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Senses etc.

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Repro & dev

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Moulting??

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Lead

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File:Jumping spider - Heliophanus sp.jpg

Salticidae, from the Latin saltus, means "a leap".

Jumping spiders have more acute vision than other spiders, more acute than all insects including dragonflies, and more acute than cats'.

Body and jumping

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Further information: [[:Spider]]

{{Annotated image/Spider main organs}}
[[:File:Spider-characteristics.png|thumb|right|180px|Spider anatomy:
(1) four pairs of legs
(2) cephalothorax
(3) opisthosoma (abdomen)]]

thumb | right | Spider's chelicera, showing the fang almost completely folded away

Spiders are chelicerates, which differ from other arthropods in that the usual body segments are fused into only two tagmata, the cephalothorax and abdomen.[1] Jumping spiders have a distinctive rectangular carapace. [2]: 51  The carapaces of Brettus and Portia are raised, while that of Phaeacius is flattened.[3]: 495  All spiders' abdomens bear appendages that have been modified into spinnerets that extrude silk from up to six types of silk glands within their abdomen. The cephalothorax and abdomen are joined by a small, cylindrical pedicel, which allows the abdomen to move while spinning silk.[4]: 571-574  While most jumping spiders do not build webs to catch prey, they use silk for other purposes,[5] including molting and laying eggs.[3]: 495 

In spiders the heart occupies only the upper part of the abdomen, and blood is discharged into the hemocoel by one artery that opens at the rear end of the abdomen and by branching arteries that pass through the pedicle and open into several parts of the cephalothorax.[4]: 573,578 

Adults of the jumping spider Phidippus clarus can reach about the same size as an adult females of the crab spider Misumena vatia, in which females about to lay eggs can weight 400 milligrams (0.014 oz).[6]: 12-13 [6]: 278 

Jumping spiders have large forelegs and short, powerful back legs.[7] Unlike most arthropods, spiders have no extensor muscles in their limbs and instead extend them by increasing their blood pressure. Jumping spiders can leap up to 50 times their own length by powerfully extending the third or fourth pairs of legs,[4]: 578  reaching up to 200 millimetres (7.9 in) with the forelimbs extended to grasp the prey.[5] Their scientific name, Salticidae, is based on the Latin saltus, meaning "a leap".[5] Phaeacius's leg are stocky and spiny, while those of Brettus and Portia are slender.[3]: 495 

The bodies of female jumping spiders are 1 to 25 millimetres (0.039 to 0.984 in) long, and mostly 3 to 10 millimetres (0.12 to 0.39 in),[8] while the males are often only 0.6 to 1.8 centimetres (0.24 to 0.71 in).??

Largest jumping spider??

scopulae and moving up smooth walls and under ceilings do any jumping spider?[4] p. 576

Most have hairy and relatively heavy bodies, but some are slender and some mimic ants.??

In all except the most primitive group, the Mesothelae, spiders have the most centralized nervous systems of all arthropods, as all their ganglia are fused into one mass in the cephalothorax.[4]

Spiders' guts are too narrow to take solids, and they liquidize their food by flooding it with digestive enzymes and grinding it with the bases of their pedipalps, as they do not have true jaws. The "beards" on the fangs filter out solids left over from this pre-processing. Most spiders have relatively low metabolic rates and can survive long periods of starvation, but can double their body weight in one feeding.[4]: 576-577 

Senses

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File:Salticidae eyes diag.jpg "Squared-off" cephalothorax and eye pattern of jumping spiders.

left|thumb|300px|The visual fields of a jumping spider

Spiders, like other arthropods, have protruding through their cuticle ("skin") sensors, often modified setae (bristles), for smell, taste, touch and vibration.[9]: 532-533  Unlike insects, spiders and other chelicerates do not have antennae.[1][10]

All and only jumping spiders (salticids) have good vision, while both non-salticid hunting spiders and spiders that trap prey in webs have poor vision.[11]: 521  Jumping spiders' main eyes (the anterior-median eyes, also referred to as "principal eyes"[2]: 51 ) are unique and complex,[12] and can have thousands of photoreceptors,[12] providing a relatively sharp image.[4]: 578-581  The main eyes focus accurately on an object at distances from approximately 2 centimetres (0.79 in) to infinity,[2]: 51  and in practise can see up to about 75 centimetres (30 in).[2]: 53 

The main eyes of salticids are very large and their secondary eyes have no tapeta, while the main eyes of other spiders are small and their secondary eyes often have tapeta.[4]: 578-581  Some other spiders can also jump, but only salticids use their vision to leap on to prey and other targets[12] to 20 centimetres (7.9 in) away.[4]: 571-574  Like other spiders, salticids have other sensors over their bodies, collecting information about touch, vibrations, and taste.[4]: 578-581 [12] However, salticids use vision to differentiate between mates and rivals, predators and prey, different types of prey, and other features of the environment.[12] Jumping spiders often tip their bodies to one side when facing an object, as if trying to obtain more information, and can raise or lower their bodies to improve their view.[13]: 17-18 

how good in dark??

While most insects have compound eyes, spiders have camera eyes,[12] sometimes called "simple ocelli"[8] - similar to mammals' eyes in principle, but the details are very different. Many of the details apparently are to provide acute vision in small bodies.[12] Salticids have eight eyes, of which: the two large eyes in the center-and-front position (antero-medial), provide acute vision and are housed in tubes; six are secondary eyes, positioned along the sides of the carapace and acting mainly as movement detectors.[12][13]: 16 

The secondary eyes of members of the genus Portia are a little less acute than a honey bee's compound eyes, but more acute than those of a blowfly, a beetle, or a fruit fly.[12] However, a Portia′s main eyes are more acute than a dragonfly's (the most acute of insects), a rat's, a lizard's, a minnow's, a frog's, a cat's, a pigeon's or a chicken's - but are slightly less acute than a octopus', much less acute than the fovea (central area) of a human's, and very much less acute than a falcon's.[12] The dragonfly Sympetrum striolatus is thought to have the best vision of all insects, but Portia′s much smaller main eyes are 10 times more acute. The human eye is only 5 times as acute as Portia′s main eyes. At at a distance of 200 mm, Portia may be able to be discriminate between objects spaced only than 0.12 mm apart.[12]

(diagrams from 'Eight-legged cats', Cimbebasia 16, 2000, p. 236)

The two main eyes, at the center of the front, are in tubes that extend within and almost to the back of the head.[12] On the outside of each main eye is a cornea, a convex and transparent part of the cuticle,[14]: 445  which functions as a lens with a fixed and long focal length, and the pair cover a total of about 90°. A retina capable of collecting so much information would be far to large to fit into the main eyes, and the retina covers about 2-5°. A second lens near the rear of the eye tube magnifies the image, which then is collected in a complex retina with four layers of receptors.[12] A transparent, gelatinous vitreous humour fills the tube.[14]: 445 

Each retina is boomerang-shaped and covers a relatively small field of view,[13]: 15  and the images together form a shallow "><" as seen by the spider,[15]: 478  but do not overlap.[15]: 480  Six muscles attached to the outside of each main eye's tube, at the back end (the cornea is part of the carapace),[14]: 443  help each eye to pan in complex patterns[12] a little up and down, from side to side, and also twist.[14]: 446  They can work together or move independently[13]: 14  up to 25° apart,[15]: 480  and these movements of the eye's tube may be important steps in perceiving shapes.[12]

The retina consist of layers of receptors, conventionally number I to IV starting at the back. The receptors are embedded in a V-shaped pit that closes at the back of the eye,[15]: 447 [12] and part of each receptor is a cell body outside the pit's wall.[14]: 447-448 

Layer I has the most dense set of receptors, especially near the center, and these lie in the back of the pit.[14]: 447-448  This Layer's receptors have rhabdomeres[16] functioning like waveguides[17] and running from the cell bodies through the wall of the pit. The rhabdomeres point forward toward to the lens,[14]: 447-448  but their ends form a shallow staircase,[14]: 447-448 ,[12] with levels decreasing (further from the lens) toward the center of the body. As a result, Plexippus can receive in-focus images from objects at distances between about 3 centimetres (1.2 in) and infinity in front of it.[17]

The ends of Layer II's receptors form a loose wall ahead of Layer I, and those of Layer III's form a loose wall ahead of Layer II but with a hole in the middle.[14]: 447-448  Land (1969) regarded the ends of the receptors of Layer II and III as rhabdomeres, while Blest et al. (1981) thought these Layers had more than one type.[17] Layer IV's ends are scattered sparsely ahead of Layer III, and their ends have egg-shaped swellings,[14]: 447-448  and Blest et al. thought these also had more than one type.[17]

Jumping spiders' main eyes have receptors that respond to green and ultraviolet (UV).[17][18] A suggestion in 1976 that salticid also have receptors for blue–green and for yellow was unconfirmed as of 2007. In a test in 2000, salticids learn to distinguish a range from red to blue and also black, white and grey. However, the relative importance of hue and brightness are uncertain. Experiments in 1949 proved that the yellow patches on Corythalia xanthopa were essential for provoking threat displays. In 2007, it was found that the green color of the female Corythalia umbratica, enhanced by the UV-induced green fluorescence of her palps, is needed for starting and continuation of the male's courtship display, while UV reflections from the male's legs and body were essential to stimulate the courtship pose of females. A male of C. umbratica will threaten another male, or his image in a mirror, when UV light is present, but may perform a courtship display in the absence of UV.[18]

In most jumping spiders the middle pair of secondary eyes are smaller and cannot detect motion, while the other secondary eyes have wide visual angles that together cover the limitations of the middle pair. However, some members of the sub-families Lyssomaninea and Spartaeinae have large middle secondary eyes which function fully,[19]: 14-15  and those of some species cover the area above the carapace.[13]: 13  Phidippus can turn and move directly toward objects without scanning with the main eyes, which suggests that the secondary eyes' peripheral vision can recognise shapes.[13]: 16  When the secondary eyes find a moving object, the jumping spider may: flee, hide, or leap and freeze from a large, fast moving object; chase a small, fast one; and ignore a slow one.[19]: 20  Salticids' secondary eyes are only sensitive to green.[18]

If an image of an object covers about 10° from a salticid's point of view, it could be small prey close to the spider or a large threat further way, such a bird. If the spider makes a large turn compare two views of the object, it may scare prey or provoke a threat. This may be why jumping spiders prefer to make small turns.[19]: 20 

can't see much larger threats, e.g. mantis or bird??

Locomotion

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All spiders maintain balance when walking, so that legs 1 and 3 on one side and 2 and 4 on are moving, while the four legs are on the surface. To run faster, spiders increase their stride length and frequency.[20]: 328  However, many jumping spiders move on only six legs, using the front pair for other purposes.[2]: 52  Many and probably most salticids use a stop-go gait, walking quickly forward for a few centimeters, then waiting for 0.5 to 1 seconds, and then walking again, often a different direction. These readily leap over small gaps, for example a few centimeters between leaves.[3]: 498-499 [3]: 514  Why stop-go' In addition, Portias gait is described as "mechanical" or "robot-like".?? Phaeacius seldom walks spontaneously, but occasionally moves steadily and forward for many seconds and sometimes over 300 millimetres (12 in).[3]: 498-499 [3]: 514 

Spiders groom themselves regularly, and more often if wet or dirty. They moisten their fangs and draw the legs one at a time through the fangs and "combing" the legs with the fangs and palps. The first and fourth pairs of legs are then used to groom other parts of the body, and the only place they appear not to reach is the dorsal surface of the carapace.[2]: 53 

Brettus, Cyrba and ?? Portia move easily on both cribellate (with a wooly texture[4]: 571–584 ) and non-cribellate webs. Phaeacius does not enter webs voluntary, and moves away if it touches one accidentally. It can bites through the threads and pulling strongly with its legs. However, Phaeacius cannot escape from very sticky webs.[3]: 502 

When inactive, some species have no special posture, while others some use a special "cryptic rest posture" in which the legs are fold close to the body and the palps are pulled closely back and down. Phaeacius uses a "flattened posture" on a vertical surface, with the body, legs and palps pressed against the surface, the hindmost legs upwards and the rest downwards.[3]: 496-497 

When disturbed, some species usually ran away quickly and leap if chased. Phaeacius stays in the flattened posture unless harassed, when it runs quickly for about 100 to 300 millimetres (3.9 to 11.8 in) and then adopts the flattened posture, and finally walks away about 10 minutes later. [3]: 499-500 

Avoiding detection

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Some salticids avoid detection (crypsis[21]) by adopting the cryptic rest pose. The forms of some of these have features that make them look like detritus, and the disguise as detritus agitated by air currents helps Portia to invade other spider's webs.[3]: 514-515 

stop-go gait??

Portia's slow, mechanical gait disguises it.[3]: 514-515 

Brettus quick, agile movements may make this spider's bright colors a type of camouflage, as leaves and raindrops create flickering light. Phaeacius does not mimic detritus, but its coloration and its flattened body and resting pose make it look like part of a tree trunk. When it walks, its rocking motion may disguise it as shadows on the tree trunk. Cyrba lives in bright sunlight, which makes detection more difficult, although this spider's reddish markings may resemble the lichen on rocks around it.[3]: 514-515 

The long, slender legs of the spartaeines Brettus and Portia legs have fringes that obscure their outline.[3]: 494 

Intelligence

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Traditional accounts describe spiders as simple animals driven by instinct[12] mainly because spider's brains are much smaller than mammals.[19]: 5  However, individual jumping spiders of the same species appear to use slightly different tactics, and members of Portia switch their tactical preferences, for reasons so far unknown.[19]: 12 

Compared with other spiders, salticids' brains may be larger relative to the animals' total size, although minute when compared to mammals'.[12]

Among jumping spiders, members of the genus Portia have the most complex behavior as well as the most acute vision.[12]

Experiments showed that a species of Phidippus can use detours to reach its goal, but the experiments use only simple, short detours. Portia can use indirect routes, for example moving away out sight of the prey. With dangerous prey such as spitting spiders, Portia chooses detours even when direct routes are possible.[19]: 11-12  When encountering Jacksonoides queenlandicus, another jumping spider, Portia fimbriata first notices chemical cues and then looks for its prey.[19]: 12  It appears that all jumping spiders maintain internal maps and use them to move in any direction in three dimensions.[13]: 11 

If a jumping spider is shown its image in a mirror, the animal will probably leap at it, think the image is a competitor[18] - sometimes to the amusement of humans. No other spider will do this.[5]

In 1982 Jackson and Blest suggested that jumping spiders' ancestors made webs and had poor vision, and evolved acute vision while preying on a increasing variety of web-building spiders, and finally jumping spiders no longer needs webs for predation.[22]: 255  Most spiders of all types risk being caught in webs for which they not adapted, except that the jumping spider Portia seems successful against any type of web.[11]: 522 

Feeding and defense

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A vegetarian species was described in 2008,[23] but all other known species are predators, mostly preying on insects, on other spiders, and on other arthropods.[8] When prey is rare, for example during a few days of heavy rain, Jumping spiders occasionally take earthworm, which are full of protein but are much larger than salticids' usual prey.[24] The most common procedure is sighting the prey, stalking, fastening a silk safety line to the surface, and finally using the two pairs of back legs to jump on the victim.[8]

When attacking web-building spiders, several species approach the web, wait for a few minutes, and then vibrate the webs with their palps, usually for two to four seconds but sometimes for 10 minutes. Sometimes two palps pluck simultaneously, and at other times the two palps produce different tones and rhythms. When the prey spider approaches within a millimeters, the salticid lunges by slowly extending pairs I and II of its legs (the two foremost of pairs of legs), and then driving explosively with pairs III and IV. The salticid stabs the prey, which is usually paralyzed in about 20 seconds, while the salticid either grasps the prey or withdraws. If the prey stays within its web, some salticid species may very slowly approach the prey, using a step of about 2 millimetres (0.079 in) every 4 to 10 seconds and taking about 10 to 20 minutes to getting into range to lunge. If a web spider remains about 10 to 300 millimetres (0.39 to 11.81 in) after about an hour, the salticid may slowly raise pairs I and II of its legs and then leap. [3]: 500-501 

Brettus and Cyrba occasionally take insects struggling in the cribellate webs of Badumna longinquus and Stegodyphus mimosarum. Usually the salticid approached slowly then either bit the insect or waited and then lunged.[3]: 502 

Brettus and Cyrba eat the full egg sacs from the webs of theridiids and amaurobiids, but ignore the egg sacs of cursorial spiders. Apparently Phaeacius does not eat spider's eggs.[3]: 502 

Brettus and Cyrba also try to attack cursorial insects and spiders, by approaching quickly from 50 to 150 millimetres (2.0 to 5.9 in) and slowing as they get within about 20 millimetres (0.79 in). The predator may leap from one to three lengths of its own body, or lunge from a few millimeters. In either case, the predator first raises the first two pairs of legs and fixes a safety line of silk, and may then pause for two to 10 seconds. If the prey flees or the salticid misses, the salticid does not chase the prey. The whole process usually takes under a second. Brettus and Cyrba ignore both occupied and empty nests of cursorial spiders. Brettus and Cyrba stalk and occasionally catch cursorial salticids and the fishing spider Dolomedes, but salticid prey usually flees.[3]: 502-504 

While Brettus and Cyrba walk for most of the day, Phaeacius is unusually sedentary for a jumping spider, generally resting in the flattened pose for hours or days on logs, pieces of wood or any other solid surface. Insects can usually move around an inactive Phaeacius, or even over its body or legs. However, if the insect moves between the spider's first pair of legs, Phaeacius lunges extremely quickly, driving its body upward 2 to 3 millimetres (0.079 to 0.118 in) and forward about half the length of its body. The lunge ends with the spider's fangs in the prey and often with the foremost two pairs of legs forming a basket over the prey. When the prey stops struggling, Phaeacius resumes the flattened pose and then feeds.[3]: 502  However, Phaeacius can adopt two more active approaches, with different gaits for each. If an insect remained almost stationary while Phaeacius is in the flattened pose and facing the insect, the spider may step slowly, rocking and keeping its flattened pose. To rock, Phaeacius moves about half a body length forward then, without pausing, smoothly back almost to the previous position. The spider performs about 10 cycles of those movements, progressing by 1 to 2 millimetres (0.039 to 0.079 in), and then rests. The insect occasionally keeps stationary until the spider reaches within about half a body length and then lunges. Sometimes Phaeacius takes a more active approach, especially if not feeding for a week or more. In this case the spider may approach insects faster, from 50 to 100 millimetres (2.0 to 3.9 in) away, and if necessary turning right round to face the prey. Often Phaeacius then adopts the flattened pose after the turn, but sometimes it walks faster than usually and, without pausing, lunges from about half the spider's body length. Other jumping spiders show no awareness of a flattened Phaeacius, and apparently survive by luck.[3]: 502-504 

Phidippus can use landmarks to find prey that is temporary out of sight. Portia fimbria prefers other spiders, and experiments until something works. It may vibrate the webs of web-building spiders, and fake courtship to take other jumping spiders. Portia also builds its own webs to capture prey, which is unusual for jumping spiders, and sometimes its web adjoins another spider, so that Portia can the other spider when it pursues its own prey.[8]

Vegetarian - any others beside Bagheera kiplingi?

Prey includes: other jumping spiders;[19]: 12 ; spitting spiders;[19]: 12 

The genus Portia show signs of intelligence in their choice of tactics and ability to develop new ones.

Reproduction and lifecycle

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File:Spidermoulting.jpg

Spiders have separate male and female sexes. Before courtship, a male spins a small web and ejaculates on to it, and then stores the sperm in reservoirs on his pedipalps,[4]: 581-583  which are larger than those of females.[4]: 572-573  Like birds,[8] males of jumping spiders and other spiders with good eyesight court by dancing and posturing in front of females. In jumping spiders, these gestures involve a variety of movements and wavings of appendages,[4]: 581-583  which are often decorated with various combinations of brightly colored scales, tufts, fringes, knobs and spikes.[7][8] Females of some species respond by dancing round the male. Courtship of most species includes various combinations of: sounds that are inaudible to humans; stridulation; touch signals; and pheromones.[8]

In Phidippus clarus and P. johnsoni, males can detect females size and age based on chemical or pheromone signals left in the female’s silk. P. clarus males use this information to choose mates. Males prefer to cohabit with large females (Hoefler 2007), which mature more quickly and have more offspring than smaller ones. Among males of P. clarus, the largest are the most aggressive and thus the largest males and females mating, and so on in order of size.
"While male mate choice has been demonstrated ..." [25]

Male jumping spiders generally have larger jaws, and use them to hold females and grapple with other males. Males may also make aggressive displays, which sometimes results in attacks but more usually in the smaller one's retreating, apparently after using their vision to compare sizes. However, males of some species ignore each other after a brief glance.[8]

During copulation, the male inserts a pedipalp up to the female's seminal receptacles and expels sperm, which the female can store indefinitely.[4]: 581-583  In many species, possibly most, males can recognise and enter the silk sacs of females, and then copulate while the female is molting.[8]

Males of the salticid Maevia inclemens occur in two forms, a very rare phenomenon in zoology. In M. inclemens, the "tufted" morph has a totally black body, black pedipalps, white legs and three tufts of bristles on the front part of the cephalothorax. The "gray" morph has a black and white striped body, a prominent white stripe on the foremost eyes, striped legs and bright orange pedipalps, and no tufts. The female is rusty colored on the top of the abdomen and has a prominent white stripe below the foremost eyes. Each morph accounts for 50% of the adult males, and they make the same number of attempts to court females, but using a different courting display. In an experiment, 12 tufted (52%) and 14 gray males (54%) copulated with females after courtship. At the end of copulation, females try to capture and eat the males, but in the same experiment only one tufted and one gray male were killed. A count of offspring showed no differences in numbers of spiderlings from the two morphs. However, gray males got females' attention more quickly within 8 centimetres (3.1 in) while tufted males were quicker between 8 and 30 centimetres (3.1 and 11.8 in) from the females. The continuation of two male morphs may be an example of a mixed Evolutionarily Stable Strategy, in which both morphs are genetically determined by their fathers' morphs, and both are equally successful in their different ways.[26]

Between making eggs and lay them, the abdomens of females of some species become swollen.[3]: 495  A mature female jumping spider builds one to four egg-sacs in a thick silken cover. The egg membrane is shed in 24 to 26 days, but the hatchlings (the first instar) continue to mature in the cocoon. The first molt occurs about 24 to 28 days after the membrane is shed, two to three days later the spiderlings leave their protective cover and become active, independent individuals. They do not hunt immediately, even if prey is available, but spend several hours engaged in apparently random activity before seeking cover, where they remain between two hours and two days. About 10% of spiderlings build retreats during this period, while the rest do so only after they have fed.[2]: 52 

Evarcha culicivora prefers to feed on blood-carrying female mosquitoes. In an experiment, different males and females of E. culicivora were provided with: females of mosquito E. culicivora fed on vertebrate blood; the females of the same mosquito fed on sugar; male mosquitoes; and lake flies Nilodorum brevibucca. Both sexes of E. culicivora preferred mates that had blood-carrying female mosquitoes, and when the diets of specific females and males of E. culicivora were switched, those that now fed on blood-carrying female mosquitoes were now the most attractive to the other sex.[27]

Sociality

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Although there are over 5,000 salticid species, social species are very rare, as most jumping spider are solitary hunters, a lifestyle for which their excellent vision adapts them. In the temperate zones, many species over-winter in clusters of individual nests, and disperse as the weather becomes warmer. However, six species live in nests connected by silk near the shore of Lake Victoria in Kenya and Uganda. In the most common form of social living, called "cohabitation",[28] a male meets a sub-adult female (ready for her last molt) of the same species in her nest, the male courts her and then builds his own nest joined to her.[28][29]

Myrmarachne assimilis, a jumping spider from the Philippines, is unusual even among social salticids, as it builds nest complexes inhabited by adult females. Juveniles and males generally live in solitary nests. M. assimilis mimics the Asian weaver ant Oecophylla smaragdina, deterring predators by appearing similar to an unpalatable or dangerous species. These ants' workers are aggressive predators that sometimes kill adult M. assimilis, and often raid M. assimilis nests when there are eggs but the mother is absent, usually exterminating the clutch. Nests of alone spiders are most vulnerable, while nests of three or more spiders usually survived, even when the female spiders were absent. M. assimilis do not attack the ants or try to drive them away, but often spin more silk on the inside of their nests, possibly to reinforce the walls. There is no evidence that nests of M. assimilis females are based on foraging or on kinship, and it seems that natural selection has favored this spider's communities as a protection from the ants, especially for the spiders' offspring.[28]

Bagheera kiplingi

  • The journal art:[23]
  • Conference:[30]
  • News - Scientific American:[31]
    • species of ants and acacia
    • B. kiplingi named for Rudyard Kipling and the black panther character, Bagheera, in the author's 1894 Jungle Book
    • the Beltian bodies shows them to be 80 percent fiber, and "they're not by any means nutrient rich in the same sense as animal tissue,"
    • Meehan proposes that the social behavior might be "to reduce local resource competition and reduce aggression,"
    • The eating pattern allows more spiders to subsist on a plant than otherwise could get by eating the ant larvae directly
    • Meehan calls "more extraordinary than a flying pig"
  • News - Telegraph:[32]
    • B. kiplingi "named for the kindly panther in Rudyard Kipling’s The Jungle Book"
    • is a jumping spider that lives in acacia trees
    • symbiotic
    • males help the mothers look after their eggs and young.
  • News - PhysOrg:[33]

Cannibalism

Parental care

Molting

Some species spin a small platform suspended under a leaf and then hang upside down from this while molting and suspend the discarded exoskeleton from draglines.[3]: 496 

Lifetime

Bagheera

At about 1,400 metres (4,600 ft) above sea-level near Kisumu in Kenya,[29]: 14  some salticid species of the genera Menemerus and Pseudicius[34] build very large nest complexes, which is very unusual for spiders that hunt, and build in the webs of other spiders, which also unusual.[29]: 13  The host spiders themselves build inter-connected webs, which can cover all the branches of a large Euphorbia or cactus or a leaf of sisal, and house 50 to 100 adult and large juvenile females, along with males and small juveniles.[35] Sometimes the inter-connected webs span over more than one plant. Kleptoparasite spider of the genus Argyrodes also live in the nest complexes. [29]: 14  The salticid nest complexes generally contain all three species, with no sign of segregation and with equal populations in general, although the proportions vary sharply between nests.[29]: 15  These complexes are crudely spherical, about 20 centimetres (7.9 in) in diameter. The interiors mainly contained unoccupied nests and strips of silk from demolished nest. Some occupied salticid nests open on to the outside, while others can only be reached by walking through holes in the complex or across other nests. Each of the salticid species have many double nests, each containing an adult male and a subadult female. When the female molts, the male mates and then the pair separate. These salticid species walk easily on the salticid nests, but avoid any sticky parts of the host spiders' webs.[29]: 16  (good stuff at pp. 23ff)

Ecology

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Salticidae may be diverse as birds.[36] Estimates of jumping spider species range from over 4,000[5] to over 5,000 species,[8][36] accounting for about 10% of all spider species,[8] and possibly making them the most diverse family of modern spiders.[36] Some species prefer tree trunks, some prefer leaves, and some prefer to hunt on open ground.[3]: 495  While most jumping spiders species live in the tropics, they are found from Canada and northern Europe to Terra del Feugo and New Zealand,[8] and one species in the islands just south of New Zealand.[37] Only Sitticus lineolatus, common in forests in northern and mountain areas of North America, has been found in polar tundra around Tuktoyaktuk, in the northwest of Canada's Northwest Territories. In Greenland, Salticus scenicus was introduced in Viking times but has not been found since the 1700s.[37] Two species of Euophrys live in the slopes of Mount Everest: E. everestii around glaciers at less extreme altitudes; and E. omnisuperstes, whose species name means "highest of all", up to 6,700 metres (22,000 ft).[38]

What do E. everestii and E. omnisuperstes eat??

While jumping spiders are active in the day and especially in sunshine,[5] they are not restricted by extreme seasonal variations such as in Minnesota nor extreme cold as in the Himalaya Mountains. However, Cutler tentatively suggests that jumping spiders need hot, sunny days in spring and summer to feed and reproduce - for example he cites Bristowe's (1958) observation that jumping spider populations decrease from southern England to southern Scotland.[37]

Tests show that Psecas chapoda, which lives in bromeliads, chooses its home entirely based on the architecture of the plant and ignores other clues such as color or odor.[39]

Both sexes also use silk to build homes in sheltered places to rest overnight or during bad weather, and to hibernate.[8]

Habitats

A spitting spider from the Philippines, a member of genus Scytodes, prefers to prey on salticids.[12]

Some jumping spiders mimic ants, velvet ants or beetles. Jumping spiders that mimic ants normally do not eat ants, and this may be Batesian mimicry, in which a harmless species imitates the warning signals of a harmful species, thus deterring a common predator. However, some jumping spiders prey on ants without mimicking them.[8]

Predators, parasites

The Californian wasp Aporinellus completus parasitizes the salticids Evarcha hoyi, Habrocestum pulex, Maevia vittata, Pellenes borealis, Pellenes viridipes, Phidippus clarus and Sitticus palustris by paralyzing the spiders and attaching an egg to each spider's abdomen.[40]: 88-89 

An experiment in 2006 showed that P. clarus showed promise for controlling the fourlined plant bug, Poecilocapsus lineatus, which severely damages sweet basil, Ocimum basilicum, which is often commercially grown in greenhouses.[41]

Interaction with humans

Taxonomy

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Jumping spiders are a large family with many small genera. In the tropics, researchers have probably identified only a minority of those that exist.[7] Jumping spiders's simple genitals make it difficult to identify species. In many species, females and males look different, causing one-sex descriptions and complex synonymies (cases where one real species has been given various names).[8][42]

Bagheera (genus), Messua (genus), Nagaina (genus), Akela (genus) - from Kipling??

Fossil record

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File:Jumping spider in amber.jpg

As of 2009 there are very few fossils of jumping spiders, and all are preserved in Cenozoic amber. Sites include: around the Baltic Sea, in the Eocene, about 54-42 Ma (million years ago); around Chiapas (Mexico), from the Oligocene to Miocene, about 30-20 Ma; and in the Dominican Republic during the Miocene, about 20-15 Ma. Available fossils can only identify the latest time at which a group can have emerged,[43] a limitation called the Signor–Lipps effect.[44] Diversity of species increased by the Oligocene-Miocene transition, possibly helped by the warm conditions of the late Paleocene and Eocene.[36]

Hill and Richman (2009) suggested salticidae may have originated in the late Cretaceous and may have been derived from one of the other RTA dionychan clades (with a retrolateral tibial apophysis[36] and two claws on each foot[45]), which include Philodromidae, Thomisidae, Miturgidae, Anyphaenidae and Gnaphosidae.[36] However, Penney (2010) thought the evidence suggested that there were no salticids in the Cretaceous, as there are many salticid amber fossils from the Eocene onwards while spider amber fossils of the Cretaceous have not been convincingly identified as containing salticids. He said, "The search for a Mesozoic jumping spider has been, and will continue to be, one of the holy grails of palaeoarachnology."[46]

Family tree

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Summary of Coddington's cladogram (2005)[45]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S. and Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Chelicerata: Form". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. p. 555. ISBN 0030259827.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b c d e f g Forster, Lyndsay M. (1977). "A qualitative analysis of hunting behaviour in jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)" (PDF). New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 4: 51–62. doi:10.1080/03014223.1977.9517936. Retrieved 27 April 2011.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w Jackson, Robert R. (1986). "Predatory versatility and intraspecies interactions of spartaeine jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae): Brettus adonis, B. cingulata, Cyrba algerina, and Phaeacius sp. indet". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 13: 491–520. doi:10.1080/03014223.1986.10422979. ISSN 0301-4223. Retrieved 1 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S., and Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Chelicerata: Araneae". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 571–584. ISBN 0030259827.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  5. ^ a b c d e f Hillyard, Paul D. (2007). "Jumping spiders". The private life of spiders. New Holland Publishers. pp. 33–35. ISBN 9781845376901. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  6. ^ a b Morse, Douglass H. (2007). Predator upon a flower: life history and fitness in a crab spider. Harvard University Press. p. 377. ISBN 9780674024809. Retrieved 24 April 2011.
  7. ^ a b c Hogue, Charles Leonard (1993). "Jumping spiders". Latin American insects and entomology. University of California Press. p. 117. ISBN 9780520078499. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Richman, David B. (2008). "Jumping Spiders (Class Arachnidae, Order Araneae, Family Salticidae)". In John L. Capinera (ed.). Encyclopedia of entomology. Springer. pp. 2066–2068. ISBN 9781402062421. Retrieved 11 April 2011.
  9. ^ Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S., and Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Arthropoda: Sense organs". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 532–537. ISBN 0030259827.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Ruppert, E.E., Fox, R.S., and Barnes, R.D. (2004). "Chelicerata: Arachnida". Invertebrate Zoology (7 ed.). Brooks / Cole. pp. 559–564. ISBN 0030259827.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ a b Jarman, Elizabeth A.R. (1986). "The biology of Taieria erebus (Araneae, Gnaphosidae), an araneophagic spider from New New Zealand: silk utilisation and predatory versatility". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 13 (4): 521–540. doi:10.1080/03014223.1986.10422980. ISSN 0301-4223. Retrieved 1 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u Harland, Duane P. (2000). "'Eight-legged cats' and how they see - a review of recent research on jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)" (PDF). Cimbebasia. Proceedings of the 6th International Colloquium of the African Arachnological Society. 16. The African Arachnological Society: 231–240. Retrieved 31 March 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  13. ^ a b c d e f g Hill, David Edwin (October 2010). "Use of location (relative direction and distance) information by jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae, Phidippus) during movement toward prey and other sighted objectives" (PDF). Peckhamia. 83 (1): 1–103. ISSN 1944-8120. Retrieved 12 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  14. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Land, M.F. (1969). "Structure of the retinae of the principle eyes of jumping spiders (Salticidae: Dendryphantinae) in relation to visual optics" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 51 (2): 443–470. doi:10.1242/jeb.51.2.443. PMID 5351425. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  15. ^ a b c d Land, M.F. (1969). "Movements of the retinae of jumping spiders (Salticidae: Dendryphantinae) in response to visual stimuli" (PDF). Journal of Experimental Biology. 51 (2): 471–493. doi:10.1242/jeb.51.2.471. PMID 5351426. Retrieved 13 April 2011.
  16. ^ "Rhabdom - Definition from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary. Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. Retrieved 14 April 2011.
  17. ^ a b c d e Blest, A. D.; Hardie, R. C.; McIntyre, P.; Williams, D. S. (1981). "The spectral sensitivities of identified receptors and the function of retinal tiering in the principal eyes of a jumping spider". Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology. 145 (2): 227–239. doi:10.1007/BF00605035. Retrieved 14 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  18. ^ a b c d Land, Michael F.; Horwood, Julia; Lim, Matthew L.M; Li, Daiqin (2007). "Optics of the ultraviolet reflecting scales of a jumping spider". Proc. R. Soc. B. 274 (1618): 1583–1589. doi:10.1098/rspb.2007.0328. PMC 2169283. PMID 17456453. Retrieved 14 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  19. ^ a b c d e f g h i Harland, Duane P. (2004). "Portia Perceptions: The Umwelt of an Aranephagic Jumping Spider". In Frederick R. Prete (ed.). Complex worlds from simpler nervous systems. MIT Press. pp. 5–40. ISBN 9780262661744. Retrieved 12 April 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  20. ^ Anderson, D.T. (1998). "The Chelicerata". In D.T. Anderson (ed.). Invertebrate Zoology (1 ed.). Oxford University Press Australia. p. 467. ISBN 0915539419. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: checksum (help)
  21. ^ Matthews, Robert W. (2009). "Crypsis: "I'm not here!"". Insect Behavoir. Springer. pp. 187–189. ISBN 9789048123889. Retrieved 18 April 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  22. ^ Jackson, R. R.; Blest, A. D. (1982). "The biology of Portia fimbriata, a web-building jumping spider (Araneae, Salticidae) from Queensland: utilization of webs and predatory versatility". Journal of Zoology. 196 (2): 255–293. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.1982.tb03504.x. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |month= ignored (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  23. ^ a b Meehan, Christopher J.; Olson, Eric J.; Reudink, Matthew W.; Kyser, T. Kurt; Curry, Robert L. (2009). "Herbivory in a spider through exploitation of an ant–plant mutualism". Current Biology. 19 (19): R892-3. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2009.08.049. PMID 19825348. Retrieved 22 Apr 2011. Also online here and here
  24. ^ Ross, Lucian K. (September 2008). "A jumping spider feeding on an earthworm" (PDF). Peckhamia. 71 (1): 1–2. ISSN 1944-8120. Retrieved 27 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  25. ^ Elias, Damian O.; Sivalinghem, Senthurran; Mason, Andrew C.; Andrade, Maydianne C. B.; Kasumovic, Michael M. (2010). "Vibratory Communication in the Jumping Spider Phidippus clarus: Substrate-borne Courtship Signals are Important for Male Mating Success" (PDF). Ethology. 116 (10). Blackwell Verlag GmbH: 990–998. doi:10.1111/j.1439-0310.2010.01815.x. Retrieved 22 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  26. ^ Clark, David L. (2002). "Mating success and alternative reproductive strategies of the dimorphic jumping spider, Maevia inclemens (Araneae, Salticidae)" (PDF). The Journal of Arachnology. 30 (3): 511–518. doi:10.1636/0161-8202(2002)030[0511:MSAARS]2.0.CO;2. Retrieved 20 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  27. ^ Cross, Fiona R.; Jackson, Robert R.; Pollard, Simon D. (November 17, 2009). "How blood-derived odor influences mate-choice decisions by a mosquito-eating predator". PNAS. 106 (46): 19416–19419. doi:10.1073/pnas.0904125106. PMC 2780784. PMID 19887641.
  28. ^ a b c Nelson, Ximena J. (2008). "Anti-predator crèches and aggregations of ant-mimicking jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae)" (PDF). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 94 (3): 475–481. doi:10.1111/j.1095-8312.2008.01006.x. Retrieved 21 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  29. ^ a b c d e f Jackson, Robert R. (1986). "Communal jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae) from Kenya: interspecific nest complexes, cohabitation with web-building spiders, and interspecific interactions". New Zealand Journal of Zoology. 13: 13–26. doi:10.1080/03014223.1986.10422643. Retrieved 21 April 2011.
  30. ^ Meehan, C,J. Olson, E.J. and Curry, R.L. (21 August 2008). Exploitation of the Pseudomyrmex–Acacia mutualism by a predominantly vegetarian jumping spider (Bagheera kiplingi). 93rd ESA Annual Meeting. Retrieved 2008-10-10.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  31. ^ "Unusual Spider Species Passes Up Live Prey for Plants: A primarily vegetarian jumping spider gets ahead by taking advantage of ancient ant-acacia mutualism". Scientific American. October 12, 2009. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
  32. ^ Chivers, Tom (13 Oct 2009). "Vegetarian spider Bagheera kiplingi found in Central America". The Telegraph. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
  33. ^ "Herbivory discovered in a spider". PhysOrg.com. October 12, 2009. Retrieved 22 April 2011.
  34. ^ One species of Menemerus and two of Pseudicius, none named by the source.
  35. ^ The web-builders include species from the genera Argiope', Cyrtophora, Nephila and Nephilengys.
  36. ^ a b c d e f Hill, David E. (August 2009). "The evolution of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae): a review" (PDF). Peckhamia. 75 (1): 1–7. ISSN 1944-8120 ISSN 1944-8120. Retrieved 13 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Check |issn= value (help); Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  37. ^ a b c Cutler, Bruce (September 1982). "Extreme Northern and Southern Distribution Records for Jumping Spiders (Araneae, Salticidae) in the Western Hemisphere". Arctic. 35 (3): 426–428. doi:10.14430/arctic2346. Retrieved 7 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  38. ^ Swan, Lawrence W. (2000). "The Aeolian Biome". Tales of the Himalaya: Adventures of a Naturalist. Mountain N' Air Books. pp. 86–87. ISBN 9781879415294. Retrieved 7 April 2011.
  39. ^ De Omena, Paula M.; Romero, Gustavo Q. (2010). "Using visual cues of microhabitat traits to find home: the case study of a bromeliad-living jumping spider (Salticidae)". Behavioral Ecology. 21 (4): 690–695. doi:10.1093/beheco/arq040. Retrieved 12 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  40. ^ Wasbauer, Marius S. (1985). California spider wasps of the subfamily Pompilinae (Hymenoptera, Pompilidae). University of California Press. p. 130. ISBN 9780520099579. Retrieved 24 April 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  41. ^ Hoefler, Chad D. (2006). "The Potential of a Jumping Spider, Phidippus clarus, as a Biocontrol Agent" (PDF). J. Econ. Entomol. 99 (2): 432–436. doi:10.1093/jee/99.2.432. ISSN 0022-0493. Retrieved 25 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  42. ^ Gordh, George (2003). "Synonym". A Dictionary of Entomology. CABI. p. 903. ISBN 9780851996554. Retrieved 11 April 2011. {{cite book}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  43. ^ Hill, David Edwin (October 2009). "Salticidae of the Antarctic land bridge" (PDF). Peckhamia. 76 (1): 1–14. ISSN 1944-8120. Retrieved 7 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  44. ^ Signor III, P. W. (1982). L. T. Silver and P. H. Schultz (ed.). "Sampling bias, gradual extinction patterns, and catastrophes in the fossil record" (PDF). Geological Society of America Special Publication. Geological Society of America Special Papers. 190: 291–296. doi:10.1130/SPE190-p291. ISBN 0-8137-2190-3. Retrieved 7 April 2011. {{cite journal}}: Unknown parameter |coauthors= ignored (|author= suggested) (help)
  45. ^ a b Coddington, Jonathan A. (2005). "Phylogeny and classification of spiders". In D. Ubick, P. Paquin, P.E. Cushing, V. Roth (ed.). Spiders of North America: an identification manual (PDF). American Arachnological Society. pp. 18–24.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: editors list (link)
  46. ^ Penney, David (August 2010). "The evolution of jumping spiders (Araneae: Salticidae): the palaeontological evidence" (PDF). Peckhamia. 81 (1): 1–3. ISSN 1944-8120. Retrieved 14 April 2011.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)

Further reading

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[edit]
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