User:Pawyilee/Crawfurd Mission

Main article: John Crawfurd

British East India Company Governor-General Lord Hastings despatched Crawfurd's mission with the primary objective of learning Siamese intentions with regards to Penang Island, renamed Prince of Wales Island and held by payment of quit-rent to a Malay prince feudatory to Siam. A secondary object was to determine Cochin-Chinese intentions with regard an alliance with the French, both as these might affect the Company's trade with China. While en-route, Crawfurd learns a Malay vassal of the raja of Ligor, a vassal of the king of Siam, had fled his liege lord for asylum on Penang. This complicates negotiations with Bangkok, but proves to be of little consequence as the primary of objective of the Siamese was to obtain arms. Lastly, Crawfurd finds Emperor Minh Mang locked in rigid Confucian orthodoxy, and opposed to French or any other European involvement. The real value of the mission lies in the reports and their aftermath.

Mission composition

As recounted in the Journal of an Embassy from the Governor-general of India to the Courts of Siam and Cochin China ; exhibiting a view of the actual state of those kingdoms the mission embarked at Calcutta the 21st of November, 1821, and returned on December 29, 1822. Indian army officer Captain Dangerfield was appointed assistant and second in command, and he also proved to be a skilful astronomer, surveyor, and geologist. Lieutenant Rutherford commanded an escort of thirty Sepoys. George Finlayson (botanist abbreviation Finl) of His Majesty's Medical Service was attached as medical officer and naturalist. He also kept a journal of the mission, but died soon after returning. Sir Stamford Raffles edited and published it with a prefatory note. Both journals agree that the mission had little impact on the British Empire's commercial relations. That the mission had an effect on diplomatic relations was, however, evidenced in 1833 by an American envoy who, while in negotiations with the court of Huế, pointed to a copy of Mr. Crawford's [sic] account.

Siamese invasion of Kedah

Further information: Jessadabodindra § Revolt_of_Kedah

Kedah (Queda in Crawfurd's account) had, shortly before his December 11 arrival at the offshore island of Penang, been invaded by the Raja of Ligor, in a punitive attack on the "King of Queda," who had, in return for quit-rent, earlier ceded Penang to the Company, which then re-named it Prince of Wales Island. the population was alarmed because the Malay prince had taken refuge there. Early Kedha had once been a kingdom, but the ruler was then a vassal of the raja of Ligor, who in turn was a vassal of Bangkok. Hostile Burman and Siamese forces disputed over Malay territory in a state of perpetual distrust and insecurity all during Bangkok's wars with the Burmese Konbaung Dynasty, lasting well into the middle of 19th century. The Raja of Ligor had laid a levy on Queda for support, and retaliated in force when her ruler refused. When he then fled to Penang, the raja sent a letter to demand return of the fugitive, threatening punishment of anyone who should screen him. Crawfurd judged the letter insolent, and adds:

The terror of this threat alarmed the timidity of the native inhabitants, and the usual supply of grain and other necessaries, for which Penang almost entirely depends upon Queda, being interrupted, the settlement was subjected to considerable temporary inconvenience.

Crawfurd was then met by two acquaintances from Calcutta, descendants of Mohammedan settlers from Arcot on the Coromandel Coast, who had already supplied more useful and practical knowledge than that found in printed sources. They had already informed the Raja of Ligor of the mission. Two weeks later, December 24, two men arrive with messages from the Raja, disclaiming all hostile or unfriendly intentions towards the British in the invasion of Queda, despite a Siamese officer with thirty men having crossed into and plundered British territory. A native sergeant with twelve sepoys had taken them without resistance and sent them back. The messengers reported that those who had presumed to enter the British territories on the opposite coast in a hostile manner had been punished[and Cochin China. 21]. Crawfurd observes:

The appearance of the messengers was sufficiently uncivilized : — their dresses were scanty in amount, and not of the best description in point of quality. Above all, their bare and shaggy heads gave them a wild and unpromising aspect. Notwithstanding this, Mong Narrain, the principal, was a man of intelligence, and spoke with an air of much confidence and apparent frankness.

Crawfurd continues to regard Siamese as uncivilized. Later in Bangkok, the Siamese explain their position, which Crawfurd says was translated to him nearly as follow:

" The Governor of Ligor and the Rajah of Quedah are alike slaves of the King of Siam ; and if a dispute arise between them, they must both repair to the Court to have the matter settled...."

Crawfurd responds:

If the King of Quedah were of his own free will disposed to come to Siam, the British Government would put no obstacle in his way; but that if otherwise, no power should remove him, since he had thrown himself upon our hospitality.[252]

(Crawfurd assumes the Siamese lack the power to enforce their claims either way.)

Background

Further information: Mercantilism

From the 16th to late-18th centuries, Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse, and was a cause of frequent European wars in that time. European East Indiaman cargo ships were often armed and used as warships. The English East India Company was the first such company, but was nearly driven from the region by that of the Portuguese (1628 – 1633.) French trade lasted from 1664 to 1794, and Swedish, from 1731 to 1813. The Danish East India Company formed 1616 and reformed in 1730, was entirely lost in an 1801 battle with the British. The Dutch East India Company dominated the trade from 1602 to 1796, but went bankrupt and was formally dissolved in 1800. While it was slow in coming, the failures of the mercantilist system paved the way for for what Crawfurd advocated: Free trade.

South Asia

The concept of a British Empire was still evolving when the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland consolidated in 1801. In 1815, the annexation of Ceylon, marked the beginning of Pax Britannica, a "British Peace" imposed on key maritime trade routes, and the focus turns to the Straits of Malacca. In 1786, the Company had occupied Penang Island, shortly to become part of the Straits Settlements (1826.) Crawfurd had previously spent two years on the island and was personally acquainted with the Raja of Queda. This and his other attributes made him a logical choice as envoy to the region. Captain Dangerfield's presence reflects the latest British advancements in the history of longitude. Little was known about Buddhism at the time, and Crawfurd travelled with notes as it was understood by Horace Hayman Wilson.

The Siamese in particular were impressed by Crawfurd's knowledge of Buddhism. Both Courts, however, being ruled by dynasties, were reluctant to accept Crawfurd's assertion that Company rule in India effectively made the Governor-general a head of state empowered to act independently of his Monarch. On Crawfurd's part, a Palace economy as the monarchical equivalent of mercantilism struck him as mere avarice, and the formalities of a Gift economy, more of the same. Furthermore, while the 14th century BC phraseology in the letter accompanying Pu-Ba'lu's shipment of glass might have pleased ears of the Courts, Crawfurd deemed such formulas obsequious.

Southeast Asia

Further information: Mandala (Southeast Asian history), Bunga mas, and Burmese–Siamese wars

Java's first commercial empire, based at Majapahit in the reign of Hayam Wuruk (r. 1350-89) had declined with the spread of Islam in Indonesia; internal conflict prevented the sultanates from forming effective alliances against the Dutch, who, in turn, lost Java to the British in the invasion of Java (1811). The Khmer Empire (802–1431) collapsed into the Dark Ages of Cambodia, a period of continued decline and territorial loss from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. Conflicts in Dai Viet had little impact on

Climate

Paddy fields ([Na นา] Error: {{Langx}}: text has italic markup (help)) had long been the basis for of power among the principalities, as testified in the names Sibsongphanna, 12,000 Fields; Lanna, Million Fields; and in feudal ranks of King Trailokanat. Distribution of power underwent radical change during the cold period between 1550 AD and 1850 AD known as the Little Ice Age, disrupting the pattern of the monsoon. The interval began with the "greatest explosion of human energy ever seen in Burma" and ended with the British annexation of Pegu province, renamed Lower Burma. The Lê Dynasty that ruled from 1428 to 1788 was the longest ruling in Vietnam, but experienced serious difficulties from around 1550. The Nguyễn Dynasty began in 1802, but its court in Huế was too unstable to treat with Crawfurd. The Chakri Dynasty was on its second reign, and struggling to restore the preeminence of the former Ayutthaya kingdom.

it is this that of the desire by]control of or with letters addressed from the Governor-general, accompanied by such presents as are required by the usages of the East sent by, , to (now Thailand) and Cochin-China to the court of King Rama II was nearly the first official visit to one of the most powerful nations in the region since the Siam–England war of 1687 with the previous Siamese Ayutthaya kingdom. In 1821, Crawfurd's expertise had recognised by who sent him as an envoy to the courts of. http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Finlayson,_George_%28DNB00%29 FINLAYSON, GEORGE (1790-1823), naturalist and traveller, born of humble parents at Thurso in 1790, was clerk to Dr. Somerville, chief of the army medical staff in Scotland, and afterwards to Dr. Farrel, chief of the army medical staff in Ceylon, whence he was removed to Bengal, and attached to the 8th light dragoons as assistant-surgeon in 1819. In 1821-2 he accompanied the mission to Siam and Cochin China in the character of naturalist, returning with it to Calcutta in 1823. By this time his health was thoroughly broken, and he soon afterwards died. The journal which he had kept during the mission was edited, with a prefatory notice of the author, by Sir Stamford Raffles, F.R.S., under the title of 'The Mission to Siam and Hue, the capital of Cochin China, in the years 1821-2, from the Journal of the late George Finlayson, Esq.,' London. 1826, 8vo.. The mission embarked the 21st of November, 1821 on The John Adam, an Indian-built ship of about 380 tons burthen, Lord Hastings was especially interested in learning more about Siamese policy with regard to the northern Malay states.

Bangkok

Crawfurd's journal entry for April 1 notes that the Siamese, for their part, were especially interested in the acquisition of arms. Pointedly questioned in this regard in a urgent private meeting with the Prah-klang, the reply was, "that if the Siamese were at peace with the friends and neighbours of the British nation, they would certainly be permitted to purchase fire-arms and ammunition at our ports, but not otherwise, a Siamese chief coolly observed, "If you are at peace with all the world, why do you keep up so great a navy as that which you now describe?" On the heels of this dispute, the Prah-klang gave a formal audience to ambassadors recently arrived from Cochin China: "four in number, moving with that slow, measured, and solemn step which with us is confined to funeral processions." With so little understanding by the one side of the protocols of the other, there seemed little prospect of success. May 19, Crawfurd reports a visit from a "Chief of Lao" [ Anouvong ], who "appeared well-informed respecting his own country, which forms so interesting and considerable, but to Europeans so little known, a portion of the present Siamese Empire". This visit was despite the isolation imposed on the mission (which Crawfurd attributes to "extreme jealousy.") In mid-July ss Crawfurd was preparing to depart, the Phra-klang requested a final interview. In the course of long conference, the Prah-klang plainly stated that what the Court most required from the English were fire-arms. Respecting Quedah, he said that the Governor of Ligor would soon be at the capital, and that all matters should be amicably arranged. The contact with Siam paved the way for closer relations with Britain, leading King Rama II to ally his kingdom with the British in the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826). This in turn helped Captain Henry Burney conclude the Treaty of Amity and Commerce (Siam–UK) in June 1826. in the reign of King Rama III.

Mission to Cochin China

Vietnamese mandarins, illustration from Crawfurd's Journal of an Embassy to the Courts of Siam and Cochin-China.

Text to be added.

External links

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