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The microbiome of the respiratory system
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The cetaceans are in danger because they are affected by multiple stress factors, especially of an anthropogenic nature, which make them more vulnerable to various diseases. These animals have been noted to show high susceptibility to airway infections, but very little is known about their respiratory microbiome. Therefore, the sampling of the exhaled breath or "blow" of the cetaceans can provide an assessment of the state of health. Blow is composed of a mixture of microorganisms and organic material, including lipids, proteins and cellular debris derived from the linings of the airways which, when released into the relatively cooler outdoor air, condense to form a visible mass of vapor, which can be collected. There are various methods for collecting exhaled breath samples, one of the most recent is through the use of aerial drones. This method provides a safer, quieter, and less invasive alternative and often a cost-effective option for monitoring fauna and flora. Once obtained, the blow samples are taken to the laboratory and we proceed with the amplification and sequencing of the respiratory tract microbiota. The use of aerial drones has been more successful with large cetaceans due to slow swim speeds and larger blow sizes.[2][3][4][5][6][1][7][8][9]
In all the studies carried out, in addition to exhaled breath samples, seawater and air samples were collected to more accurately identify the specific microorganisms for exhaled breath.
Through various studies carried out on different cetaceans, among which, Humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae)[2][3] [4][9], Blue whale (Balænoptera musculus) [1], Gray whale (Eschrichtius robustus) [1], Sperm whale (Physeter macrocephalus) [1], Killer whale ( Orcinus orca) [7] and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus)[5][6][8], the respiratory microbiome has begun to be defined, i.e., a microbial community formed by a complex diversity of common microorganisms to all the specimens examined. These are very recent studies, so knowledge is very limited, only some microorganisms are known while others have not yet been identified and little is known about their functional role within these animals. Overall, the most common bacteria identified at the phylum level included Proteobacteria, Firmicutes, Actinobacteria, and Bacteroidetes.
Among the Proteobacteria, bacteria belonging to the families Brucellaceae and Enterobacteriaceae and to the genera Candidatus Pelagibacter, Acidovorax, Cardiobacterium, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Psychrobacter and some Deltaproteobacteria and Epsilonproteobacteria have been recognized.
Among the Firmicutes, bacteria belonging to the Clostridia and Erysipelotrichia classes and to the genera Anoxybacillus, Paenibacillus and Leptotrichia have been recognized.
Bacteria belonging to the Acidimicrobiia class, to the Microbacteriaceae family, and to the genera Corynebacterium, Mycobacterium and Propionibacterium (Cutibacterium), have been recognized among the Actinobacteria
Among the Bacteroidetes, bacteria belonging to the genus Tenacibaculum have been recognized.
To these are added bacteria belonging to the phylum Fusobacteria and Mollicutes.
Finally, potential respiratory pathogens were also detected, such as Balneatrix (proteobacteria) and a range of Gram-positive Clostridia and Bacilli, such as Staphylococcus and Streptococcus (both firmicutes).
Furthermore, one of the most common bacteria in the various cetacean species is the Haemophilus bacterium. These are opportunistic gram-negative coccobacilli, also found in the respiratory tract of humans and other animals, which tend to colonize but without causing the onset of infection. But during periods of immunosuppression these organisms can cause damage by generating meningitis and pneumonia.[1]
Some samples of killer whale blows were subjected to sensitivity tests, which revealed the presence of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria resistant to multiple antibodies such as erythromycin, lincomycin, penicillin and ampicillin.[7]
In addition to bacteria, some viruses have also been identified in whale exhaled breath. Among the most abundant bacteriophages were the Siphoviridae and Myoviridae, while among the viral families there were small single-stranded DNA viruses (ss), in particular the Circoviridae, members of the Parvoviridae and a family of RNA viruses, the Tombusviridae.[9]
To conclude the persistence of these central members, which make up the respiratory microbiome, in apparently healthy individuals suggests that they may be indicative of a healthy, uninfected lung system, and their presence or absence could be informative for cetacean health monitoring. In fact, in exhaled breath samples, of some specimens, a low number of cores and a lower biodiversity than that previously listed were found. An explanation for this phenomenon could be that the samples in question were collected from animals following migration and therefore the depletion of the microbiota may reflect a compromised state of health due to the consequences of migration.[4]
References
[edit]- ^ a b c d e f Acevedo-Whitehouse, K.; Rocha-Gosselin, A.; Gendron, D. (2010). "A novel non-invasive tool for disease surveillance of free-ranging whales and its relevance to conservation programs". Animal Conservation. 13 (2): 217–225. doi:10.1111/j.1469-1795.2009.00326.x. ISSN 1469-1795. Cite error: The named reference ":5" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b c Pirotta V, Smith A, Ostrowski M, Russell D, Jonsen ID, Grech A and Harcourt R (2017) An Economical Custom-Built Drone for Assessing Whale Health. Front. Mar. Sci. 4:425. doi: 10.3389/fmars.2017.00425
- ^ a b Apprill, Amy & Miller, Carolyn & Moore, Michael & Durban, John & Fearnbach, Holly & Barrett-Lennard, Lance. (2017). Extensive Core Microbiome in Drone-Captured Whale Blow Supports a Framework for Health Monitoring. mSystems. 2. e00119-17. 10.1128/mSystems.00119-17.
- ^ a b c C Vendl, B C Ferrari, T Thomas, E Slavich, E Zhang, T Nelson, T Rogers, Interannual comparison of core taxa and community composition of the blow microbiota from East Australian humpback whales, FEMS Microbiology Ecology, Volume 95, Issue 8, August 2019, fiz102,
- ^ a b Johnson WR, Torralba M, Fair PA, Bossart GD, Nelson KE, Morris PJ. Novel diversity of bacterial communities associated with bottlenose dolphin upper respiratory tracts. Environ Microbiol Rep. 2009 Dec;1(6):555-62. doi: 10.1111/j.1758-2229.2009.00080.x. Epub 2009 Oct 2. PMID: 23765934.
- ^ a b Centelleghe C, Carraro L, Gonzalvo J, Rosso M, Esposti E, Gili C, Bonato M, Pedrotti D, Cardazzo B, Povinelli M, Mazzariol S. The use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) to sample the blow microbiome of small cetaceans. PLoS One. 2020 Jul 2;15(7):e0235537. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0235537. Erratum in: PLoS One. 2021 Jan 22;16(1):e0246177. PMID: 32614926; PMCID: PMC7332044.
- ^ a b c Raverty, S.A., Rhodes, L.D., Zabek, E. et al. Respiratory Microbiome of Endangered Southern Resident Killer Whales and Microbiota of Surrounding Sea Surface Microlayer in the Eastern North Pacific. Sci Rep 7, 394 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-00457-5
- ^ a b Lima N, Rogers T, Acevedo-Whitehouse K, Brown MV. Temporal stability and species specificity in bacteria associated with the bottlenose dolphins respiratory system. Environ Microbiol Rep. 2012 Feb;4(1):89-96. doi: 10.1111/j.1758-2229.2011.00306.x. Epub 2011 Nov 27. PMID: 23757234.
- ^ a b c d Geoghegan, J.L.; Pirotta, V.; Harvey, E.; Smith, A.; Buchmann, J.P.; Ostrowski, M.; Eden, J.-S.; Harcourt, R.; Holmes, E.C. Virological Sampling of Inaccessible Wildlife with Drones. Viruses 2018, 10, 300. https://doi.org/10.3390/v10060300