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A panorama of Naples.

A view over the harbour and bay of Naples during night-time.

The culture of Naples, Italy refers to the arts, architecture, history, music, cuisine, gastronomy, literature, theatre, sport, folklore, myths and customs in this particular Italian city, and also its metropolitan area and areas around it.

Naples has a rich history, and has been a major cultural fulcrum for centuries. Once a Greek colony called Parthenope and Neapolis, it later emerged into a flourishing centre of politics and the arts under Roman rule, and was one of Europe's main economic, academic, cultural and artistic powerhouses from the middle-ages to the mid-19th century, as the capital of the kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and a major hub of the Enlightenment era. After the unification of Italy in 1861, Naples saw a political, social and economic decline as it lost most of its importance in the new kingdom of Italy, and was plagued with several problems, including mass bombardment during World War II. Yet, Naples was able to keep its rich culture alive, and after post-war economic growth, and several reforms, it has returned to be a leading cultural and economic city in not only South of the country and Italy, yet also all of the Mediterranean and Europe. As a matter of fact, in 2013, it will host the Universal Forum of Cultures.

Common stereotypes and associations to Naples include the invention of pizza, spaghetti alla puttanesca and contributions to pasta, the creation of the classical and Romantic guitar, as well as the mandolin, the presence of several Roman Catholic churches, the folkloristic characters such Pulcinella which are found in the theatrical commedia dell'arte, and devoutness to religion, notably the honorification of several saints (most notably Januarius, Naples' patron) and Mary.

Cultural history

The inside of the Royal Palace of Naples.

Naples' cultural history has evolved greatly over the years.

The earliest traces of Neapolitan culture inevitably date back to the 8th century BC, when the city was first founded as a Greek colony, during a period called Magna Graecia (the Greek colonisation of most of Southern Italy), which literally meant, Greater Greece. It was founded under the name Parthenope, and later became Neapolis. As time passed, it emerged as an increasingly prominant port town, especially under the influence of Syracuse, Sicily. Despite Syracuse remained more culturally, economically and politically powerful during the Hellenistic age, Naples too remained an increasingly significant city. It was mainly influenced by Greek culture at the time; the city was filled with theatres (odeons), temples, villas and public baths. It, too, became increasingly significant when mentioned as the hometown of the Sirens in Homer's Odyssey. During the Roman times, the city's visual appearance changed little, as the Romans wanted to maintain its Hellenistic heritage, thus still remaining very Greek in character; the ancient Greek language was still widely spoken amongst locals and the wealthy, buildings were still constructed in a Greek architectural style, and most preferred to still honour the Greek gods, such as Zeus, Hera and Athena rather than their Roman counterparts Jupiter, Juno and Minerva. The rich and powerful, such as emperors Tiberius and Claudius, and poets such as Horace and Virgil came and holidayed in the city and the area around it, contributing to a "golden age" of cultural achievements.

After the Western Roman Empire's decline, the city suffered several invasions by Germanic and Gothic tribes, yet, the city finally gained independance in 840 AD. By this time, much of the city's classical culture was destroyed, yet much of the folklore and myths which were invented during the Hellenistic age still carried on to be very much a part of Neapolitan life. The Normans' invasion of Naples allowed the city's cultural affairs to further prosper, and it became even more successful under the Byzantines. The city's population rapidly increased, and several new dwellings were created, making it one of the biggest and densest urban areas in Italy. With Aragon domain, the city witnessed a true golden age, as it became one of the, if not the, leading cultural centre of the Mediterranean. A wealth of foreign artists, intellectuals, cultural and political figures, writers and philosophers met up and resided in Naples. The city itself became increasingly Christian, as there was an opening up of several new churches. The early middle-ages also saw much of the early and classical Greek-inspired Neapolitan mythology transform itself into more uniquely local folklore. This can be seen with King Roger II, who was often depicted as being the legendary and great medieval king of the city, somewhat the Neapolitan equivalent of King Arthur.

Despite the Renaissance began in the early 15th century, Naples witnessed a form of "Renaissance" already in the 13th and 14th centuries. Painter Giotto di Bondone resided in the city from 1328 to 1333, and set up an artistic school, training the inhabitants the skill of painting, and notably, perspective, which had been rarely introduced in art before, with some exceptions, generally regarding Roman art. He painted several frescos in numerous Neapolitan churches. In 1224, Fredrick II founded the university of Naples, too a leap forward in the cultural achievements of the city. Several monuments were built, such as the Castel Nuovo, and the city was re-planned according to a structured and symmetrical structure.

In 1503, the city of Naples was no longer an independant monarchy, and fell into the hands of the kingdom of Spain, too something which changed Neapolitan culture dramatically. Spanish rule brought several good points, including new construction of several palaces and monuments, and a re-organization of much political and social life, yet it was plagued by inefficiency, unscrupulous building outside the city walls (creating slum-like suburbs) and instability. The 1500s saw a slight end to the "Neapolitan Renaissance", with the arrival of much poverty. Whilst Naples strongly kept its position as a leading European city, its cultural importance slightly declined, and as it became the biggest and densest city in Italy, it saw a rapid increase in poverty, disease and crime. This having been said, the Spanish viceroys and the wealthy lived lavishly, in grand palaces, and would often greatly patronise the arts. Palaces and edifices such as the Palazzo Reale (Royal Palace of Naples), the Certosa of San Martino and the opening of the central Via Toledo contributing to improving Naples' architectural image. The Quartieri Spagnoli (Spanish quarters) distict opened up, and figures such as Caravaggio and Giambattista Vico contributed to the arts, sciences and literature in Naples during the 16th and 17th centuries. By 1734, Naples fell into Franco-Spaniard Bourbon hands, and put an end to the poorly run Spanish colonisation of the city.

The neoclassical interior of the Reggia di Caserta.

The 17th century was a mixed period in Neapolitan history and culture - regarded as a "golden age", where architecturally the city witnessed a flourishing rate of construction, with several grand buildings appearing around the Chiaia. However, problems such as the Vesuvius' eruption in 1631, two disastrous earthquakes, and pest in 1656, which, out of the city's population of circa 300,000 people, killed around half the inhabitants. From an artistic point of view, these disasters, most notably the eruption of Vesuvius, created several paintings and work of art chronicling the catastrophic event. The disasters, notably the plague, brought to social, cultural and economic problems - people fled the city, meaning that alonsgide being less control, law and order, there was also less artistic and intellectual activity. The 17th century, aside from natural disasters, also saw rebellions; possibly the most famous was the Revolt of Masaniello in 1647, which was led by the Masaniello, whose real name was Tommaso Anielo, and the revolt is said to have been triggered by general discontent with highly imposed taxes under Spanish rule; however, it has been noted that the event was less important in history than it is in local folklore and culture. The event is considered an important symbol of Neapolitan culture, with Masaniello being fashioned as a sort of hero. Nonetheless, it helped raise the social condition of several poor Neapolitans at the time, and was the last major rebellion until those which came 150 years later. The late-17th and 18th centuries saw a stylistic and cultural period known as the Neapolitan Baroque. Buildings were built in a far more ornate way than the Renaissance ones, and were known for their elaboration, stucco-work and artifacts. Bourbon Naples was known for its elegance, cosmopolitan atmosphere, intellectual germination, and efficient rule. King Charles III, who began to rule Naples in 1734 wanted to transform the city into the major metropolis of Europe, and did so to some extent; he re-organized the once-shambolic suburbs, opened new roads, created several considerable architectural works (such as the Palazzo di Capodimonte, the Teatro San Carlo, and the nearby Royal Palace of Caserta) and opened up new factories and industries. It was, for a period, the second largest city in Europe, with Paris as the first, and the arrival of several scholars contributed dramatically to Naples' culture. With the creation of the commedia dell'arte, Naples was able to expand its folkloristic traditions, with the creation of comical character Pulcinella, often called "punch" in England (from which, the puppet show "Punch and Judy" was created). Several intellectuals came from and to the city, the most notable of which, the political scientist and economist Antonio Genovesi. This period was also known as the Neapolitan age of Englightenment, as the Englightnment (Italian:Illuminsmo) saw the radicalisation of political and religious ideas, and also modernised Neapolitan society and culture. Despite this, the city still remained relatively conservative, yet freedom of speech was allowed, notably at the progressive university, where scholars would often discuss about the modernisation of finance and agricultural life. Naples, with its prestigious Teatro San Carlo, emerged, along with Milan and Venice, as one of the main musical hubs of the then-known world, and its contributions at the time to opera were great. The Porcelain factory of Portici opened up, one of the city's and Europe's first, and also the village of San Leucio nearby, a planned industrial town built in the late-18th century. In 1756, Herculaneum and Pompeii were discovered by archaeologists, and the city became a major stop in the European Grand Tour, a period when upper-class British, North European and American aristocrats would visit France, Austria, Italy, Greece and several other countries to learn about their cultures and histories. This helped the intellectual and academic fervor within the city, with the arrival of philosophers, literary figures, aristocrats, musicians and scholars such as Goethe, Stendahl, Mozart, the Marquis de Sade, Shelly, Lord Byron and others. Furthermore, the rule of Ferdinand, which lasted until 1825, saw the Industrial Revolution, and progress in social ideas. Ferdinand's general relaxation and integration with Neapolitan life and the locals made him earn the nickname of lazzarone, meaning a laid-back person who is one of the "masses". This saw the conception of the king no longer as a feared tyrant, but more rather one of the people. The late 18th century and 19th century saw a new formation of a general middle-class or bourgeoisie, people who were affluent, could afford decently-sized homes, and were relatively learned and educated, without having the social and political status of the aristocracy or upper classes.

“ I won't say another word about the beauties of the city and its situation, which have been described and praised often. As they say here, "Vedi Napoli e poi muori! — See Naples and die!" One can't blame the Neapolitan for never wanting to leave his city, nor its poets singing its praises in lofty hyperboles: it would be wonderful even if a few more Vesuviuses were to rise in the neighbourhood. ” — Johann Wolfgang von Goethe

A Romantic period painting of Posillipo, Naples (1795). During the 18th century, the city was a major stop during the Grand Tour.

In 1839, Naples became the first city in Italy to have a railway built, and later, the first gas-lit lamps were introduced in the city. The early 1800s saw a rise of the middle-classes, as they began to be the city's most respected businesspeople, politicians and public figures, notably part of the constitution. Illiteracy was still relatively common amongst the lower-classes and peasants, yet, it was a rarer phenomenon as education was becoming more widespread. The mid-19th century also saw political unrest which led to the riots of 1848, which were triggered by anti-authoritarian and liberalist thinking, which had originally been triggered in the French Revolution, yet, which had spread throughout Europe; this political and philosophical thinking, the idea of challenging authority, is partially what led to the risorgimento and Italy's unification. By 1861, Naples saw the challenge of unifying itself with the rest of Italy, which saw the city's immediate decline. New factories were opening in the Northern cities of Milan and Turin, Rome was growing in political and cultural importance, and the process of intellectuals favouring cities other cities over Naples led it to fall in importance. When it was annexed to the kingdom of Italy, Naples virtually lost all of its political importance, no longer being a capital of a wealthy and powerful kingdom. Several also did not want Naples to be annexed, yet Nationalist works such as Mazzini's "Young Italy" tried to persuade inhabitants to integrate themselves in the new state, Italy. Despite a rapid and great decline, the city's cultural importance remained alive - the university still was known over the continent for its reforms and modernity, and the city saw the opening of numerous scientific institutes and academies. As the city became overcrowded, and health conditions declined, crime, corruption and inefficiency became ripe in late-19th century Naples, and the squalor of Neapolitan living conditions saw the beginning of the "Neapolitan diaspora" - the migration of several locals to Northern Italy and countries all over the world, most notably, the United States, Canada and Australia. To increase the city's profile, a "renewal plan" was put into place, made to restore several buildings, increase living conditions, improve technology, build new edifices and streets, and return the city to some of its original glory. Yet, it was more of a failure, as most of the money was spent quickly and badly - a few constructions, such as the neoclassical Corso Umberto I and the steelworks in the Bagnoli district were constructed, yet they were planned too rapidly, built badly, and ended up in the ruining of several areas of architectural and scenic beauty, with little result. Writer Matilde Serao commented on the poor results of the plan, saying that the city was going through a period of economic and social depression.

By World War II, the city was very badly damaged. Yet, a post-war reconstruction system was put into place. New housing estates have been constructed, museums opened and restored, avant-garde economic districts such as the Centro Direzionale were designed, and new exhibitions were put in place, restoring some of the city's appearance. Despite several problems which still live in Naples today, the city is known for its rich culture, and several festivals, theatrical occasions and artistic events.

Arts

Architecture

The facade of the Galleria Umberto I.

The Reggia di Caserta exterior.

Neapolitan architecture is very diverse in style. There are several considerable examples of architecture in Naples from all periods. The most notable are examples of architecture from the middle-age, Renaissance and Baroque eras. The city is particularly well-known for its underground tunnels and catacombs, and religious architecture. In Naples, there are a recorded 448 churches which are ancient and deemed as being historic.

There are very few remains of Hellenistic and Roman architecture in the city, with the exception of a few things in the Piazza Bellini, near the Santa Chiara convent or beneath the Cathedral. One of the most notable, no longer existing, examples of Roman architecture in the city includes the Temple of Dioscures, which stood on the top of the Greek agora, or marketplace. Most of the temple was destroyed by a devastating earthquake in 1688. There are also the remains of the foundations of the Greek walls, dating back to around 600 BC in the Piazza Bellini, which are made of tufa, and one can see remnants of the classical city's architecture underneath Saint Lawrence's cloister. There is, too, the Via Anticaglia, which is a small alleyway which is covered with arches made out of brick, which used to lead to the thermae, or spas, and the theatres. Just outside Naples, in 79 AD, there was a major eruption in Vesuvius which covered the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Despite many buildings were destroyed, the layers of ash well-preserved the buildings, and one can see the luxurious villas' constructed in here's structures. They would usually have a central orchard or garden, surrounded by a set of pillars called the peristyle, also surrounded by a square-shaped corridor, leading into the main hall called the atrium, which often contained a decorative pool of water called an ipluvium which collected rain-water. It then, often, led to the upstairs, where there were bedrooms, and the house would also have an eating-hall, called a triclinium. Roman houses had few windows in order to protect from thieves and burglaries, and many of the walls were covered in political placards and graffiti in general, which were common. The wealthiest Pompeian villas often were bigger and lavishly decorated with mosaics and murals. An example of this can be seen in the Villa Jovis, found in Capri, where the emperor Tiberius would holiday and spend much time.

There is, unlike classical remains, several traces of medieval architecture in the city. The Norman, Byzantine, Angevin and Aragonese civilizations built several buildings in Naples. Most of these buildings were destroyed, and many are reconstructions, yet they can be found in virtually all of the city. Examples can be the Castel Nuovo, a major castle built along the harbour, which was started by the Angevins and completed by the Aragonese, is known for its large, circular turrets, and rich interior. There are also a few other types of examples of civic or public architecture in the city, such as the Castel dell'Ovo or the Castel Capuano, yet most of the considerable works from this period are notably religious buildings, such as the parts of the convent of Saint Clare, Saint Lawrence and the city's ornate cathedral. This period in Neapolitan architecture was also renowned for the construction of belfries and bell towers, such as that of Pietrsanta, simple and showing medieval features, and made of a reddish brick.

The Castel Nuovo exterior.

The Centro Direzionale, a modern business district built in the 1980s.

The Renaissance and Spanish periods were also highly fruitful in Neapolitan architecture. The Certosa of San Martino, literally Saint Martin's charterhouse is arguably one of the best examples of architecture from the 16th to 17th centuries. Despite having been started by the Calabrian duke Charles in 1325, several parts of the building were constructed during the high-Renaissance and Manneristic periods, including the church's ornate main nave, which was constructed in 1580, and most famously the Grand cloister, which is surrounded by nearly 70 columns made of marble, and contains an ornate well in the middle. Othe works from the viceroy include the cloister of San Giorgio of Armenia, which is known for its elegant central fountain. The facade of the Royal Palace was constructed in the 1600s by the Spaniards, and there are several early Baroque treasures in the city. A common feature of Renaissance and early Baroque Naples includes the several spiral columns, or guglie constructed around the city, known for their rich decoration, often depicting stories, myths and biblical parables. Examples of these guglie include that of Saint Januarius.

Late-Baroque, Rococo and early-neoclassical architecture is highly prominent in Naples, considering the fact that the Bourbons constructed several remarkable edifices. The most prominent examples include the Royal Palace of Caserta, found in Caserta, just outside Naples, which is a country palace designed by architect Luigi Vanvitelli, known for its Rococo and neoclassical interior, and also its Versailles-style gardens which are filled with fountains and mock-cascades, the Palazzo di Capodimonte, built in 1738 as a royal Bourbon residence, which is now a well-known museum and art gallery, and the Teatro San Carlo (Saint Charles Theatre), one of Europe and Italy's oldest, and currently a highly prestigious opera house. The Bourbons developed Baroque architecture in the city, transforming it from the heavier and richer Spanish Baroque style, into a slightly lighter, more feminine Baroque, which evolved into the Rococo. Rococo interiors in the city can be seen in Queen Maria Amalia's parlour of porcelain. Another building from this period includes the Palazzo Reale di Portici, and the Royal villa in Chiaia. This was the period when the construction of villas and hunting lodges was at its peak. By the 1780s and 90s, the simpler, more classical style neoclassicism was preferred, and buildings were built in a less ornate, more Greco-Roman style. A notable example could be the Villa Comunale, which was completed in a neoclassical style in 1787, and the lodge of Belvedere, built in the village of San Leucio in 1789. The village of San Leucio, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, is known for its planned late-18th century style, and is one of Italy's oldest industrial villages.

The cascade in the gardens of the Palace of Caserta.

The facade of the Teatro San Carlo.

By the 1820s, the neoclassical style had developed in its full form, and was very popular in the city. Several villas were built in this period. The Villa Pignatelli (Villa Acton), now a museum, is a notable example, built in 1826, takes heavy Greek inspiration. It has a portico with bulky doric columns, and a balcony with a mansion-like facade. Several villas in this style were built just outside Naples too, such as the early-19th century Villa Cimbrone, in Ravello, the Villa Roccaromana (1814) in Posillipo, and the Villa Doria D'Angri, in Posillipo too, built in the 1830s. One of the most prominent churches built in the early 1800s includes the San Francesco di Paola, found in the Piazza del Plebiscito, designed in 1817 to resemble the Pantheon in Rome. By the 1850s, the neoclassical style in the city became slightly out-of-fashion, and a more ornate, empire style became popular. Eclectic architecture too became popular, and this emerged particularly in the 1870s and 80s with the Galleria Umberto I, inspired by the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan, the 1883 Galleria del Principle, and the buildings along the Corso Umberto I, such as the University of Naples. Steelworks were built in the Bagnoli district, and the opening of the city's first industries was put into place. By the 1890s and 1900s, the Liberty, or Art Nouveau style reached the pinnacle of popularity, with several cafes in the city being designed in that style, and several palaces along the Via Toledo being in this form. An example could be the Santa Lucia hotel, designed in 1902 in the promenade along the sea.

The 1920s, 30s and 40s saw the construction of Fascist-style architectural works, such as the Business Administration faculty (1834), or the Vesuvio Hotel (1948). During World War II, several of Naples’ most formidable architectural works, including churches, palaces, houses, museums and villas were damaged by the bombardments in the city, and some parts were poorly reconstructed. Yet, several buildings were restored to their form, if not better, and new buildings were constructed in post-war Naples. The San Paolo Stadium, one of Italy’s biggest, was constructed around 1960, and the Centro Direzionale, Naples central business district (CBD) was built in 1982 by Japanese architect Kenzo Tange in an avant-garde futurist/modernist style. Despite several considerable architectural works were built from 1945 until today, there have been some poor constructions, notably in Posillipo and suburban Naples, where several concrete-apartment blocks were quickly and badly built, creating environmental problems.

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  The Royal Palace of Naples, constructed in 1600, called il Palazzo reale di Napoli in Italian.
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  The nave of Naples Cathedral
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  The village of San Leucio, a UNESCO World Heritage Site
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  The Galleria Umberto I in the centre of Naples
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  The neoclassical Villa Pignatelli
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  The Via Toledo
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  The Palazzo Donn'Anna in Posillipo
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  The mock ruins in the English landscape garden of the Palace of Caserta
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  The Castel dell'Ovo
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  The San Francesco di Paola interior
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  One of Naples' several Baroque guglie or column-spires
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  Ancient Roman architecture in the ruins in Pompeii, discovered in the mid-18th century

Art

A Baroque painting in the city showing the martyrdom of Saint Stephen.

A Romantic painting of the city.

Naples is a city rich in art, and this can be seen in the numerous museums and art galleries (in Italian, pinacoteche (singular: pinacoteca) where Neapolitan and foreign works of art are exhibited.

Roman and Greek art had prominence in Naples. In Pompeii and Herculaneum, several of the wealthiest villas had elaborate frescos depicting gods, goddesses, myths, legends, special occasions and daily life. The Greco-Roman period also left back a wealth of artifacts, visible in the city's national archaeological museum, where there are several statues and sculptures depicting emperors, powerful figures, and scenes from daily life.

Yet, medieval, Renaissance and Baroque art are the most prominent in the city. Giotto di Bondone resided in the city in the eraly 1300s, creating an artistic school to train young painters, and painted several paintings in churches all over the city. Milanese painter Caravaggio too lived in the city from 1606 until 1607, creating several considerable works in the Neapolitan style of art. The Fine Arts Academy of Naples was founded by King Charles III in 1752, where several notable artists and painters were members. The Palazzo di Capodimonte is currently a museum, and exhibits works of art, such as "Pieta", by Annibale Carracci, made in the 17th century, or Masaccio's 1426 "Crucifixion". The porcelain factory in the Palazzo di Capodimonte is also an important artistic place.

Today, Naples finds itself in a vibrant modern artistic scene. Modern artists such as Andy Warhol produced a famous painting called "Vesuvius" in 1985, and the Piazza del Plebiscito, once a chaotic car-park, was transformed into a pedestrian zone, which often exhibits works of art, such as, the "Mountain of Salt" in 1996. There are several contemporary artistic organizations, such as PAN, which stands for "Palazzo d'arte di Napoli" (Art palace of Naples). The 2013 Universal Forum of Cultures will further boost the city's image as a hub of modern and contemporary art.

Painting and visual art

Naples is well-known for its painting, often called "the Neapolitan school", "Neapolitan painting" or in Italian "Pittura napoletana". Neapolitan painting in particular flourished during the late-Renaissance period (1600s, or in Italian, seicento), and was mainly characterised by strong, dark colours, and was mainly based on Christian religious themes. In the late-Baroque period, paintings had more of a rich, warm coloured theme, which later developed into the light femininity of the Rococo. During the Romantic period, paintings were known for their landscape and cityscape depictions of the areas around Naples, often with light colours, and with exaggerated features to make the paintings look more appealing and fairytale-like. This all later evolved into modernist, futurist and transavantgarde art.

Amongst the several artists who painted in Naples, examples include Giotto, Caravaggio and Luca Giordano, to name a few.

Nativity scenes

A traditional Neapolitan nativity scene, which would have been typical for the Royal court of the city during the 18th and early 19th centuries.

The nativity scene in the convent of Santa Chiara.

Naples is well-known internationally for its nativity scene, also called presepe or presepio, which is known in the rest of Italy as presepe napoletano (Neapolitan nativity scene). Nativity scenes have, for centuries, been an important part of Neapolitan society, and are known for their lavishness and abundance of characters, and the art of Neapolitan nativity scene making is amongst the most prominent in Italy, along with the Bolognese and Genoese traditions. The Neapolitan tradition of nativity scenes dates back to approximately 1025 AD, when the first nativity-scene was documented in a Neapolitan church. Today Naples is known for its nativity scene making; traditional nativity scenes have the typical features (baby Jesus, Saint Joseph, Mary, the shepherds, the three wise men [magi], etc.) yet also includes other features. Neapolitan nativity scenes are based in Neapolitan surroundings, and houses and the figurettes are made to be in the traditional Neapolitan style. The city's nativity scenes often have figures showing peasants, shop-keepers, locals, watermills, wells, bridges, waterfalls etc. Neapolitan nativity scenes are meant to be very big, and are often quite innovative, often using chocolate to make the scenes. Typically, most people tend to have nativity scenes, and they are usually slightly bigger than average ones, yet the biggest and best are often made by people who are especially trained.

Theatre

The ornately decorated interior of the Teatro San Carlo, founded in the 18th century, one of Italy’s oldest.

Naples is known for its lively theatrical scene, and its rich and historical tradition in this aspect. Neapolitan theatrical traditions are known for their uniqueness, thus resulting in it often being called "Neapolitan theatre" or in Italian "teatro napoletano". Renowned Neapolitan or Naples-based theatrical figures include Eduardo de Filippo and Raffaele Vivani, to name a few.

Naples has one of Italy and Europe's oldest theatres, the Teatro San Carlo, founded in 1737, is, with 3,285 places in the auditorium, one of the nation's biggest, and has a prestigious theatrical tradition, and there are several other renowned theatres in the city. Naples has a an active theatrical scene, with several festivals and occasions related to the topic.

"Pulcinella" (Commedia dell'arte)

The traditional costume of Pulcinella, a major character in the commedia dell'arte.

Main articles: Pulcinella and Commedia dell'arte

Naples' theatrical traditions has also led it to great contributions to the commedia dell'arte. Commedia dell'arte is an improvisational form of Italian theatre, where acrobats, comedians and actors would put on performances to generally amuse their audience. With 16th century origins, the commedia dell'arte (literally, "artistic comedy") developed and grew in popularity, with several storylines and characters being thought up. Commedia dell'arte characters include Columbina, Scaramuccia (Scaramouche), Pantalone, Arlecchino (Harlequin) and Brighella, characters who are meant to be from all different parts of Italy (characters from "Punch and Judy" are similar and/or influenced to those of the commedia). Eventually, commedia all'arte reached its pinnacle of popularity in the 18th century, and the artists who starred in these plays not only performed in courts and in public in Italy, but also all around Europe. A similar form of comedy, called "comedie francaise" was invented in the 1700s in France, and was considered the French counterpart of the commedia dell'arte, and in England, a form of masqueraded comical pantomine popular in theatres at the time derived from the commedia dell'arte. Naples has strong tradition in the Commedia dell'arte, and is known for its character, pulcinella, which is the Italian equivalent of the English punch.

Pulcinella is intended to be a mischievous trickster, who often plays the problem-creater in plays and tries to deceive people, but due to his stupidity and ignorance, he often ends up making a fool of himself. He also is known for his clear, crisp and cutting-edge voice, and way of getting around easily. He usually wears a white dress, representing life, and a black mask to cover himself, representing death, and a long, beak-like nose.

Music

Classical composer Donizetti, who often stayed and performed in the city.

Main article: Music of Naples

See also: Canzone napoletana, Music conservatories of Naples, and Music of Campania

Naples is known for its wide operatic contributions, long and rich musical history, long tradition in the topic, invention of several musical instruments, the presence of numerous renowned theatres, vibrant modern musical scene, and ancient conservatories and related academies. Naples is known for two distinct different musical genres; the traditional and more popular melodic canzone napoletana, and well-known musical scene of the "street Naples" and of the people, with well-known songs such as "O sole mio"; and the more refined music, regarding the wealth of opera houses and theatres in the city, which attracted several composers such as Walter Scott and Donizetti, and the several prestigious musical conservatoires, which trained numerous musicians.

Farinelli, a Neapolitan 18th century opera singer.

Naples is well-known for its traditional music, the canzone napoletana (Neapolitan song), and the sceneggiata (dramatic scene). These aspects have lived in Neapolitan life for centuries, notably the working-class population of the city. The popular Neapolitan music is heavily characterised by rich harmony and melody, both intense joy and sorrow, and the usage of the guitar, notably the mandolin. Despite songs made in this genre have existed for many years, it was only in the late-19th century that they gained international attention, notably when several Neapolitan immigrants migrated to countries abroad, bringing along their musical traditions, and today, songs such as O sole mio and Santa Lucia are widely recognisable. The sceneggiata also became a more recent feature of Neapolitan musical traditions. In the early-20th century, the sceneggiata emerged in countries such as the United States, where Neapolitan immigrants would express their nostalgic memories of Naples in this style, with the term itself meaning an aggravating, intese scene. The scennegiata is usually a melodramatic piece of Neapolitan music, made to sound deliberately sorrowful and dramatic. Singers such as Mario Merola were famous for performing in this particular musical style.

The city is also famous for its classical and operatic-related musical genres. Religious music was often composed in Naples during the 16th century, since most musical academies were run by religious organisations, in particular, convents. The children who were taught in these consevatories were often poor and orphaned, and they were taught sacred music in order that they had some skill in their life. By the 17th century, several of these conservatories were no longer reserved for abandoned children, but also those of the middle-classes and the wealthy, who wanted to learn how to compose music. Several conservatories opened up in the 1600s and 1700s, making Naples one of the primate cities in Europe for musical education. With the 1737 openeing of the Teatro San Carlo, and several other theatres and concert halls, Naples became a major city in terms of opera-related contributions, and the premieres of several operas, such as that of "Othello" by Rossini were performed in the San Carlo theatre. Naples' music particularly thrived during the early-19th century (Romantic period), where several composers such as Scott and Isabella Colbran composed and performed in the city.

Today, Naples is not only a city with a rich musical history, yet also has a vibrant musical scene. Jazz and rock music took hold of the city from the 1920s to the 1990s, and there are several related-venues of the kind. With recent foreign immigration to Naples in the 1980s, notably from North African countries, there are several ethnic music venues, where traditional Neapolitan music is played alongside traditional African and foreign songs. Due to the city's musical reputation, several modern musical artists an singers, such as Edoardo Bennato and Planet Funk often performed or come from the city, and several performers have sung in Naples, which is often the seat of notable international venues.

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  Neapolitan pop and rock singer Edoardo Bennato
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  The musical academy of Naples

Language

Main article: Neapolitan language

Cuisine

Main article: Neapolitan cuisine

Tomatoes, despite only being introduced relatively recently (late 17th century) in Neapolitan cuisine, are a significant part of local food.

Naples' cuisine dates back ever since the Greek and Roman civilisations. After several changes in style and essence, Naples today emerges as one of the greatest culinary centres in Italy and the world, home to several dishes such as pizza (dough with tomato sauce and different potential toppings, the original Margherita containing simply mozzarella and basil), pasta or spaghetti with puttanesca sauce (pasta or spaghetti topped with a spicy sauce made out of tomatoes, olives, capers, anchovies and similar ingredients) and pasta e fagioli (pasta with beans). Neapolitan cuisine is known for the common presence of tomato sauce, basil, mozzarella cheese, garlic, aubergines, anchovies, fish and other forms of ingredients, notably vegetables.

It is well known that the history of Neapolitan cuisine spans several years, if not a few millennia (considering the city was founded around 900 BC), thus making some Neapolitan culinary traditions extremely ancient.

It is known that several dishes which are eaten today by the Neapolitans were introduced by the Greeks and the Romans. Greek dishes would have been much simpler than Roman ones, usually consisting of cheese, fruit, vegetables, fish and on occasions, meat. Roman dishes, however, concentrated far more on bread, sweets and meat than the Greeks. Dishes such as some form of a focaccia-like pizza, and meat dumplings dipped in sauce derived from Roman cooking traditions. There is some evidence of what the Romans ate, visible from paintings and also meals which were carbonised during the AD 79 Vesuvius eruption.

After the Hellenistic and Roman civilisations, Neapolitan cuisine changed greatly, and became influenced by those of the Byzantine, Norman, Angevin, Aragonese, Spanish and French colonists. Different sorts of vegetables were introduced, with highly used ingredients, such as tomatoes, only being introduced in the Neapolitan cuisine in the 1690s (despite today being central ingredients in the city's food). Meat and chicken were expensive, and were only eaten by the rich, and at feasts and special occasions. By the 1800s, new dishes had been created. It was only until the late-19th century that the classical "Pizza Margherita" was invented, despite similar forms of dishes already existing in the past.

Food

Ingredients

There are several ingredients which are vital to Neapolitan cuisine, including tomatoes, cheese (notably mozzarella), oregano, basil, olive oil, garlic, fish (notably anchovies, cod and stockfish), raisins, dough and bread, and seafood (notably clams). Traditional Neapolitan cuisine is known for the rich presence of vegetables and legumes, and more fish and seafood than meat and poultry. Neapolitan bread is particularly well known, the most traditional being called ‘’pane cafone’’, or also baguettes similar to those made in France. Tomatoes are amongst the most significant and well-known ingredients in Naples’ cuisine, used to make several pasta sauces and toppings, such as those used for pizza, spaghetti alla puttanesca and ragu, and melanzane alla parmigiana (aubergines with melted cheese and tomato sauce) to name a few. Despite this, tomatoes were only fully introduced in true Neapolitan food in the 18th century, and, only became very widespread and common in the late 1700s and early 19th century. Despite today being seen as a vital local cooking element, ingredients such as cheese and dough for pasta itself are much older in Neapolitan food. Cheese is also highly important to Neapolitan cuisine. Pizzas traditionally are topped with mozzarella, and cheese is often used in general plates, including with aubergines (melanzane alla parmigiana) and similar vegetables. Mozzarella is undoubtedly one of the most common cheeses used in Neapolitan food, especially the ‘’mozzarella di bufala’’, or buffalo cheese, yet other cheeses such as ricotta, provola and scamorza are also important in Naples’ traditionally cooking traditions. Vegetables are also highly important ingredients, found frequently in several traditional Neapolitan plates. Several sauces, such as puttanesca sauce, marinara sauce, pastas, such as pasta with beans and pasta with legumes, and meals, such as melanzane alla parmigiana, are made with vegetables. Common vegetables include aubergines (‘’melanzane’’), zucchini and olives. Melanzane alla parmigiana is a commonly eaten meal which is made out of aubergines, with cheese melted on top, and sprinkled with parmesan, and tomato sauce. Pasta with chickpeas, also, was a popular meal in Naples’ poor. However, since several vegetables were only introduced to Europe in the 17th century, several vegetables commonly used in Neapolitan cuisine were only introduced relatively recently.

Dishes and meals

A traditionally made Pizza Margherita, with a thin crust, tomato sauce, mozzarella, basil and served with olive oil.

Naples has a long tradition regarding food. Arguably one of the most famous and iconic meal associated with Naples, and today, one of the most famous in the world, is pizza, or the type which is made here is commonly known as Neapolitan pizza.

The pizza itself is far more ancient than the traditional recipe, yet the first Neapolitan pizzas with dough, tomato sauce and mozzarella were made for artistocrats and nobles in specially-designed royal pizzerias in the 18th century. A form of pizza dates back to the Roman times, and the dough used for pizza to make a focaccia-like meal were common before, yet, the traditional pizza that one thinks of today is more recent than the original one. The traditional, plain, pizza Margherita was made for Margherita of Savoy (Queen Margherita of Italy) in 1889, using tomato sauce, mozzarella and basil as toppings (also meant to represent the flag of Italy, the tomato being red, the mozzarella being white, and the basil being green). Ever since, pizzas are easily found all over Naples, and are made in pizzerias, where pizzas are often cooked in ovens for wood fire. The dough is cooked in this oven, and afterwards, the cook puts on the sauce and toppings very quickly to make sure the pizza does not get cold, puts it back in the oven, and then serves it to the clients. Pizza is supposed to be eaten as soon as it is taken out of the oven, so that it is still hot and crisp. Dough used for the traditional Neapolitan pizza is meant to be crisp and thin. Despite the pizza Margherita being the traditional, pizza napoletana (called pizza Romana in Naples) is also popular, made with the same toppings as the pizza Margherita, yet with the additions of anchovies.

A plate of spaghetti or pasta with puttanesca sauce, a relatively recent invention, created by the working-class citizens of the city as a bountiful and nutritious, yet healthy and practical, dish to make.

Pasta and spaghetti too are important in Neapolitan cuisine, and typical plates made with pasta-like ingredients include Neapolitan ragu (pasta with tomato sauce, cooked with slices of beef, and different herbs), spaghetti alla puttanesca (spaghetti with a spicy olive, caper and seafood sauce), pasta e fagioli (pasta made with beans) and spaghetti alle vongole (spaghetti with clams). Pasta has been common to Neapolitan cuisine for centuries, yet, pasta with the usage of tomato sauce ("la pummarola" in Neapolitan) was only introduced in the early 1700s. There are several Neapolitan pasta dishes, some which are plain and simple, and others which are very rich. The poor would, in the past, often eat simpler plates of pasta, often just with oil or garlic, the middle-classes would eat reasonably plentiful dishes, often with more ingredients and bigger portions, whilst the rich would have lavish pasta meals, often with rich and ingredient-filled sauces, and several toppings and additions. Dishes such as pasta with garlic, pasta with beans, pasta with peas and similar forms of vegetable-topped pasta dishes would have been common with the working-class citizens of the city. Pasta with clams, tomato sauce, puttanesca sauce, mussels and squid would have been the sorts that the middle-classes would have eaten, whilst ragu, mixed vegetables, meat and a wide variety of pastas with different forms of fish and seafood would have been the dishes eaten by the wealthier and aristocratic inhabitants. Several pasta dishes have existed for long times in Neapolitan cuisine, yet there are more recent forms, such as spaghetti alla puttanesca, believed to have been invented in amongst the 20th century poor of the city as a tasty, yet simple and easily made dish, with traditional Mediterranean ingredients.

Desserts

Rum baba, a dessert originally from France, yet which has become one of the city's specialities.

Naples is home or is well-known to make numerous desserts, cakes and different pastries. Notable ones include rum baba, which, despite being invented in Paris, was brought to Naples and has become one of the city's most famous desserts (rum baba is a dessert made by using raisins, cream and rum). Zeppole are another popular dessert, traditionally eaten on Saint Joseph's Day, and are deep-fried doughnut-like pastries often topped with different types of cream. Other Neapolitan desserts include sfogliatelle (pastries), struffoli and pastiera.

Holiday and festivity food

Naples has numerous different traditional holiday meals and foods for special occasions. Christmas Eve is one of the main festivity meals in the city, in which spaghetti alle vongole followed by eel are traditional meals. There are numerous Christmas desserts and cakes which are traditional or eaten in Naples, including struffoli and mustacciuoli. For Easter, pastiera is one of the traditional cakes, and several foods, such as lamb and capicola are eaten on the day. Furthermore, as mentioned above, for Saint Joseph's Day, zeppole are traditionally eaten.

Drink

Naples is home to numerous drinks, both alcoholic and non-alcoholic, including wines, liquers, and other beverages. Coffee is also an important part of Neapolitan cuisine, being drunk after meals excluding breakfast.

Naples is home to several alcholic drinks, including the famous limoncello, a liquer made out of lemon. There are other liquers, however, which are connected or popular in the city with several different flavours, including orange and tangerine. Naples, or the Campania region, are also home to numerous wines, including Fiano di Avellino, Greco di Tufo and Vesuvius.

Society and lifestyle

Within Naples, there it has been noted that there is a sense of communal belonging. For instance, many Neapolitans favour local shops within their community rather than large out-of-town supermarkets or shopping centres.

Lottery

Ever since the lottery was founded in 1774 by King Ferdinand I, it has played an important part in Neapolitan life. There is a book known as the Smorfia, where it is said that different dreams are said to indicate which is the winning number.

Sport

Sports, most notably association football, are a very important part of Neapolitan life, culture and society.

Football is one of the most popular sports in the city, and was brought to the city by the English in the early 1900s. Naples has a Serie A football team, S.S.C. Napoli, as well as its own stadium, the Stadio San Paolo, built in 1959 in Fuorigrotta, which was also partially used for the 1990 FIFA World Cup

Religion

Religion in Naples (hypothetical)
Religion			Percent
Christianity			99%
Islam			0.5%
Judaism			0.03%
Other			0.47%

Naples is a predominantly Roman Catholic city, with a strong Christian tradition. The city’s patron saint is Saint Januarius, and there are numerous religious festivals which are celebrated in Naples. Despite Naples being a mainly Roman Catholic city, there are some religious minorities present.

Roman Catholicism

Roman Catholic Christianity is the main religion present in Naples, and plays an important part in Neapolitan lifestyle, culture, history and society. The city's patron saint, Saint Januarius (San Gennaro) was made the city's and Campania's patron saint in 1980 by Pope John Paul II.

Religious minorities

Aside from the city’s predominantly Roman Catholic inhabitants, there are some religious minorities also present. The recent wave of North African immigration have brought an Islamic community to the city, and the increased number of Eastern European immigrants have also brought Eastern Orthodox and other Christian denominations. There is also a minor Jewish community present within the city.

....would there have been a Protestant (Lutheran/Episcopalian/Anglican) community in Naples due to the number of German/American/British tourists which came during the 18th century Grand Tour???

Islam has played an important part in Southern Italian history, especially since the Islamic conquest of Sicily in the 800s, which later spread onto the Italian peninsula. However, there have never been any major Muslim communities in Italy until the 1970s, where only foreign businessmen, students and ambassadors from abroad came/resided in the country, and there was no presence of a fixed Islamic community. However, ever since the 1980s and 90s, there has been an influx of immigrants, notably from African, as well as Asian countries, such as Morocco, Libya, Tunisia, Algeria, Sri Lanka and the Middle East in general. In 2002 it was claimed that there were around 5,000 practicing Muslims in Naples (which would mean that, assuming estimates of around 500,000 - 1,000,000 Muslims in the country, circa 0.5% to 1% of Italy's Islamic community resided in Naples); it is also claimed that a few hundred Roman Catholic-born locals have converted to the Islamic faith. There is also a mosque near the Piazza Mercato. Furthermore, there is an Islamic cultural centre in the city, the Zayd Ibn Thabit Association, which was founded in 1997, which promotes cultural integration with the predominantly Roman Catholic inhabitants of the city.

There is a minor Jewish community in Naples, with estimates of between 300 and 400 praticants Jews within the city.

Superstition

"The various superstitions from all over the world come together in Naples where they are then magnified and multiplied because belief in them is the result of the ignorance, misery and tragedy that have beset Naples over the centuries from the cholera outbreaks to the 1872 Vesuvius eruption" - Matilde Serao

Superstition plays an important part in Neapolitan society and there are numerous superstitious beliefs present within the city. There are numerous myths, legends and miracles which play characterise Naples.

There are several miracles which are said to happen in Naples. One of them is are the Miracles of Saint Januarius. San Januarius, aside from being the city's patron saint, was Benevento's bishop and in 305, he was beheaded by Emperor Diocletian during his persecution of the early Christians. On the first Saturday of May and on 19 September every year, a miracle is said to happen when Saint Januarius' blood liquefies. It is said that the miracle first happened in 313; nonetheless, despite this and various recordings of the Saint Januarius' blood liquefaction, the miracle started to be officially recorded ever since 1649. It is said that if the miracle does not occur, a disaster is waiting to happen; for instance, in 1528, the blood did not liquefy, and Naples was overcome by pestilence; also, in 1980, a year in which the miracle did not happen, the Irpinia earthquake struck. Whilst Saint Januarius' blood miracle is one of the city's most famous, there are others, such as Saint Patricia (Santa Patrizia), whose blood is said to liquefy annually on 25 August. There is also a cult of the dead present within the city.

See also

• Culture of Italy
• History of Naples

References

• DK Travel guide of Naples, will format later on