Studies. University of British Columbia. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
- ^ "Communiqué of the Seventh National Population Census (No. 8)". National Bureau of Statistics of China. 11 May 2021. Retrieved 2023-04-22.
- ^ Languages of China – from Lewis, M. Paul (ed.), 2009. Ethnologue: Languages of the World, Sixteenth edition. Dallas, TX: SIL International.
- ^ Zhao, E'nuo; Wu, Yue (16 October 2020). "Over 80 percent of Chinese population speak Mandarin". People's Daily. Retrieved 2023-09-15.
- ^ Kaplan, Robert B.; Baldauf, Richard B. (2008). Language Planning and Policy in Asia: Japan, Nepal, Taiwan and Chinese characters. Multilingual Matters. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-8476-9095-1.
- ^ 中国语言地图集 [Language Atlas of China]. Vol. 1: Dialects (2nd ed.). Beijing: Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, City University of Hong Kong. 2012 [1987]. p. 8. ISBN 978-7-100-07054-6.
- ^ Li Yang (17 November 2015). "Yugur people and Sunan Yugur autonomous county". China Daily. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
- ^ "Languages". 2005. Government of China. Retrieved 31 May 2015.
- ^ Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No. 37). Central People's Government of the People's Republic of China. 31 October 2000. Archived from the original on 2013-07-24. Retrieved 2013-06-21.
For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.
- ^ Dwyer, Arienne M. (2005). The Xinjiang Conflict: Uyghur Identity, Language Policy, and Political Discourse. East-West Center Washington. pp. 43–44. ISBN 978-1-9327-2828-6.
- ^ Dumortier, Brigitte (2002). "Religions en Chine" (Map). Atlas des religions. Croyances, pratiques et territoires. Atlas/Monde (in French). Autrement. p. 34. ISBN 2-7467-0264-9. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27.
- ^ "Religions in China" (Map). Narody Vostochnoi Asii [Ethnic Groups of East Asia]. 1965. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27. Zhongguo Minsu Dili [Folklore Geography of China], 1999; Zhongguo Dili [Geography of China], 2002.
- ^ Gao, Wende, ed. (1995). "Religions in China" (Map). 中国少数民族史大辞典 [Chinese Dictionary of Minorities' History] (in Chinese). Jilin Education Press. Archived from the original on 2017-04-27.
- ^ Xin Haishan (殷海山); Li Yaozong (李耀宗); Guo Jie (郭洁), eds. (1991). "Religions in China" (Map). 中国少数民族艺术词典 [Chinese Minorities' Arts Dictionary] (in Chinese). National Publishing House (民族出版社). Archived from the original on 2017-04-27.
- ^ 国家宗教事务局 [National Religious Affairs Administration] (in Chinese). Chinese Government.
- ^ a b Yao, Xinzhong (2010). Chinese Religion: A Contextual Approach. London: A&C Black. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-1-8470-6475-2.
- ^ Miller, James (2006). Chinese Religions in Contemporary Societies. ABC-CLIO. p. 57. ISBN 978-1-8510-9626-8.
- ^ Tam Wai Lun, "Local Religion in Contemporary China", in Xie, Zhibin (2006). Religious Diversity and Public Religion in China. Ashgate. p. 73. ISBN 978-0-7546-5648-7.
- ^ Teiser, Stephen F. (1996). "The Spirits of Chinese Religion" (PDF). In Lopez, Donald S. Jr. (ed.). Religions of China in Practice. Princeton University Press. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09 – via Asia for Educators Online, Columbia University.. Extracts in The Chinese Cosmos: Basic Concepts.
- ^ a b Laliberté, André (2011). "Religion and the State in China: The Limits of Institutionalization". Journal of Current Chinese Affairs. 40 (2): 7. doi:10.1177/186810261104000201. S2CID 30608910.
- ^ Sautman, Barry (1997). "Myths of Descent, Racial Nationalism and Ethnic Minorities in the People's Republic of China". In Dikötter, Frank (ed.). The Construction of Racial Identities in China and Japan: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives. University of Hawaiʻi Press. pp. 80–81. ISBN 978-9-6220-9443-7.
- ^ Wang, Xiaoxuan (2019). "'Folk Belief', Cultural Turn of Secular Governance and Shifting Religious Landscape in Contemporary China". In Dean, Kenneth; Van der Veer, Peter (eds.). The Secular in South, East, and Southeast Asia. Global Diversities. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 137–164. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-89369-3_7. ISBN 978-3-0300-7751-8. S2CID 158975292.
- ^ Johnson, Ian (21 December 2019). "China's New Civil Religion". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2020-04-19.
- ^ Ashiwa, Yoshiko; Wank, David L. (2020). The Chinese State's Global Promotion of Buddhism (PDF) (Report). The Geopolitics of Religious Soft Power. Berkley Center, Georgetown University. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2021-02-16.
- ^ Adler, Joseph A. (2011). The Heritage of Non-Theistic Belief in China (PDF). Toward a Reasonable World: The Heritage of Western Humanism, Skepticism, and Freethought. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09.
- ^ Broy, Nikolas (2015). "Syncretic Sects and Redemptive Societies. Toward a New Understanding of 'Sectarianism' in the Study of Chinese Religions" (PDF). Review of Religion and Chinese Society. 2 (4): 158. doi:10.2307/2059958. JSTOR 2059958. S2CID 162946271.
- ^ "Menjumpai etnis Yugur di atas ketinggian 3.830 mdpl puncak Bars Snow". Antara News (in Indonesian). 10 June 2021. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
Bedanya lagi, Yugur memeluk agama Buddha Tibet, sedangkan Uighur beragama Islam. Konon, Yugur merupakan orang-orang Uighur yang beragama Buddha yang melarikan diri ke Gansu sejak Kerajaan Khaganate Uighur tumbang pada tahun 840 Masehi.
- ^ Cite error: The named reference
:2was invoked but never defined (see the help page). - ^ "Peking University". Times Higher Education (THE). 18 September 2020. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ^ "Overall Ranking, Best Chinese Universities Rankings – 2019". shanghairanking.com. Archived from the original on 2020-03-30. Retrieved 2020-12-09.
- ^ "Compulsory Education Law of the People's Republic of China". Ministry of Education. 23 July 2009. Archived from the original on 2022-03-19. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ "Statistical report on China's educational achievements in 2022". Ministry of Education. 3 April 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
- ^ "Zheng Yali: vocational education entering a new development stage". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 23 March 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-01-28. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ "MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 4 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- ^ "China Case Study: Situation Analysis of the Effect of and Response to COVID-19 in Asia" (PDF). UNICEF. August 2021. p. 21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-10-09. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ "MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 4 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- ^ "In Education, China Takes the Lead". The New York Times. 16 January 2013. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ "MOE releases 2020 Statistical Bulletin on Educational Spending". Ministry of Education. 7 May 2021. Archived from the original on 2023-03-21. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ Roberts, Dexter (4 April 2013). "Chinese Education: The Truth Behind the Boasts". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2013-04-06. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
- ^ Galtung, Marte Kjær; Stenslie, Stig (2014). 49 Myths about China. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 189. ISBN 978-1-4422-3622-6.
- ^ "Literacy rate, adult total (% of people ages 15 and above) - China". World Bank. Retrieved 2022-10-04.
- ^ "MOE press conference presents China's educational achievements in 2023". Ministry of Education of the People's Republic of China. 4 March 2024. Retrieved 2024-03-23.
- ^ Zou, Shuo (3 December 2020). "China's higher education system is world's largest, officials say". China Daily. Retrieved 2021-11-03.
- ^ "ShanghaiRanking's Academic Ranking of World Universities 2023 Press Release". ShanghaiRanking. 15 August 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
- ^ "U.S. News Unveils 2022–2023 Best Global Universities Rankings". U.S. News & World Report. 25 October 2022. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
- ^ "Country Analysis | Aggregate Ranking of Top Universities 2023". UNSW Research. Retrieved 2023-12-26.
- ^ "World University Rankings 2023". Times Higher Education World University Rankings. 4 October 2022. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "QS World University Rankings 2023: Top Global Universities". Top Universities. Retrieved 2022-06-09.
- ^ "Eastern stars: Universities of China's C9 League excel in select fields". Times Higher Education World University Rankings. 17 February 2011. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "What we do". National Health Commission. Retrieved 2023-12-17.
- ^ "Peking University of Health Sciences". 14 December 2015. Retrieved 2023-06-09.
- ^ Lawrence, Dune; Liu, John (22 January 2009). "China's $124 Billion Health-Care Plan Aims to Boost Consumption". Bloomberg News. Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ Liu, Yuanli (1 November 2011). "China's Health Care Reform: Far From Sufficient". The New York Times. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ "The great medicines migration". Nikkei Asia. 5 April 2022. Archived from the original on 2024-09-29. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ Li, David Daokui (2024). China's World View: Demystifying China to Prevent Global Conflict. New York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-3932-9239-8.
- ^ "Mortality rate, infant (per 1,000 live births) – China". World Bank. Retrieved 2013-10-28.
- ^ "Life expectancy increases by 44 years from 1949 in China's economic powerhouse Guangdong". People's Daily. 4 October 2009.
- ^ "China's Infant Mortality Rate Down". 11 September 2001. China.org.cn. Retrieved 3 May 2006.
- ^ Stone, R. (2012). "Despite Gains, Malnutrition Among China's Rural Poor Sparks Concern". Science. 336 (6080): 402. doi:10.1126/science.336.6080.402. PMID 22539691.
- ^ McGregor, Richard (2 July 2007). "750,000 a year killed by Chinese pollution". Financial Times. Archived from the original on 2022-12-10. Retrieved 2007-07-22.
- ^ Tatlow, Didi Kirsten (10 June 2010). "China's Tobacco Industry Wields Huge Power". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2020-01-16.
- ^ "Serving the people?". 1999. Bruce Kennedy. CNN. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "Obesity Sickening China's Young Hearts". 4 August 2000. People's Daily. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ Wong, Edward (1 April 2013). "Air Pollution Linked to 1.2 Million Premature Deaths in China". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 2022-01-01. Retrieved 2020-01-14.
- ^ "Chinese mental health services falling short: report". China Plus. 25 February 2019.
- ^ "China's latest SARS outbreak has been contained, but biosafety concerns remain". 18 May 2004. World Health Organization. Retrieved 17 April 2006.
- ^ "The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) – China, 2020" (PDF). China CDC Weekly. 2: 1–10. 20 February 2020. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-02-22 – via Chinese Center for Disease Control and Prevention.
- ^ Novel Coronavirus Pneumonia Emergency Response Epidemiology Team (17 February 2020). "The Epidemiological Characteristics of an Outbreak of 2019 Novel Coronavirus Diseases (COVID-19) in China". China CDC Weekly 中华流行病学杂志 (in Chinese). 41 (2): 145–151. doi:10.3760/cma.j.issn.0254-6450.2020.02.003. PMID 32064853. S2CID 211133882.
- ^ Che, Chang; Chien, Amy Chang; Stevenson, Alexandra (7 December 2022). "What Has Changed About China's 'Zero Covid' Policy". The New York Times.
- ^ "China abandons key parts of zero-Covid strategy after protests". BBC News. 7 December 2022. Retrieved 2023-06-30.
- ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Temple of Heaven: an Imperial Sacrificial Altar in Beijing". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2023-02-18.
- ^ Bader, Jeffrey A. (6 September 2005). "China's Role in East Asia: Now and the Future". Brookings Institution. Retrieved 2023-05-16.
- ^ China: Understanding Its Past. University of Hawaii Press. 1997. p. 29.
- ^ Jacques, Martin (19 October 2012). "A Point of View: What kind of superpower could China be?". BBC News. Retrieved 2012-10-21.
- ^ "Historical and Contemporary Exam-driven Education Fever in China" (PDF). KEDI Journal of Educational Policy. 2 (1): 17–33. 2005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2015-03-01.
- ^ Centre, UNESCO World Heritage. "Fenghuang Ancient City". UNESCO World Heritage Centre. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
- ^ ""China: Traditional arts". Library of Congress – Country Studies". Library of Congress Country Studies. July 1987. Archived from the original on 2005-02-26. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
- ^ "China: Cultural life: The arts". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
- ^ "China: Folk and Variety Arts". Library of Congress Country Studies. July 1987. Archived from the original on 2004-11-14. Retrieved 2011-11-01.
- ^ Kuo, Lily (13 March 2013). "Why China is letting 'Django Unchained' slip through its censorship regime". Quartz. Archived from the original on 2013-05-14. Retrieved 2013-07-12.
- ^ Goodrich, L. Carrington (2007). A Short History of the Chinese People (Third ed.). Sturgis Press. ISBN 978-1-4067-6976-0.
- ^ Formichi, Chiara (2013). Religious pluralism, state and society in Asia. Routledge. ISBN 978-1-1345-7542-8.
- ^ Robin W. Winks; Alaine M. Low (2001). Historiography. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-1915-4241-1.
- ^ a b Cartwright, Mark. "Ancient Chinese Architecture". World History Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2023-02-19.
- ^ Bandaranayake, Senake (1974). Sinhalese monastic architecture: the viháras of Anurádhapura. Brill. ISBN 9-0040-3992-9.
- ^ Nithi Sathāpitānon; Brian Mertens (2012). Architecture of Thailand: a guide to traditional and contemporary forms. Didier Millet. ISBN 978-9-8142-6086-2.
- ^ Tuobin; 托宾 Toibin, Colm (2021). Bu lu ke lin = Brooklyn (in Chinese). Bo,Li, 柏栎 (Di 1 ban ed.). Shang hai yi wen chu ban she you xian gong si. ISBN 978-7-5327-8659-6.
- ^ Itō, Chūta; 伊藤忠太 (2017). Zhongguo jian zhu shi. Yizhuang Liao, 廖伊庄 (Di 1 ban ed.). 中国画报出版社. ISBN 978-7-5146-1318-6.
- ^ 徐怡涛. (2010). Zhong guo jian zhu. Xu yi tao, 徐怡涛. Gao deng jiao yu chu ban she. ISBN 978-7-0402-7421-9.
- ^ 中国文学史概述. jstvu.edu.cn. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ "The Canonical Books of Confucianism – Canon of the Literati". 14 November 2013. Archived from the original on 2014-02-02. Retrieved 2014-01-14.
- ^ Guo, Dan. 史传文学与中国古代小说. 明清小说研究 (April 1997). Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ 第一章 中国古典小说的发展和明清小说的繁荣. nbtvu.net.cn. Archived from the original on 2015-10-15. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ 金庸作品从流行穿越至经典. Baotou News. 12 March 2014. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ 四大名著在日、韩的传播与跨文化重构. Journal of Northeast Normal University (Philosophy and Social Sciences) (June 2010). Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ 新文化运动中的胡适与鲁迅 (in Chinese (China)). CCP Hangzhou Party School Paper (中共杭州市委党校学报). April 2000. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ 魔幻现实主义文学与"寻根"小说". literature.org.cn (in Chinese (China)). February 2006. Archived from the original on 2015-07-23. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ "莫言：寻根文学作家" (in Chinese (China)). Dongjiang Times (东江时报). 12 October 2012. Archived from the original on 2015-07-22. Retrieved 2015-07-18.
- ^ "A Brief History of Chinese Opera". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
- ^ "Why Chinese rappers don't fight the power". BBC. Retrieved 2021-11-23.
- ^ "Qipao | dress". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
- ^ "Current and Former EXO Members Are Some of China's Most Expensive Singers". JayneStars.com. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
- ^ Xingxin, Zhu (19 September 2023). "China fashion week struts its stuff". China Daily.
- ^ Hays, Jeffrey. "Early history of chinese film". factsanddetails.com. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
- ^ Brzeski, Patrick (20 December 2016). "China Says It Has Passed U.S. as Country With Most Movie Screens". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
- ^ Tartaglione, Nancy (15 November 2016). "China Will Overtake U.S. In Number Of Movie Screens This Week: Analyst". Deadline Hollywood. Retrieved 2016-11-15.
- ^ PricewaterhouseCoopers. "Strong revenue growth continues in China's cinema market". PwC. Archived from the original on 2020-03-03. Retrieved 2020-09-14.
- ^ "内地总票房排名" [All-Time Domestic Box Office Rankings]. China Box Office (in Chinese). Archived from the original on 2020-02-16. Retrieved 2020-03-02.
- ^ "Eight Major Cuisines". chinese.cn. 2 June 2011. Archived from the original on 2015-09-12. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
- ^ 中国美食成外国网友"噩梦" 鸡爪内脏鱼头不敢吃. Xinhua News Agency. 23 September 2013. Archived from the original on 2013-09-26. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
- ^ "China's Hunger For Pork Will Impact The U.S. Meat Industry". Forbes. 19 June 2013. Retrieved 2020-01-18.
- ^ Historical Dictionary of Soccer. Scarecrow Press. 2011. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-8108-7188-5.
- ^ "Sport in Ancient China". JUE LIU (刘珏) (The World of Chinese). 31 August 2013. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2014-06-28.
- ^ Thornton, E. W.; Sykes, K. S.; Tang, W. K. (2004). "Health benefits of Tai Chi exercise: Improved balance and blood pressure in middle-aged women". Health Promotion International. 19 (1): 33–38. doi:10.1093/heapro/dah105. PMID 14976170.
- ^ "China health club market – Huge potential & challenges". China Sports Business. 1 July 2011. Retrieved 2012-07-31.
- ^ 2014年6岁至69岁人群体育健身活动和体质状况抽测结果发布. Wenzhou People's Government. 7 August 2014. Archived from the original on 2015-11-09. Retrieved 2015-11-23.
- ^ Beech, Hannah (28 April 2003). "Yao Ming". Time. Archived from the original on 2011-07-05. Retrieved 2007-03-30.
- ^ 足球不给劲观众却不少 中超球市世界第9亚洲第1. Sohu Sports. 14 July 2013. Retrieved 2015-07-17.
- ^ "Bike-Maker Giant Says Fitness Lifestyle Boosting China Sales". Bloomberg News. 17 August 2012. Retrieved 2012-09-08.
- ^ Kharpal, Arjun (15 July 2022). "China remains the world's largest e-sports market despite gaming crackdown". CNBC.
- ^ Qinfa, Ye. "Sports History of China" Archived 3 March 2009 at the Wayback Machine. About.Com. Retrieved 21 April 2006.
- ^ "China targets more golds in 2012". BBC Sport. 27 August 2008. Retrieved 2011-11-27.
- ^ "Medal Count". London2012.com. Archived from the original on 2012-08-30. Retrieved 2012-09-09.
- ^ "China dominates medals; U.S. falls short at Paralympics". USA Today. 9 September 2012. Retrieved 2013-06-19.
- ^ "Beijing: The world's first dual Olympic city". olympics.com. Retrieved 2022-02-06.
- ^ "Beijing 2022 Winter Games Olympics – results & video highlights". International Olympic Committee. 23 February 2018. Retrieved 2018-02-23.
Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY-SA IGO 3.0 (license statement/permission). Text taken from World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2023, FAO, FAO.
Further reading
External links
Definitions from Wiktionary
Media from Commons
News from Wikinews
Quotations from Wikiquote
Resources from Wikiversity
Travel information from Wikivoyage
Government
General information
- China at a Glance from People's Daily
- China at the Encyclopædia Britannica
- Country profile – China at BBC News
- China. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency.
- China, People's Republic of from UCB Libraries GovPubs
Maps
- Google Maps—China
Wikimedia Atlas of the People's Republic of China
Geographic data related to China at OpenStreetMap
| International | |
|---|---|
| National | |
| Geographic | |
| Academics | |
| People | |
| Other | |
- China
- People's Republic of China
- Atheist states
- BRICS nations
- Countries and territories where Chinese is an official language
- Communist states
- Countries in Asia
- Cradle of civilization
- East Asian countries
- G20 members
- Member states of the United Nations
- Northeast Asian countries
- One-party states
- Republics
- States and territories established in 1949
- States with limited recognition