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Soda lake

[edit]
This page is about soda lakes in general. For lakes named Soda, see Soda Lake (disambiguation).
Lake Shala, in the East African Rift Valley

A soda lake or alkaline lake is a highly alkaline lake due to high concentrations of carbonate salts, typically sodium carbonate and related salt complexes, and with a pH value over 8.5 or 9. Many soda lakes also contain high concentrations of sodium chloride and other dissolved salts, making them saline or hypersaline lakes.

They are among the most extreme aquatic environments on Earth.[1] However, despite their apparent inhospitability, they are often highly productive ecosystems, compared to their (pH-neutral) freshwater counterparts, and the most productive aquatic environments on Earth. This high productivity is primarily due to that soda lakes provide practically unlimited access to carbon — including dissolved carbon dioxide —, thanks to the reactions at play concerning the carbonate equilibrium. The same characteristic is also what makes soda lakes net organic and inorganic carbon sinks.[2]

They are considered as environments that conserve and/or mimic ancient life conditions[3] and as "a recreated model of late Precambrian ocean chemistry"[4] — that is, the "soda lake" environment that prepared the great explosion of life during the Cambrian. This links to the Soda Ocean Hypothesis, characterizing the primitive ocean with a higher carbonate mineral supersaturation.[5]

Soda lakes occur naturally throughout the world (see table below). Many are in arid and semi-arid areas and most are on the margins of tectonic plates,[6] in connection to tectonic rifts like the East African Rift Valley and other such places.[7]

Historic. The Soda Ocean Hypothesis

[edit]

The Soda Ocean Hypothesis (SOH) is based on that certain reactions considered essential for biogenesis are favored by alkaline conditions,[8] among other reasons because peptidebonds are more stable in alkaline than in acidic environments.[9] The Soda Ocean Hypothesis was first exposed during a public lecture on the global carbon cycle on November 22nd, 1983.[10] Its theory was then published in Kempe & Degens (1985,[11] 1986[12]) and in Kempe et al. (1989).[13]

Satonda Island lake, Indonesia

But before these publications, in the year following the initial conference, came the Dutch-Indonesian scientific expedition of the Snellius II in the Flores sea, lead by chief-scientist Doeke Eisma and with participants from Hamburg: Egon T. Degens, V. Ittekkot and Stephan Kempe. Kempe, who was looking for a marine but alcaline environment to sustain the SOH theory, noted that the lake on Satonda island was close to sea level and therefore possibly filled with seawater, and prompted a visit to the lake. Thus on November 22nd, 1984, day for day one year after the SOH was first exposed, Kempe, Doeke Eisma, Theo Buisma, Haruna Mappa and Surino inspected the island and its lake. It was then determined that the lake water was salty but had a pH of 8.55[10] — that value was soon to be modulated according to the location of the samplings, although the lake proved to retain all around a high value of alkalinity and fulfilled the aim of studying soda lakes. Kempe & Kazmierczak have published a number of papers on that lake, most notably in 1985[11], 1989,Kempe, Kazmierczak & Degens 1989 1990,[14][15] 1993,Kempe & Kazmierczak 1993 1994,[16] 1996, 1997, 2004,[17][18] 2011Kempe & Kazmierczak 2011a...

In the second part of the 2010s, the study of sediments from soda lakes in the lower Nhecolândia area in Brazilian Pantanal, have changed the views on the datation of their genesis: instead of being seen as the consequences of Pleistocene environmental changes, soda lakes are now believed to be issued from Holocene events and therefore a more recent phenomenon.[2]

Characteristics of a soda lake

[edit]

A lake becomes alkalic when particular geographical, geological and climatic conditions are combined.

Different types of soda lakes – also known as salt lakes, saline, hypersaline or brines – may develop in response to complex geochemical reactions among carbonates and the Ca2+ and Mg2+ cations that define the pH of equilibrium in a solution (Grant, 2004; Gaskova et al., 2017). In short, when saturated with Ca2+ and Mg2+, the pH of an aqueous solution remains around 6–8 and favors the precipitation of CaSO4 (gypsum), CaCO3 (calcite), MgCO3 (magnesite), CaMg(CO3)2 (dolomite), and Mg2Si3O8·(n)H2O (sepiolite). Otherwise, when Ca2+ and Mg2+ is limited, the solution turns highly alkaline, with pH ranging from 9 to 13 due to carbonate saturation.[2] 

For simplicity, the equilibrium reaction of carbonate is
CO2carbon
dioxide + H2O
water ⇌ H2CO3carbonic
acid ⇌ HCO3-
bicarbonate + H+
hydrogen ⇌ CO32-
carbonate + 2H+
hydrogen.[2]

ammonia-oxidizing microorganisms (AOM)

Alkalinity

[edit]
Important note

Alkalinity and pH are closely related and often measured together, but they are not the same. The pH of a solution measures its amount of hydrogen (acid ions), whereas alkalinity is a measure of the carbonate and bicarbonate levels (ppm of CaCO3) — and indirectly a measure of the solution's ability to neutralize acids. Raising the amount of C rises the alkalinity and that causes the pH to rise; but rising the ph does not rise the alkalinity. 

The amount of acid needed to lower a pH is determined by the alkalinity of the solution, not by its original pH.
Total alkalinity is a measurement of the concentration of all alkaline substances dissolved in the water that can both attract and release Hydrogen ions (H+).[19]

The basic condition of a soda lake is that the total alkalinity (or TA) — that is, the amount of carbonates and bicarbonates, commonly measured in milliequivalents (of dissolved carbonates) per liter (meq/l) — is superior to that of alkaline earth ions magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca):[20]
TA > (Mg + Ca)
or, in more detailed form:[21]
∑[HCO3-]
carbonate + 2[CO32-]
bicarbonate > ∑2[Mg2+]ion
magnesium + 2[Ca2+]ion
calcium

This ratio is most likely to occur in areas with fresh volcanic rocks, where carbon dioxide (CO2) can react with fresh silicates, mobilizing sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg) and calcium (Ca) in the appropriate proportions.[22] 

Otherwise said, dissolved magnesium (Mg2+) or calcium (Ca2+) remove the carbonate ions, through the precipitation of minerals such as calcite, aragonite, magnesite or dolomite.[23]

Another critical condition for the formation of a soda lake is the relative scarcity of soluble magnesium or calcium. This is because dissolved magnesium (Mg2+) or calcium (Ca2+) remove the carbonate ions, through the precipitation of minerals such as calcite, magnesite or dolomite, effectively neutralizing the pH of the lake water. This results in a neutral (or slightly basic) salt lake instead. A good example is the Dead Sea, which is very rich in Mg2+.

relative deficit in soluble magnesium or calcium, so that they do not alter the saturation of carbonate ions.

According to Linhoff et al. 2011, soda lakes form instead of saline chloride lakes when the concentration of bicarbonate (HCO−
3) in its water is more than two times that of calcium (Ca).[24]

Natronophily indicates a preference for sodium carbonates over sodium chloride, the dominant salt in thalassic (hyper)saline environments, and is based on the fundamental difference in the electrolytic and osmotic properties of these two sodium salts.[25]

The active incorporation of H+ while eliminating Na+ enhances sodication of soda lakes, whose pH usually range from 9 to 13.[2]

CH4 fluxes from the soda lakes are considerably lower than those from the freshwater lakes, and that the soda lakes are a net sink for CO2, whereas the freshwater lakes are a source of CO2 to the atmosphere. The conservation of soda lakes thus has implications for local greenhouse gas dynamics, in addition to providing new research opportunities associated with extremophile life and biotechnology.[2]

But alkalinity can also rise by sulfate reduction[22] (see "Sulfur cycle" below), through bacteria.

Association with volcanic zones

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Soda lakes seem to be associated with active tectonic and volcanic zones.[26]

Endorheic lake

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An endorheic lake is a lake with no outflow of water. Such lakes can be of two types:

But there are exceptions to the "no outflow" rule: both Lake Kivu and Lake Tanganyika have outlets but also have the characteristics of soda lakes, and Lake Tanganyika even grows microbialites.[28]

Evaporation, climate

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Water evaporation is an important factor: it increases the concentration of bicarbonate ([CO32-]), which causes a rise in pH, which in turn induces sodium carbonates (soda ash, Na2CO3 and its hydrates) to precipitate.[7]

Climate-wise, soda lakes typically occur in hot, arid regions, as this favours evaporation and therefore concentration. But here again there are exceptions, most reknown of these being the soda lakes in Inner Mongolia (those around the Kherlen River, and others), with a pH around 10 and each of their total inorganic carbon (TIC) and chlorine ion (Cl−) rising up to more than 1,000 mM.[a] They are close to the southernmost extent of permafrost of the Russian taiga, north of the Gobi Desert,[30] and they freeze solid in winter.[31][b] But the local climate is semi-arid, with only 207 mm mean annual precipitation distributed unequally throughout the year. This means that groundwater recharge is relatively rare: only the largest precipitation events and snowmelt periods result in significant recharge.[34] 

As the water evaporates and calcite (CaCO
3) precipitates from the solution it crosses a "geochemical divide",[35] with the resulting residual solution evolving toward a Na:HCO
3–CO
3–Cl type with variable SO−
42, but with high pH, and little Ca or Mg in solution.[30]

The chemical evolution of inland evaporative brines is governed by the chemistry of the starting recharge dilute water (Hardie and Eugster 1970). Soda lakes result from the evaporation of a water where [Ca]\0.5 [HCO−
3].[36]

When this type of water is evaporated, calcite precipitates until almost all available Ca is removed from the solution.[36] 

As evaporation progresses, HCO−
3 and pH increase, while maintaining equilibrium with atmospheric CO
2. This geochemical divide is the first of two described by Hardie and Eugster (1970) for soda lakes.[36]

Stratification

[edit]

Many soda lakes are strongly stratified, with a well-oxygenated upper layer (epilimnion) and an anoxic lower layer (hypolimnion), without oxygen and often high concentrations of sulfide. Stratification can be permanent, or with seasonal mixing. The depth of the oxic/anoxic interface separating the two layers varies from a few centimeters to near the bottom sediments, depending on local conditions. In either case, it represents an important barrier, both physically and between strongly contrasting biochemical conditions.

Mono Lake, California: tufa columns at former groundwater outlets[23]

Microbialites

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Microbialites are sedimentary precipitations of carbonate induced by microbes or bacteries. Cyanobacterial microbialites are produced when mature soda lakes reach high calcium carbonate supersaturation values (saturation index or SI > 0.8, according to Kempe and Kazmierczak 1990).[37] 

Ongoing weathering within the crater lakes (as for lake Niuafo‘ou), or continuing evaporation in endorheic lakes lead to mature soda lake chemistry and to a CaCO3 super-saturation (saturation index or SI = 1) that can sustain microbialite growth.[22]

In some soda lakes, inflow of Ca2+ through subterranean seeps, can lead to localized precipitation. In Mono Lake, California and Lake Van, Turkey, such precipitation has formed columns of tufa rising above the lake surface.

Biogeography and uniqueness (endemism)

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In addition to their rich biodiversity, soda lakes often harbour many unique species, adapted to alkalic conditions and unable to live in environments with neutral pH. These are called alkaliphiles. Among alkaliphiles organisms, those also adapted to high salinity are called haloalkaliphiles. Culture-independent genetic surveys have shown that soda lakes contain an unusually high amount of alkaliphilic microorganisms with low genetic similarity to known species.[38][39][40][41] This indicates a long evolutionary history of adaptation to these habitats with few new species from other environments becoming adapted over time.

In-depth genetic surveys also show an unusually low overlap between the microbial communities present in the various soda lakes with only slightly different conditions such as pH and salinity.[42][40] This trend is especially strong in the bottom layer (hypolimnion) of stratified lakes,[43] probably because of the isolated character of such environments. Diversity data from soda lakes suggest the existence of many endemic microbial species, unique to individual lakes.[42][40] This is a controversial finding, since conventional wisdom in microbial ecology dictates that most microbial species are cosmopolitan and dispersed globally, thanks to their enormous population sizes, a famous hypothesis first formulated by Lourens Baas Becking in 1934 ("Everything is everywhere, but the environment selects").[44]

Classification

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According to the Kurnakovo-Valyashko classification, salt lakes are usually divided into carbonate, sulfate and chloride chemical types. Sometimes they are also distinguished by their acidic and basic types, sodium and magnesium subtypes. Lakes with a pH of more than 9.0 are usually classified as basic types, lakes with a pH less than 9.0 and the predominant Cl- anion are typical of chloride types; lakes with a pH less than 9.0 and the predominant SO42- anion are typical of sulfate types.[45]

Biodiversity

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Soda lakes are unusually highly productive ecosystems, compared to their (pH-neutral) freshwater counterparts.[1] Gross primary production (photosynthesis) rates above 10 g C m−2 day−1 (grams of carbon per square meter per day), over 16 times the global average for lakes and streams (0.6 g C m−2 day−1), have been measured.[46] This makes them one of the most productive aquatic environments on Earth.[47] 

The primary production in most soda lakes is high due to a dense population of haloalkaliphilic cyanobacteria.[48]

Low and moderately saline soda lakes (total salinity between 35 and 50 g/L and 50 and 250 g/L, respectively) are highly productive and harbor fully functional and diverse haloalkaliphilic microbial communities responsible for the cycling of chemical elements, such as carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur. Under hypersaline conditions (total salinity > 250 g/L) the diversity is restricted to a few extremely salt-tolerant specialists. The carbon and nitrogen cycles are presumably partly inhibited, as follows from the lack of cultured methanotrophs at moderate salinity and the cessation of nitrification at high salt concentrations.[49]

A deep sea environment (Campos dos Goytacazes, Brazilian Atlantic Ocean) and one of the soda lakes in Nhecolândia (Pantanal, Brazil) harbour Mimiviridae members that surprisingly presents a long, thick tail, as they grow on Acanthamoeba castellanii and Vermamoeba vermiformis. We named these strains Tupanvirus soda lake and Tupanvirus deep ocean
This tail is the longest described in the virosphere
these giant viruses present the largest translational apparatus within the known virosphere[3]

alkaline-saline aquatic ecosystems of soda lakes are dominated by well-adapted extremophile life such as cyanobacteria (Dundas, 1998; Knauth, 1998), giant mimiviruses (Abrahão et al., 2018) and aerobic and anaerobic archaea, prokaryotes and eukaryotes (Visscher et al., 2010). Cyanobacteria and haloarchaea in soda lakes (McGenity et al., 2000; Malone et al., 2012) usually rely on Na+/H+ antiporter systems that maintain neutral pH in the cell solution under extreme alkalinity (Elanskaya et al., 2002; Summerfield and Sherman, 2008). The antiporter consists of a protein catalyst that exchanges Na+ and H+ through cell membranes. This microbial skillset likely appeared during early evolution and is commonplace to several biophysical processes such as euryhalinity and pH regulation.[2]

Microbial diversity

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Soda lakes are inhabited by a rich diversity of microbial life,[c] often in dense concentrations. This leads to permanent or seasonal "algae blooms" with visible colouration in many lakes. The colour varies between particular lakes, depending on their predominant life forms and can range from green to orange or red.[1]

Lesser flamingos (Phoenicopterus minor) feeding on cyanobacteria in Lake Nakuru, Kenya

In general, the microbial biodiversity of soda lakes is relatively poorly studied. Many studies have focused on the primary producers, namely the photosynthesizing cyanobacteria or eukaryotic algae (see Carbon cycle). As studies have traditionally relied on microscopy, identification has been hindered by the fact that many soda lakes harbour species that are unique to these relatively unusual habitats and in many cases thought to be endemic, i.e. existing only in one lake.[43] The morphology (appearance) of algae and other organisms may also vary from lake to lake, depending on local conditions, making their identification more difficult, which has probably led to several instances of taxonomic confusions in the scientific literature.

Molecular methods such as DNA fingerprinting or sequencing have been used to study the diversity of organisms in soda lakes.[43][38][39][40][41][d] For instance, 16S ribosomal RNA gene has revealed that the bacterial community of the lake with the highest salinity was characterized by a higher recent accelerated diversification than the community of a freshwater lake, whereas the phylogenetic diversity in the hypersaline lake was lower than that in a freshwater lake.[50]

Micro-organisms

[edit]

Contrary to freshwater ecosystems, their living organisms are often completely dominated by prokaryotes, i.e. bacteria and archaea, particularly in lakes with more "extreme" conditions (higher alkalinity and salinity or lower oxygen content).[42]

Their microbial richness and activity are also very different from that of other high-salt systems. This is essentially due to the main physico-chemical features of two dominant salts: sodium chloride (NaCl) in neutral saline systems and sodium carbonates in highly alkaline soda lakes, that influence the amount of energy required for osmotic migration of molecules.[53] 

Hypersaline soda brines are dominated by the extremely haloalkaliphilic unicellular cyanobacterium Euhalothece natronophila. Haloalkaliphilic cyanobacteria are most dominant at moderate salinity, whilst at higher salt concentrations only extremely salt-tolerant unicellular green algae, such as Dunaliella viridis and Picocystis salinarum, can thrive.[48]

Macro-organisms

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A rich diversity of eukaryotic algae, protists and fungi have also been encountered in many soda lakes.[42]

Multicellular animals such as crustaceans (notably the brine shrimp Artemia and the copepod Paradiaptomus africanus) and fish (e.g. Alcolapia), are also found in many of the less extreme soda lakes, adapted to the conditions of these alkalic and often saline environments. Particularly in the East African Rift Valley, microorganisms in soda lakes also provide the main food source for vast flocks of the lesser flamingo (Phoeniconaias minor). The cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina) are a particularly preferred food source for these birds, owing to their large cell size and high nutritional value. Declines in East African soda lake productivity due to rising water levels threaten this food source. This may force lesser flamingos to move north and south, away from the equator.[47]

Chemical cycles and linked organisms

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Carbon cycle, photosynthesis and methanogenesis

[edit]
Cyanobacteria of the genus Arthrospira (synonymous to "Spirulina")
a combination of high phytoplankton standing crop and above-average biomass-specific rates, partly due the large reserve of CO2 for localized photosynthetic activity[54]

Autotrophic primary producers in soda lakes able to fix inorganic CO2 into organic polymers include oxygenic and anoxygenic haloalkaliphilic phototrophs and some chemolithoautotrophs.[48]

Photosynthesis produces chemical energy stored in intracellular organic compounds containing carbon. It dominates the activity at the surface of soda lakes and this process provides the primary energy source for life in the lake.[55]
The most important photosynthesizers are typically cyanobacteria, but in many less "extreme" soda lakes, eukaryotes such as green algae (Chlorophyta) can also dominate. The major genera of cyanobacteria typically found in soda lakes include Arthrospira (formerly Spirulina) (notably A. platensis), Anabaenopsis,[55] Cyanospira, Synechococcus or Chroococcus.[56] In more saline soda lakes, haloalkaliphilic archaea such as Halobacteria and bacteria such as Halorhodospira dominate photosynthesis. However, it is not clear whether this is an autotrophic process or if these require organic carbon from cyanobacterial blooms, occurring during periods of heavy rainfall that dilute the surface waters.[1]

Below the surface, anoxygenic photosynthesizers using other substances than carbon dioxide for photosynthesis also contribute to primary production in many soda lakes. These include purple sulfur bacteria such as Ectothiorhodospiraceae and purple non-sulfur bacteria such as Rhodobacteraceae (for example the species Rhodobaca bogoriensis isolated from Lake Bogoria[57]).

The photosynthesizing bacteria provide a food source for a vast diversity of aerobic and anaerobic organotrophic microorganisms from phyla including Pseudomonadota, Bacteroidota, Spirochaetota, Bacillota, Thermotogota, Deinococcota, Planctomycetota, Actinomycetota, Gemmatimonadota, and more.[1][42] The anaerobic fermentation of organic compounds originating from the primary producers, results in one-carbon (C1) compounds such as methanol and methylamine.

Methane cycle
The methane cycle in soda lakes is an important part of the microbial carbon cycle. Methanogenic activity in their anaerobic sediments is dominated by methylotrophic methanogenesis

[WRONG : methylotrophs are microorganisms that can use C1 compounds, such as methanol or methane. Probably confusion due to the genus Methylomicrobium.] 

— rather than hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis (organisms reducing carbon dioxide to produce methane) —, and absence of acetoclastic processes (anaerobic archaea converting acetic acid to methane).[58]
Aerobic methanotrophs in soda lakes are dominated by low salt-tolerant alkaliphiles from the Gammaproteobacterial genus Methylomicrobium (Sorokin et al. 2000; Trotsenko and Khmelenina 2002). Assuming that methanotrophic alkaliphiles cannot grow at salinities above 1.5 M of total Na+, while methane production still occurs at these high salinity values, the methane cycle in hypersaline soda lakes may be incomplete, similar as in hypersaline chloride–sulfate lakes (Conrad et al. 1995).[58]

At the bottom of lakes (in the sediment or hypolimnion), methanogens use these compounds to derive energy, by producing methane, a procedure known as methanogenesis. A diversity of methanogens including the archaeal genera Methanocalculus, Methanolobus, Methanosaeta, Methanosalsus and Methanoculleus have been found in soda lake sediments.[1][59] When the resulting methane reaches the aerobic water of a soda lake, it can be consumed by methane-oxidizing bacteria such as Methylobacter or Methylomicrobium.[1]

Sulfur cycle

[edit]

Sulfur-reducing bacteria are common in anoxic layers of soda lakes. These reduce sulfate and organic sulfur from dead cells into sulfide (S2−). Anoxic layers of soda lakes are therefore often rich in sulfide. As opposed to neutral lakes, the high pH prohibits the release of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) in gas form. Genera of alkaliphilic sulfur-reducers found in soda lakes include Desulfonatronovibrio and Desulfonatronum.[1] These also play important an ecological role besides in the cycling of sulfur, as they also consume hydrogen, resulting from the fermentation of organic matter.

Sulfur-oxidating bacteria instead derive their energy from oxidation of the sulfide reaching the oxygenated layers of soda lakes. Some of these are photosynthetic sulfur phototrophs, which means that they also require light to derive energy. Examples of alkaliphilic sulfur-oxidizing bacteria are the genera Thioalkalivibrio, Thiorhodospira, Thioalkalimicrobium and Natronhydrogenobacter.[1]

Nitrogen and other nutrients

[edit]

Nitrogen is a limiting nutrient for growth in many soda lakes, making the internal nitrogen cycle very important for their ecological functioning.[60] One possible source of bio-available nitrogen is diazotrophic cyanobacteria, which can fix nitrogen from the atmosphere during photosynthesis. However, many of the dominant cyanobacteria found in soda lakes such as Arthrospira are probably not able to fix nitrogen.[1] Ammonia, a nitrogen-containing waste product from degradation of dead cells, can be lost from soda lakes through volatilization because of the high pH. This can hinder nitrification, in which ammonia is "recycled" to the bio-available form nitrate. Nevertheless, ammonia oxidation seems to be efficiently carried out in soda lakes in either case, probably by ammonia-oxidizing bacteria as well as Thaumarchaea.[60]

Limiting nutrients for phytoplankton growth

[edit]

A recurrent assertion still found in many publications up to the 2020s, is that nitrogen is the dominant limiting nutrient for phytoplankton growth in tropical lakes(soda lakes and non-soda lakes).[e] This assertion is due to the difficulty in measuring phytoplankton nutrient limitation in situ and to the paucity of tropical inland water research.[63] A 2023 review of studies regarding limitation factors in 114 tropical lakes[64] has found that there is a wide range of nutrient limitation factors, and each lake often has several dominant limiting nutrients according to seasonal patterns of water column stratification and precipitation, land use and land cover, and the interaction of these characteristics with lake morphology.[65]

Apart from straightforward nutrients limitations, some of the other limitation factors may be light limitation caused by mixing depth or increased suspended matter from various causes, or seasonal changes in stratification, or a number of other factors.[66].

List of soda lakes

[edit]
Flamingos feeding at Lake Nakuru, Kenya
Lake Turkana, Kenya
Lake Eyasi, Tanzania
Pangong lake, India & Tibet
2010 satellite view of Sambhar Salt Lake, India
Torey lakes, Mongolia
Lake Specchio di Venere, Pantelleria island, Italy
Malham Tarn, N. Yorkshire, UK
Astronaut photograph of the mostly dry bed of Owens Lake, Ca, USA
Mono Lake, view from the south
Niuafo'ou lake, Tonga

The following table lists some examples of soda lakes by region, listing country, pH and salinity. NA indicates 'data not available':

Continent Name Country pH Salinity
Africa Lake Ngami[67] Botswana
Sua Pan Botswana 19%
Rombou Lake Chad 10.2[68] 2%[67]
Wadi El Natrun lakes Egypt 9.5 5%
Lake Arenguadi (Green Lake) Ethiopia 9.5–9.9[42] 0.25%[67]
Lake Basaka Ethiopia 9.6[42] 0.3%[67]
Lake Shala Ethiopia 9.8[42] 1.8%[67]
Lake Abijatta Ethiopia 9.9[42] 3.4%[67]
Lake Chitu[f] Ethiopia 10.3[42] 5.8%[67]
Lake Bogoria[69] Kenya 10.5 3.5%[67]
Lake Elmenteita[69][70] Kenya NA NA
Lake Logipi Kenya 9.5–10.5 2–5%[67]
Lake Magadi Kenya 10 >10%[67]
Lake Nakuru[69] Kenya 10.5[67] NA
Lake Sonachi (Crater Lake)[69] Kenya NA NA
Lake Turkana Kenya 8.5–9.2[67][71] 0.25%[67]
Malha Crater Lake Sudan 9.5–10.3[67] NA
Lake Balangida[67] Tanzania NA NA
Empakai Crater lake[26] Tanzania
Lake Eyasi Tanzania 9.3[72] 0.5%[67]
Lake Manyara Tanzania 9.5–10[67][72] NA
Momela Lakes Tanzania 9.7 22%
Lake Natron Tanzania 9–10.5 >10%[67]
Lake Rukwa Tanzania 8–9[72][67] NA
Asia Guozha lake[73] China NA NA
Qinghai Lake China 9.3[74] 2.2%[67]
Lake Zabuye (Drangyer) China 10[67] NA
Kartsakhi Lake Georgia/Turkey NA 0.09%
Khyagar Lake[68] India 9.5 0.6%[73]
Kushul lake India NA NA
Lonar Lake[75] (Crater Lake) India 9.5–10.5[38] 1%[67]
Namucuo Lake India 9.4[74] 0.2%[67]
Sambhar Salt Lake India 9.5 7%[67]
Tso Kar Salt Lake India 8.8[67] NA
Tso Moriri Salt Lake India 9.0[67] NA
Aksayqin Hu Lake Aksai Chin, India/China NA NA[73][76]
Lake Hongshan Hu[67] Aksai Chin, India/China NA NA
Pangong Lake India & China 9.4 0.9%[67][77]
Spanggur Tso (Pongur Tso)[67] India & China NA NA
Surigh Yilganing Kol[67] Aksai Chin, India/China NA NA
Tianshuihai lake Aksai Chin, India/China NA NA
North Tianshuihai lake[67] Aksai Chin, India/China NA NA
Tso Tang Lake[67] Aksai Chin, India/China NA NA
Satonda Island Indonesia 8.55
Kulunda Steppe (lake Borli) Kazakhstan 8.89—9.16 5.7—6.2%[73][78]
Kulunda Steppe (lakes Bitter)[79][80] Kazakhstan Bitter 1: 9.6—10.53
Bitter 3: 9.9—10.5[81] 		Bitter 1: 85—400 g/L
Bitter 3: 25—200 g/L (depending on the year of sampling)[81]
Kulunda Steppe (lakes Gorchina)[82][83] Kazakhstan
Kulunda Steppe (lake Khilganta)[80] Kazakhstan
Kulunda Steppe (lake Krivoe or Crooked Lake, Uglovsky district) Kazakhstan 9.1 (2014) 210 g/L[81]
Kulunda Steppe (Petukhovskoe Sodovoe[79][81] or Cock Soda Lake,[83] Klyuchevskoi district) Kazakhstan 10.2 (2011)—9.9 (2016)[81] 200 g/L (2012)—55 g/L (2016)[81]
Kulunda Steppe (Salt Steppe Lake)[79] Kazakhstan
Kulunda Steppe (lakes Tanatar)[80][79][84] Kazakhstan Tanatar V: 10.1 (2015)
Tanatar VI: 10.0 (2011)[81]		 Tanatar V: 100 g/L (2015)
Tanatar VI: 160 g/L (2011)[81]
Kulunda Steppe (lake Uyaly) Kazakhstan 9.47—9.50 2.7%[78]
Kulunda Steppe (Zhivopisnoe lake or Picturesque Lake, Mikhaylovsky district) Kazakhstan 9. (2016) 85 g/L[81]
Gurvany lakes[g] Mongolia Gurvany-1: 9.14—9.90
Gurvany-2: 9.68[85]		 NA
Lake Hailaer[86] Hailar District, Mongolia NA NA
Shar Burdiin lake[g] Mongolia 9.77[85] NA
Taboos-nor[67] Mongolia NA NA
Tsaidam lakes[g] Mongolia Tsaidam-1: 9.22
Tsaidam-2: 9.07[85] 		NA
Torey Lakes Mongolia, Russia NA NA
Lake Khatyn Russia 10[67] NA
Lake Doroninskoe (Transbaikal Region) Russia

[87]

Lake Salda[67] Turkey NA NA
Lake Van Turkey 9.7–9.8 2.3%[67]
Europe Lake Neusiedl (Fertő) Austria, Hungary 9–9.3[67][88] NA
Böddi-szék Hungary 8.8–9.8[73][88] 12.34%[89]
Lake Fehér (Szeged)[67] Hungary NA NA
Kelemen-szék Hungary 9–9.7[73][88][90] NA
Nagy-Vadas[90] Hungary NA NA
Specchio di Venere[26][91] (Pantelleria Island) Italy
Velika Rusanda[92] Serbia 9.3[67][88] NA
Malham Tarn UK 8.0–8.6[93][94] NA
North America Manitou Lake,[67] SK Canada NA NA
Deer Lake[95] (Cariboo Plateau, BC) Canada
Goodenough Lake[95] (Bonaparte Plateau, BC) Canada 10.2[73] NA
Last Chance Lake[95] (Bonaparte Plateau, BC) Canada
Probe Lake[95] (Cariboo Plateau, BC) Canada
Lake Texcoco Mexico 8.8–11.5 8%[67]
Lake Alchichica Mexico 8.9[67] NA
Alkali Lake, OR US 11[73] NA
Baldwin Lake,[73] Ca US NA NA
Borax Lake, OR[73] US NA NA
Kauhako Crater Lake[20], Molokai, HI US
Mono Lake, Ca US 9.8[60] 8%[67]
Owens Lake, Ca[67] US NA NA
Soap Lake, WA US 9.7 0.7%[67]
Soda Lakes, NV US 9.7[67] NA
Summer Lake, OR[67] US NA NA
South America Nhecolândia lakes,[2][h] Pantanal Brazil 9.1—10.2[97] 352—4300 ppm[97]
Antofagasta Lake[73] Chile NA NA
Oceania Niuafoʻou Caldera Lake[98] Tonga
Lake Werowrap[68] Australia 9.8 4%[67]

Industrial use

[edit]

Many water-soluble chemicals are extracted from soda lake waters worldwide. Lithium carbonate (see Lake Zabuye), potash (see lake Lop Nur and Qinghai Salt Lake Potash), soda ash (see Lake Abijatta and Lake Natron), etc. are extracted in large quantities. Lithium carbonate is a raw material in production of lithium which has applications in lithium storage batteries widely used in modern electronic gadgets and electrically powered automobiles. The waters of some soda lakes are rich in dissolved uranium carbonate.[99] Algaculture is being developed on a commercial scale with soda lake water.[100][101]

Some soda lake extremophiles are of particular interest to biotechnologists because they can produce enzymes (extremozymes) that are active both at a high pH and high salinity; this opens onto a large scope of uses. For example, laundry detergents are improved with alkali-stable extracellular proteases, lipases, and cellulases. Halo-alkali-stable cellulases, that release sugars from recalcitrant lignocellulose in agricultural waste, can be used for the production of bioethanol. Nitrile hydratases catalyze the hydration of many varied nitrile compounds into commercially more valuable amides (e.g. acrylamide).[25]

Bioremediation is also very much concerned with soda lakes. Whole cells of haloalkaliphiles can be used for the sustainable removal of toxic sulfur compounds from wastewater and gas streams, and for the biodegradation of hydrocarbons and other organic (e.g. nitro-aromatics) and inorganic (e.g. arsenic, uranium) pollutants.[25]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The soda lakes in Inner Mongolia also have the highest known (as of 2010) natural concentration of dissolved uranium in surface water.[29]
  2. ^ Mongolia belongs to several sub-plates of the eurasian plate, with a great number of active faults particularly in western Mongolia.[32] The Bogd fault, a large fault zone, is on the northern edge of the Gobi-Altai mountains. It has been associated with several large rupture events, including one with a 8.1 magnitude in 1957.[33]
  3. ^ Independantly from the alkalinity factor and considering only the saline content, species richness (number of species present, or diversity) in highly saline lakes is surprisingly high, often rivaling that of freshwater ecosystems. Salinity is the primary factor regulating the diversification of bacteria and archaea, including the functional gene lineages involved in the denitrification pathway or the hydrolysis of chitin.[50]
  4. ^ These molecular methods are based on DNA extracted directly from the environment and thus do not require microorganisms to be cultured. This is a major advantage, as culturing of novel microorganisms is a laborious technique known to seriously bias the outcome of diversity studies, since only about one in a hundred organisms can be cultured using standard techniques.[51] For microorganisms, the phylogenetic marker gene small subunit (SSU) ribosomal RNA is typically targeted, due to its particular properties such as existence in all cellular organisms and ability to be used as a "molecular clock" to trace the evolutionary history of an organism.[52]
  5. ^ According to Fadum & Hall 2023, (Introduction), phytoplankton growth in temperate lakes has been regarded as being predominantly phosphorus (P) limited since Schindler 1977.[61] nitrogen as dominant limiting nutrient dates back from Lewis 2002.[62]
  6. ^ For Lake Chitu in Ethiopia, see also:
    • Assaye, Hirut; Belay, Amha; Desse, Gulelat Haki; Gray, David (2018). "Seasonal variation in the nutrient profile of Arthrospira fusiformis biomass harvested from an Ethiopian soda lake, Lake Chitu" (PDF). Journal of Applied Phycology. 30 (3): 1597–1606. doi:10.1007/s10811-017-1359-0. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
    • Ogato, Tadesse; Kifle, Demeke; Fetahi, Tadesse; Sitotaw, Baye (2014). "Evaluation of growth and biomass production of Arthrospira (Spirulina) fusiformis in laboratory cultures using waters from the Ethiopian soda lakes Chitu and Shala". Journal of Applied Phycology. doi:10.1007/s10811-014-0251-4. Retrieved 2024-07-14.
  7. ^ a b c For lakes Gurvany, lakes Tsaidam and lake Shar Burdiin (Mongolia), see "Kherlen River" > "Soda lakes, uranium and associated geology".
  8. ^ Nhecolândia, in south-central Pantanal, has over 600 soda lakes.[2] In 2014, one of these soda lakes in Southern Nhecolândia provided the second known sample of a new genus of viruses: Tupanvirus.[96]

References

[edit]
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