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User:Kharbaan Ghaltaan/Article of the State of Palestine

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Palestine, officially known as the State of Palestine, is a country

History (???)

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Pre-history

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From 12,500 – 9,500 BCE Palestine was inhabited by people from the Natufian culture, followed by Pre-Pottery Neolithic, Tahunian and Ghassulian.[1] Located near the Dead Sea, Jericho is one of the continuously inhabited cities in the world.[1] By 6000 BCE Jericho was an agricultural walled city of 3,000 people in 8-10 acres.[1]

Ancient history

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The ancient history has been dominated by various civilizations.[2] Around 1200 BCE, Canaanite city-states and kingdoms emerged in the region.[2] In 1175 BCE, there was a Philistine invasion and settlement along the coast.[2] Around 1000 BCE, King David established Jerusalem as the capital of the Israelite kingdom.[2] In the 13th century BCE, Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt during the Exodus and received the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai.[2] Joshua succeeded Moses as the leader of the Israelites and led the conquest of Canaan, establishing the Israelite presence in the land.[2] In the 11th century BCE, the prophet Samuel anointed Saul as the first king of Israel, marking the transition from a tribal confederation to a centralized monarchy.[2]

Solomon, David's son, succeeded him as king and oversaw the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem, symbolizing the centrality of worship in the Israelite kingdom.[2] After Solomon's death, the kingdom was divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel, consisting of ten tribes, and the southern Kingdom of Judah, comprised of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in 928 BCE.[2] The northern Kingdom of Israel faced a series of wicked kings and fell into idolatry and moral decline, leading to its conquest by the Assyrians in 722 BCE.[2] The southern Kingdom of Judah experienced periods of faithfulness and unfaithfulness to God, with prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah warning of impending judgment.[2]

In 586 BCE, the Babylonians, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, destroyed Jerusalem, including the First Temple, and exiled a significant portion of the population to Babylon.[2] In 538 BCE, following the conquest of Babylon, Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem.[2] Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, the construction of the Second Temple commenced in 516 BCE, marking a significant milestone for Jewish rule in Palestine.[2]

Classical Antiquity

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In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great's conquest brought Palestine under Hellenistic rule, introducing Greek influence to the region.[3] In 167 BCE, the Maccabean Revolt broke out against the Seleucid Empire's attempts to suppress Jewish religious practices, leading to the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty.[3] The Hasmonean dynasty ruled over an independent Jewish state in Palestine from 140 BCE to 63 BCE, with notable figures such as Judah Maccabee and John Hyrcanus.[3]

In 63 BCE, Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem, establishing Roman authority over Palestine. Roman rule in Palestine began in 6 CE when direct governance was implemented, appointing procurators to administer Judea. The First Jewish-Roman War erupted in 66 CE as a Jewish revolt against Roman rule, resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem's Second Temple in 70 CE. In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt, another major Jewish uprising, challenged Roman authority but was eventually suppressed in 135 CE. Roman citizenship was granted to free inhabitants of the Roman Empire, including those in Palestine, by Emperor Caracalla in 212 CE.

The spread of Christianity gained momentum during Roman rule, leading to the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem by Emperor Constantine in 326 CE. A devastating earthquake struck the region in 363 CE, causing significant destruction and loss of life. Palestine became a significant destination for Christian pilgrims in the 4th century as the Roman Empire underwent Christianization. Byzantine rule began to influence Palestine in the 5th century as the Roman Empire declined. Jewish communities faced restrictions and persecution under Roman rule, resulting in the diaspora and the scattering of Jewish populations throughout the empire. Tensions between the Jewish population and Roman authorities during the period of Roman rule often led to uprisings and revolts.[3]

In 324 CE, Byzantine Emperor Constantine I declared Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, laying the foundation for Byzantine rule over Palestine. Under Byzantine rule, the Council of Nicaea was convened in 325 CE to address theological disputes and establish doctrinal unity within Christianity. The construction of numerous churches and monasteries flourished in Palestine during the 4th and 5th centuries, reflecting the growing influence of Christianity. In 438 CE, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was rebuilt under the orders of Emperor Theodosius II, becoming a significant pilgrimage site.[3]

In 529 CE, Emperor Justinian I enacted a series of legal reforms known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, which had a lasting impact on Roman law and administration in Palestine. The Samaritan Revolts erupted in 529 CE and 556 CE, as the Samaritan population in Palestine rebelled against Byzantine rule. In 614 CE, the Sassanian Empire, allied with Jewish forces, invaded Palestine and briefly captured Jerusalem, causing significant damage to Christian holy sites. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius successfully recaptured Jerusalem in 629 CE, restoring Byzantine control over Palestine. Throughout Byzantine rule, Palestine experienced frequent border conflicts and raids with neighboring Arab tribes, including the Ghassanids and Lakhmids.[3]

Middle Ages

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Main articles: Muslim conquest of the Levant, Ayyubid dynasty, and Ottoman Palestine
Mosque of Omar, Jerusalem. From Archer and Kingsford's Story of the Crusades.

In 638, the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, conquered Jerusalem, establishing Muslim control over Palestine.[4] The Muslim rulers implemented a system known as dhimma, granting protection to non-Muslim communities and allowing them to practice their religion.[4] The Jews were allowed back by Omar to settle in the region.[4] Christians were gurranted protection. In 878, the Tulunid dynasty, a local Egyptian-based caliphate, briefly gained control over Palestine.[4] The Fatimid Caliphate, led by Caliph al-Muizz, conquered Jerusalem, ushering in a new era of Fatimid rule in Palestine in 969.[4] In 1033, Cairo-born Fatimid Caliph al-Zahir ordered the construction of the northern entrance gate of the al-Aqsa Mosque, known as the Bab al-Ghawanima.[4] The Fatimids promoted intellectual exchange and cultural diversity, contributing to the flourishing of various religious and scholarly activities.[4]

In 1071, the Seljuk Turks, who were aligned with Baghdad-based Abbasid Caliphate, gained control over Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine.[4] By the late 11th century, the Crusaders launched their campaigns, resulting in the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, effectively ending Muslim rule in Palestine.[4] During the Crusaders conquest, thousands of Jews and Muslims were killed.[4] Their rule remained until the recapture by Saladin in 1187.[4] In 1187, Muslim forces, Saladin, liberated Jerusalem from the Crusaders, marking the end of the Crusader presence in Palestine.[4] In 1250, the Mamluks, a military slave caste, seized power in Egypt and extended their rule over Palestine.[4] They established their capital in Cairo but maintained control over the region.[4]

In 1267, the Mamluk Sultan Baybars ordered the reconstruction of the city walls of Jerusalem and fortified other key cities in the region.[4] In 1291, the Mamluks successfully repelled the Crusaders' final attempt to recapture the coastal cities, solidifying Muslim control over Palestine.[4] Throughout the Mamluk period, Palestine served as an important center for religious and scholarly activities.[4] Mosques, madrasas (educational institutions), and caravanserais were established to support the needs of the Muslim population and travelers.[4] In 1382, an earthquake struck the region.[4]

By the early 16th century, the Mamluk Sultanate faced internal conflicts and political instability.[4] In 1516, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim I, conquered Palestine, marking the beginning of their rule over the region.[4] Throughout the 18th century, Palestine experienced relative stability under Ottoman rule, with the region serving as an important center for trade and religious pilgrimage.[4] In 1831, Palestine briefly fell under the control of Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, who challenged Ottoman authority.[4] However, Ottoman rule was restored in 1840 following the intervention of European powers.[4] During the early centuries of Ottoman rule, Jews in Palestine generally enjoyed a degree of religious freedom and were allowed to practice their faith.[4] They were recognized as "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab) and were granted the status of dhimmis, which provided them with certain rights and protections under Islamic law. In the 16th century, Sultan Bayezid II welcomed Jewish refugees expelled from Spain.[4]

Modern Palestine

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Main article: History of Palestine under the British Mandate

During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as nationalist sentiments grew across the region, Palestinian Arab nationalism also began to emerge.[5] Intellectuals and elites in Palestine expressed a sense of identity and called for greater autonomy and self-governance.[6] This period coincided with the rise of the Young Turks movement within the Ottoman Empire, which introduced some political reforms but also faced opposition from various groups.[7] In the early 20th century, the Zionist movement gained momentum, aiming to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine.[8][9] Jewish immigration increased, and Zionist organizations purchased land from local landowners, leading to tensions between Jews and Arabs.[10] Abdul Hamid, the last sultan of the Ottoman Empire, opposed the Zionist movement's efforts in Palestine.

In 1916, the Arab Revolt, led by figures such as Sharif Hussein of Mecca and T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), aimed to overthrow Ottoman rule in the Arabian Peninsula and Greater Syria, which included Palestine. During World War I, Palestine became a battleground between the Ottoman Empire and British forces. During the first world war (1914–1919), the British fought against the Ottomans. Both Jews and Arabs assisted the British forces in conquering Palestine. In 1917, British forces led by General Allenby defeated the Ottomans during the battle of Jerusalem and gained the region's control. Under the League of Nations issued mandate, the Mandatory territory established in 1920.

Izz ad-Din al-Qassam

In 1929, violent riots erupted in Palestine due to disputes over Jewish immigration and access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem. The 1930s witnessed the outbreak of the Arab Revolt (1936–1939), as Arab nationalists demanded an end to Jewish immigration and the establishment of an independent Arab state. In response to the Arab Revolt, the British deployed military forces and implemented stringent security measures in an effort to quell the uprising. Izz ad-Din al-Qassam was killed by the British forces.

Arab nationalist groups, led by the Arab Higher Committee, called for an end to Jewish immigration and land sales to Jews.[11] The issuance of the 1939 White Paper by the British government aimed to address escalating tensions between Arabs and Jews in Palestine.[11] This policy document imposed restrictions on Jewish immigration and land purchases, with the intention to limit the establishment of a Jewish state.[11] Met with strong opposition from the Zionist movement, the White Paper was perceived as a betrayal of the Balfour Declaration and Zionist aspirations for a Jewish homeland.[11] In response to the White Paper, the Zionist community in Palestine organized a strike in 1939, rallying against the restrictions on Jewish immigration and land acquisition.[11] This anti-White Paper strike involved demonstrations, civil disobedience, and a shutdown of businesses. Supported by various Zionist organizations, including the Jewish Agency and the Histadrut (General Federation of Jewish Labor), the anti-White Paper strike aimed to protest and challenge the limitations imposed by the British government.[11]

In the late 1930s and 1940s, several Zionist militant groups, including the Irgun, Hagana, and Lehi, carried out acts of violence against British military and civilian targets in their pursuit of an independent Jewish state.[11] While the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, collaborated with Nazi Germany.[11] It is important to note that not all Muslims supported his actions, and there were instances where Muslims helped rescue Jews during the Holocaust.[11] During World War II (1939–1945), Palestine served as a strategically significant location for British military operations against Axis forces in North Africa.[11] In 1946, a bombing orchestrated by the Irgun at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem resulted in the deaths of 91 people, including British officials, civilians, and hotel staff.[11] The Exodus 1947 incident unfolded when a ship carrying Jewish Holocaust survivors, who sought refuge in Palestine, was intercepted by the British navy, leading to clashes and the eventual deportation of the refugees back to Europe.[11]

Wars and occupation (!)

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The1948 Deir Yassin massacre was carried out by Zionist militias

The United Nations proposed a partition plan to divided Palestine in three parts — an Arab state, a Jewish state and internationally ruled Jerusalem. However, the plan was rejected by the Arabs and was never implemented. Instead, the situation turned into a full-scale civil war between Arabs and Jews. Zionist militias carried out attacks against Arabs. One of the most widely known event was the mass killings of Palestinian villagers in Deir Yassin near Jerusalem, where 100 Arabs were killed.[12] During the final stages of the civil war, Irgun forces captured Haifa from the Arabs.[12] On 14th May 1948, when the mandate's validity ceased, David Ben Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel.[12] The Arab entity refused to accept Israel's existence. Neighboring Arab countries the first Arab–Israeli War.[12] Israel captured almost 60% of the area proposed for the Arab state, including Ashdod, Ashkelon, Jaffa, Lydda, Beersheba and Ramle area, Upper Galilee, some parts of the Negev and a wide strip along the Tel Aviv–Jerusalem road.[12][13] Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip and Jordan occupied and annexed the West Bank, including East Jerusalem in its own territory.[12] During the capture of Ramle and Lod, hundreds of Arab residents were killed and 50,000–70,000 were expelled.[12][14] Over 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes in the area that became Israel.[15] The event Palestinians referred is known as the Nakba.[16] Expelled Palestinians sought refuge in Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq.[12]

After the war, 150,000 Palestinians remained in Israel and were eventually granted citizenship and were subjected to military rule until 1966.[12] From 1949 to 1956, around 30,000 to 40,000 Palestinians, including Bedouins were expelled.[12][17] Throughout the 1950s, Palestinian fedayeen were supported by Jordan and Egypt.[12] After the 1952 revolution, Gamal Abdel Nasser came to power in Egypt, when Gaza was still under Egyptian control. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and restricted Israeli passage into the waterway. On 29 October 1956, a coalition of Israel, France and the United Kingdom invaded the Gaza Strip, known as the Suez Crisis.[12] Around 1,000 civilians were killed. The coalition forces withdrew, after pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union.[12] In midst of wars and occupations, Yasser Arafat founded the Palestine Liberation Organization in 1964, consisting of several Palestinian factions. The PLO started armed rebellion against Israel, by attacking Israeli targets, hijacking ships and planes and demanding their country.[12] Arafat had confrontations with King Hussein, when the PLO operated in Jordanian controlled Palestinian territories for targeting Israel.[12]

The Six Day War started in 1967, between Israel and Arab states. The war was accidentally and unnecessary, caused by several misunderstandings and miscalculations.[12] Within six days, Israel defeated the Arab coalition and occupied entire Palestinian territories (West Bank and Gaza Strip), the Golan Heights of Syria and the Sinai Peninsula of Egypt.[12] Following the 1970–1971 Jordanian civil war, the PLO moved to Lebanon and continued armed rebellion against Israel.[12]

The presence of Palestinian militants in Lebanon caused the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990).[12] Despite the civil war, Palestinian militants continued to target Israel.[12] Following the Coastal Road massacre, Israel invaded Lebanon in 1978 and destroyed PLO bases.[12] In 1982, Israel occupied southern Lebanon and threw the PLO out of Lebanon.[12] Following their defeat in Lebanon, Arafat moved his base to Tunisia and continued to led the armed rebellion for liberating Palestine.[12] The PLO continued by attacking Israeli targets and hijacking ships and planes, bringing their demands on light.[12]

Wars and occupation

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Deir Yassin massacre of Palestinian villagers was carried out by Zionist militias, the Irgun and Lehi during the 1948 Palestine war.

During the 1947–1949 civil war, tensions increased between the Jews and Arabs.[12] Zionist militias carried out armed campaigns against Palestinians.[12] Haganah bombed a hotel in Jerusalem, killing 20 people. By April 1948, Plan Dalet was initiated.[12] Under this military operation, numerous Palestinian villages were target.[12] Palestinians living villages were targeted in the campaign and were later expelled, an example for ethnic cleansing.[12] One of the most widely known event was the mass killings of Palestinian villagers in Deir Yassin near Jerusalem.[12] It took place in 1948, where more than 100 Palestinian civilians were killed by Zionist militias.[12][18] During the final stages of the civil war, Irgun forces captured port-city of Haifa from the Arabs.[12] Approximately 15,000 Palestinian Arabs fled the city.[12] According to some Jewish sources, 300 Palestinians were killed in Haifa, during the battle.[12] On 14th May 1948, when the mandate's validity ceased, David Ben Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel.[12]

The Arab entity refused to accept Israel's existence. Egypt, Syria, Lebanon and Jordan, with support from Iraq, Yemen and Saudi Arabia, initiated the first Arab–Israeli War.[12] It was the second stage of the ongoing civil war.[12] The Arab coalition lost to Israel. Israel captured almost 60% of the area proposed for the Arab state, including Ashdod, Ashkelon, Jaffa, Lydda, Beersheba and Ramle area, Upper Galilee, some parts of the Negev and a wide strip along the Tel Aviv–Jerusalem road.[12][13] Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip and Jordan occupied and annexed the West Bank, including East Jerusalem in its own territory.[12] Numerous Shi'ite villages were depopulated by the Zionist militias.[12] During the capture of Ramle and Lod, hundreds of Arab residents were killed and 50,000–70,000 were expelled.[12][14] The war officially came to an end 20 July 1949. Over 700,000 Palestinian Arabs fled or were expelled from their homes in the area that became Israel.[15] The event Palestinians referred is known as the Nakba.[16] Expelled Palestinians sought refuge in Lebanon, Jordan and Iraq.[12] Between February and July 1949, Armistic agreements were signed between Israel and neighboring Arab countries.[12]

Invasion of the Suez Canal

After the war, 150,000 Palestinians remained in Israel and were eventually granted citizenship.[12] However, they were subjected to military rule until 1966.[12] From 1949 to 1956, more Palestinians were expelled.[12] Around 30,000 to 40,000 Palestinians, including Bedouins were expelled.[12][17] Throughout the 1950s, Palestinian fedayeen were supported by Jordan and Egypt.[12] Following the overthrow of Egyptian King Farouk, Gamal Abdel Nasser became president of Egypt in 1952.[12][19] Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal and continuing restrictions of Israeli passage into the waterway, prompted Israel to gain it's control.[12] On 29 October 1956, a coalition of Israel, France and the United Kingdom invaded the Gaza Strip, known as the Suez Crisis.[12] Around 1,000 civilians were killed during the war, in the Khan Yunis massacre and Rafah massacre, by the coalition force.[12] The coalition forces withdrew and invasion ended, after pressure from the United States and the Soviet Union.[12] In midst of wars and occupations, Yasser Arafat founded an organization, a coalition of various Palestinian factions.[12] Known as the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), it was established in 1964.[12] The PLO started armed rebellion against Israel, fuelling nationalist movements.[12] It's rebellion were attacking Israeli targets, hijacking ships and planes and demanding their country.[12] Arafat emerged as national hero.[12]

Tank in Jerusalem during the Six-Day War, 1967

Arafat had confrontations with King Hussein, when the PLO operated in Jordanian controlled Palestinian territories for targeting Israel.[12] The Six Day War started in 1967, between Israel and Arab coalition of Jordan, Egypt and Syria, supported by Iraq and Saudi Arabia.[12] The war was accidentally and unnecessary, caused by several misunderstandings and miscalculations.[12] Within six days, Israel defeated the Arab coalition.[12] Israel occupied entire Palestinian territories of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, the Golan Heights of Syria and the entire Sinai Peninsula of Egypt.[12] As a result of the war, around 280,000 to 325,000 Palestinians and 100,000 Syrians fled or were expelled from the occupied Palestinian and Syrian territories respectively.[12] Since then Israel began establishing illegal settlements in the occupied territories for Israelis.[12] The settlements are considered illegal.[12] However, the Israeli government disputes the consideration.[12] The PLO continued its armed campaign against Israel, causing tensions between the PLO and Jordanian government.[12] Following the 1970–1971 Jordanian civil war, the PLO moved to Lebanon and continued armed rebellion against Israel.[12] On 6th October 1973, Egypt and Syria initiated the Yom Kippur War against Israel, aimed only recapture their own territories.[12] The Arab coalition was largely supported by several Arab states, as well as by North Korea and Cuba.[12] Following the failure of the Arabs, caused oil embargo by oil-producing Arab states led by the Saudi King Faisal, to countries which supported Israel in the war.[12] It caused the oil crisis of 1973 and Faisal emerged as a popular face for Palestinian history.[12]

The October 1974 Arab League summit designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and reaffirmed "their right to establish an independent state of urgency."[20] In November 1974, the PLO was recognized as competent on all matters concerning the question of Palestine by the UN General Assembly granting them observer status as a "non-state entity" at the UN.[21][22] Through the Camp David Accords of 1979, Egypt signaled an end to any claim of its own over the Gaza Strip. In July 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank—with the exception of guardianship over Haram al-Sharif—to the PLO.[12] Following the 1974 resolution, PLO's nationalist movement gradually gained foreign support countries including China and India. The presence of Palestinian militants in Lebanon caused civil war in 1975, known as the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990).[12] Despite the civil war, Palestinian militants continued to target Israel.[12] Following the Coastal Road massacre, Israel invaded Lebanon in 1978 and destroyed PLO bases.[12] In 1982, Israel occupied southern Lebanon and threw the PLO out of Lebanon.[12] Following their defeat in Lebanon, Arafat moved his base to Tunisia and continued to led the armed rebellion for liberating Palestine.[12] The PLO continued by attacking Israeli targets and hijacking ships and planes, bringing their demands on light.[12] By the late 1980s, despite the continuation of military campaign, Arafat accepted UN Security Council Resolution 242 and Israel's right "to exist in peace and security".[12]

Peace treaty and uprising

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In November 1988, the PLO legislature, while in exile, declared the establishment of the "State of Palestine".[23] In the month following, it was quickly recognized by many states, including Egypt and Jordan.[23] In the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, the State of Palestine is described as being established on the "Palestinian territory", without explicitly specifying further.[23][24] After the 1988 Declaration of Independence, the UN General Assembly officially acknowledged the proclamation and decided to use the designation "Palestine" instead of "Palestine Liberation Organization" in the UN.[23][24] In spite of this decision, the PLO did not participate at the UN in its capacity of the State of Palestine's government.[25]

Following an incident in the Gaza Strip, Palestinians led an uprising against Israeli occupation during the First Intifada (1987–1993).[12] The PLO participated in the uprisings against Israel.[12] During the late-1970s, Hamas used to operate as a charitable organization, recognized and funded by Israel.[12] Fundings by Israel to Hamas, helped strengthening their influence in the region.[12] During the intifada, Hamas began confronting the PLO and itself participated against Israeli Defense Force (IDF).[12] Jericho bus firebombing was first attack during the intifada, followed by murder of two Israeli soliders by Hamas.[12] More Israeli soliders were killed by Palestinians.[12] The Tel Aviv–Jerusalem bus 405 suicide attack took place in July 1989, resulting 16 civilians killed in the attack.[12] It was the first Palestinian suicide attack despite the fact that the attacker survived.[12] The Gulf War (1990–1991) between multinational coalition and Iraq brought numerous Arab countries, including Palestine on the battleground.[12] Saddam Hussein, then president of Iraq, was a strong supporter for Palestinian resistance movement.[12] Arafat's support to Saddam led deterioration Palestine's relationship with other Arab countries, like Egypt and Saudi Arabia.[12] Following Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, Saddam presented a peace offer between Israel and Palestine to the United States, Israel's main ally.[26] It demanded Israeli withdrawal from occupied Palestinian and Syrian territories, based on 1967 borders, in exchange of Iraq's withdrawal from Kuwait.[26] The offer was ignored.[26] Later Saddam ordered firing of scud missiles into Israel territory, a move supported by Palestinians in 1991, who viewed it as a resistance.[26] During the war, numerous Palestinians were displaced from Kuwait.[26] The war also crippled the country's economy.[26]

Yitzhak Rabin, Bill Clinton and Yasser Arafat, 1993

The PLO's activity in the intifada turned Israel to table talks. In 1991, the Madrid Conference between Israel and Jordan, Syria and Palestine was mediated by the United States and the Soviet Union.[12] Following the 1991 conference, Israel and PLO engaged in secret negotiations, which led to Oslo Accords (1993–1995).[12] During the Oslo Accords, Israel and PLO mutually recognized and Arafat rejected the "use of violence".[12] Israel withdrew from major cities in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, not completely.[12] Israel acknowledged the PLO negotiating team as "representing the Palestinian people", in return for the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace, acceptance of UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, and its rejection of "violence and terrorism".[27] As a result, in 1994 the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA) territorial administration, that exercises some governmental functions[a] in parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip.[36][37] As envisioned in the Oslo Accords, Israel allowed the PLO to establish interim administrative institutions in the Palestinian territories, which came in the form of the PNA.[36][37] It was given civilian control in Area B and civilian and security control in Area A, and remained without involvement in Area C.[37]

Following the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre in 1994 and continuation Israeli restrictions, Palestinians support for the peace process decreased.[12] Hamas and several other Islamist and political group opposed the peace process, responding by bombing across Israel.[12] The Oslo II Accord, the final part of the Oslo Accords, was signed on 28 September 1995, shortly before Rabin's assassination.[12] First election in Palestine took place in 1996.[12] Yasser Arafat became president of the new interim government.[12] Though he had been titular president since 1989.[12] Even after the peace agreements, the conflict continued.[12] In 1997, Hebron Protocol was signed between Arafat and Benjamin Netanyahu, which granted more sovereignty to the Palestinian Authority in Hebron.[12] With Netanyahu, Arafat also signed the Wye River Memorandum in 1998.[12] The new interim government worked on economic recovery.[12] Various projects were launched, including Gaza International Airport and Gaza Seaport.[12] A large number of Palestinian diaspora returned to the country and invested in economic recovery.[12]

21st century: continued conflict

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See also: Fatah–Hamas conflict, Battle of Gaza (2007), and Gaza–Israel conflict
Demonstration against road block, Kafr Qaddum, March 2012
The Church of the Nativity under siege in 2002

Following the failure of 2000 Camp David Summit and Ariel Sharon's controversial visit to the Temple Mount, Palestinians triggered the second Intifada (2000–2005), which began in September 2000. Following the outbreak of the uprisings, Jerusalem Airport ceased operation and Gaza Airport was bombed in 2001. In May 2001, a fishing boat was captured by Israeli Naval, which was attempting to smuggle weapons to Palestinian-controlled territories.[38] Another freight was sezied in 2002, which had weapons supplied by Iran.[39] Hamas and several Islamist militants coordinated suicide bombings and rocket attacks on Israeli targets. In retaliation, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield in March 2002.[40] Jenin was battleground for the IDF and Palestinian militants, with the Security Forces.[41] The Church of the Nativity was besieged by the IDF on April 2002, which lasted for 39 days.[42] Durng the battle of Nablus, 70 people were killed, including civilians. By 2002, over 150 militants were captured and arrested by Israeli forces in Operation Determined Path.[43] In Hebron ambush, Israeli soliders were killed by the Islamic Jihad.[44]

Ahmed Yassin, co-founder of Hamas, was killed in an airstrike by the Israeli Air Force in 2004.[45] Israel launched military operation in Rafah in 2004, where around 60 Palestinians were killed.[46] Following the siege of Rafah, Israeli forces also launched military operations in northern Gaza in September 2004.[47] Between September and October 2004, 130 Palestinians were killed.[48] Arafat was confined to his headquarters by Israeli authorities.[45] His health began deteriorating.[45] Arafat died on 11 November 2004 in Clamart, France.[45] He was buried in Ramallah.[45] In 2005, 21 Israeli settlements in the Gaza Strip and four Israeli settlements in the West Bank were unilaterally dismantled.[49] The intifada came to a frozen state, which almost ended. Around 3,179–3,354 Palestinians. 1,010 Israelis and many foreigners were killed during the uprisings.[45]

In 2006, Palestinian general elections were held, which resulted victory of Hamas.[12] The Hamas-led government, under Ismail Haniyeh was dismissed by Abbas.[12] Clashes between Fatah and Hamas took place across the country.[12] Saudi Arabia brokered the Mecca Agreement on 8 February 2007, which led to the establishment a Palestinian national unity government signed by Fatah and Hamas leaders.[12] Violent incidents continued through March and April 2007; more than 90 people were killed in this period.[12] By May clashes errupted once again, which turned into civil war. Hamas took control of the Gaza Strip in 2007.[12] Since then Gaza has been governed by Hamas and the West Bank under the Fatah-led Palestinian Authority. Since 2007, Israel is leading a partial blockade on Gaza.[50] Another peace summit was organized by the Arab League in 2007, with same offer which was presented in 2002 summit.[50] However the peace process could not progressed.[50][51][52] The PNA gained full control of the Gaza Strip with the exception of its borders, airspace, and territorial waters.[a]

History

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Prehistory

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Jericho is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world

The wider region of Palestine, is part of the Fertile Crescent. It includes several countries, which are known as the "Cradle of Civilization". The prehistorical period of the region were dominated by the Natufian culture, Pre-Pottery, Tahunian and Ghassulian. Jericho, located near the Dead Sea, is one of the continuously inhabited cities in the world.

Ancient history

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In the Bronze Age, the Canaanites established city-states in the region. During the Middle Bronze Age, Canaan was influenced by the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Phoenicia, Minoan Crete, and Syria. The Egyptians began dominating in the region.

After the withdrawal of the Egyptians, Israelites began settling in the region. The Kingdom of Israel was established, under the leadership of King David. Jerusalem became center for Israelite worship, after the construction of the First Temple, by Solomon. Internal clashes among the tribes of Israel, resulted split of the kingdom into two entities – the Northern kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. The Kingdom of Judah was more powerful. The Kingdom of Israel was eradicated in 720 BCE as its capital, Samaria, fell to the Assyrians. The Kingdom of Judah on the coastal plain, remained independent.

The Babylonians gained power in Mesopotamia. In 587 BCE Nebuchadnezzar besieged Jerusalem and destroyed the Solomonic Temple, bringing an end to the kingdom of Judah. A large number of Judahites were exiled to Babylon, giving birth to the world's first Jewish diaspora community, which is in today's Iraq. Judah became the province of Yehud, a Jewish administrative division of the Neo-Babylonian Empire.

Middle Ages

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See also: Islamic conquest of Syria and Jund Filastin

In 638, Arab Muslim army under the leadership of Omar, conquered Jerusalem and rest of the region. Under Islamic rule, Christians, Jews and Samaritans were protected as fellow Abrahamic monotheists or "peoples of the Book" and allowed to practice their religions in peace. The Romans' ban on Jews were also lifted by the Muslims. After the Rashidun Caliphate, the Islamic rule succeeded by the Umayyad, Abbasid and Fatmid. The region came under an administrative district, known as Jund Filastin

Early modern era

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Palestine remained under the Ottoman Empire, until the World War I. In 1917, the British forces led by General Allenby in the Sinai Campaign captured Jerusalem, ending the Ottoman control. As per Balfour Declaration of 1917, the British Empire supported Zionist movement and facilitated Jewish immigration to Palestine. Following the Haavara Agreement between Nazis and Zionists, Jewish immigration increased. Palestine continued to develop economically during World War II, with increased industrial and agricultural outputs and the period was considered an "economic Boom". In terms of Arab-Jewish relations, these were relatively quiet times.

Conflict and war

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Arafat supported Saddam Hussein during the Gulf War, which severed relationship between the PLO and the Arab states, who

21st century

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The failure of Camp David summit angered the Palestinians, who began uprising against the Israel in September 2000.

0

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Following the establishment of the Mandatory Territory in 1920, the British government facilitated immigration of the Jews, from allover the world. Intercommunal tensions began among the Jews and Arabs. The Arabs did strike against the government's support for the Zionist movement. Despite its suppression by the British authorities, the strike continued, until the release of the White Paper in 1939. However, the Zionist entity refused to accept the proposal and protested. Zionist militias such as Irgun, Lehi and Haganah, conducted several attacks during the insurgency.

Jewish survivors from the Holocaust, immigrated to Palestine, during the World War II (1939–1945). The insurgency continued, until the British withdrew from the region and transferred issue to the United Nations. In 1947, the United Nations prepared a partition plan, rejected by the Arabs. A civil war began in the region, between the Jews and Arabs.

History (!X)

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Modern era

[edit]

Nationalist sentiments grew among the Arabs, who led revolt against the Ottoman rule. Palestine remained part of the Ottoman Empire, until the World War I. Mandatory Palestine was established by the British Empire in 1920. As per the Balfour Declaration, the British government supported the Zionist movement and facilitated immigration of Jews to Palestine. Arabs tolerated the immigration until the broke of strike, which demanded the British recognition.

Wars and conflict

[edit]

The British withdrew from the region in 1947 and the responsibility came in hands of the United Nations. The United Nations prepared a partition plan, which divided the region in into —a Jewish state and an Arab state. The plan was accepted by the Jews and rejected by the Arabs. The situation in response to the plan escalated into a full-scale civil war. 700,000 Palestinians were expelled from their lands and were not allowed to return. On 14 May 1948, David Ben Gurion declared the establishment of the State of Israel. While the neighboring Arab states attacked the region, initiating the first Arab–Israeli war, which they lost and Israel captured more territories, which were designated by the UN to be part of the Arab state. Jordan annexed the West Bank and East Jerusalem and the Gaza Strip went to Egypt. Egypt initially supported the creation of an All-Palestine Government but disbanded it in 1959. Transjordan never recognized it and instead decided to incorporate the West Bank with its own territory to form Jordan. The annexation was ratified in 1950 but was rejected by the international community.

Between 1949 to 1956, Egypt and Jordan supported attacks by Palestinian militias against Israel. In 1956, a coalition of Israel, France and the United Kingdom invaded Gaza, in response to Gamal Abdel Nasser's nationalization of the Suez Canal. Although thousands of Palestinians in Gaza were killed, neither Israel won the war. Instead it was pressured by the United States and the Soviet Union to withdrew. The Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was formed by Yasser Arafat in 1964, as an armed resistance group to Israel. The Six-Day War in 1967, when Israel fought against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, ended with Israel occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, besides other territories. Following the Six-Day War, the PLO moved to Jordan, but later relocated to Lebanon in 1971. The PLO built its bases in southern Lebanon, known as 'Fatahland" and attacked Israel. In 1982, Israel invaded Lebanon and defeated the PLO. The PLO later shifted its base to Tunisia.

The 1990–1991 Gulf War impacted the Palestine and its relations with other Arab countries, when the PLO maintained ties with Saddam Hussein. Iraq offered a peace deal, which was ignored. Later Saddam fired scud missiles into Israeli territory, regarded as a symbol o

21st century

[edit]

The failure of 2000 Camp David summit and Ariel Sharon's controversial visit to the Temple Mount angered Palestinians, who started the Second Intifada, which began in September 2000.

Government

[edit]

Palestine has a semi-presidential parliamentary government. The Palestinian Authority is interim government, responsible for self-governance in Palestinian-populated areas in the Palestinian territories. The president is the head of the state and the prime minister is the head of the government. Before 2017, the prime minister was designated for the Palestinian Authority, rather than the country as a whole. However this position is abolished and replaced by the Prime Minister of the country as a whole.

Foreign relations

[edit]

It is full-time member of the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Union for the Mediterranean.

India was the first non-Arab-Islamic country to officially recognize the PLO. Relations between them have been lukewarm, as Israel strengthened trade relations with India. However, India still supports legitimacy of Palestine. Iran have been the strongest ally of the country and provides support to Palestinian militant groups, chiefly Hamas. Hamas is part of Iran-led Axis of Resistance, which includes Iran's proxies from Syria, Lebanon, Afghanistan, Yemen, Iraq and Bahrain and the government of Syria. It is also financial supported by Qatar and politically by Turkey.

Military

[edit]

Palestine Security Forces was established in 1994. Under the framework of the Oslo Accords, it does not operate independently as a national armed forces for the country. It's main function is to maintain internal security and law enforcement. Meanwhile, Hamas is considered more powerful and influential than the PSF. It is part of the Iranian-backed Axis of Resistance.

Iran and Hezbollah have smuggled weapons to Hamas overland through Sinai via Sudan and Libya, as well as by sea. Intensive military training and accumulated weapons have allowed Hamas to gradually organize regional units as large as brigades containing 2,500–3,500 fighters each. Joint exercises since 2020 (such as this one) conducted with other Gazan armed factions like the Palestinian Islamic Jihad have habituated units to operate in a coordinated fashion, supported Hamas command and control, and facilitated cooperation between Hamas and smaller factions. Such efforts began in earnest once Hamas seized power in the Gaza Strip in 2007. Iran has since supplied material and know-how for Hamas to build a sizable rocket arsenal, with more than 10,000 rockets and mortar shells fired in the current conflict. With Iran's help, Hamas has developed a robust domestic rocket-making industry that uses pipes, electrical wiring, and other everyday materials for improvised production.

Economy

[edit]
Rawabi – the first planned city of Palestine

As of 2023, the country's GDP was $40 billion and per-capita $3,200.[53] Before the 2023 war, the economy was recorded as modest.[53] Palestine's economy is heavily dependent on international aid and remittances from the Palestinians living abroad.[53] West Bank's economic condition is better than the Gaza Strip, which is subjected to a blockade.[53] The CO2 Emission (metric tons per capita) was 0.6 in 2010.[53] According to a survey in 2011, Palestine's poverty rate was 25.8%.[53] According to a new World Bank report, Palestinian economic growth is expected to soften in 2023.[53] The economy of Palestine relies heavily on international aid, remittances from overseas Palestinians, and local industries.[53]

Since the 1970s, Palestinians have been employed in Israel. The growth rate was significantly greater during this period than in most Arab states. GDP per capita in the Palestinian territories rose 7% annually from 1968 to 1980 but slowed during the 1980s. Between 1970 and 1991, life expectancy rose from 56 to 66 years, infant mortality per 1,000 fell from 95 to 42, households with electricity rose from 30% to 85%, households with safe water rose from 15% to 90%, households with a refrigerator rose from 11% to 85%, and households with a washing machine rose from 23% in 1980 to 61% in 1991. The period between 1993 and 2000, known as "Oslo Years", brought great prosperity to the country. In 1998, the Palestinian Authority built Gaza International Airport. Signed in 1994, the Paris Protocols however have prohibited the country from having its currency.

The 2000–2005 uprisings severely affected the economy and destroyed the national infrastructure. After the victory of Hamas, sanctions were imposed on the new government, which were lifted later. The 2006–2007 civil war between Fatah and Hamas also had huge impact on the economy. Since 2007, Israel has blockaded the Gaza Strip. In 2008, Salam Fayyad became the prime minister and instituted reforms, which improved the economy. Since 2010, Palestine experienced a moderate economic boom, particularly in Ramallah and Nablus. The Gaza Strip also recovered slightly until it crashed in the 2023 war.

Contribution to the economy also comes from remittances sent by the Palestinian diaspora. Gazans experience additional difficulties as they are subjected to a siege, with Israel controlling the movement of people and goods in and out of Gaza. Nonetheless, there are limited business opportunities available in Gaza. Contrastingly, the West Bank provides Palestinians with more diverse opportunities. Some individuals own businesses in tourism-driven areas such as Bethlehem and Jerusalem, as tourism is a significant income source. Others engage in various types of enterprises in cities like Ramallah and Hebron, ranging from trading to construction and IT services. Nablus and Jericho are other important industrial cities. Furthermore, approximately 100,000 Palestinians find employment in Israeli companies as low-cost labour, earning significantly less than the average Israeli worker.[54]

Oil and gas

[edit]

The first traces of oil and gas in Palestine were found in 1912 when the region was under Ottoman control. Palestine holds massive potential reserves of oil and gas. Over 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m3) of oil are estimated to exist off the coast and beneath occupied Palestinian lands. The Levant Basin holds around 1.7 billion barrels (270,000,000 m3) to 7.8 billion barrels of oil, with another 1.5 billion barrels (240,000,000 m3) barrels beneath the occupied West Bank area.

Transport

[edit]

As a result of the Israeli occupation, Palestine has a poor transport system.[55]

IT industry

[edit]

Beginning with an investment by Cisco Corporation in the 1990s, the IT and technology industry has become a significant pillar of the country's economy.[56] Although Israel is the leading player in the tech industry in the Middle East, Palestine's close proximity has given rise to tech industries regionally. It is known as the "Silicon Valley for NGOS."[57]

Development

[edit]

Palestinians have been receiving international aid since the 1948 war. During the Oslo Years (1993–2000), numerous Palestinian expats returned and invested in the development projects. Nablus and Gaza proliferated. The newly snowballed.

It is found that Palestinian businesspeople invest more abroad.[58]

Demographics

[edit]

Palestinians are indigenous people in the southern Levant.[59] Their origins are traced from the early Canaanites and Jebusites.[60][61]

Religion

[edit]
The Temple Mount (Al-Haram al-Sharif), Jerusalem

Religions in the country and the wider region includes Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Druze, Baháʼí Faith, Ahmadiyya and Samaritanism.[62] Palestine is known for its religious significance.[62] The country is home to numerous religious holy sites in major Palestinian cities.[62] Jerusalem is considered a sacred city in the world's three major Abrahamic religions — Christianity, Islam and Judaism, followed by Nablus, Hebron and Bethlehem.[62]

Muslims constitute 93% of the total Palestinian population.[62] Sunnis comprise 85%, while remaining are Shi'ite and Salafi Muslims.[63] Muslims form 85% of the West Bank and 99% of the Gaza Strip.[64] According to the Pew Research Center, non-denominational Muslims constitute 15% of the Palestinian Muslim population.[65] Until 1948, a Shi'ite community, known as Palestinian Metawalis lived.[66] Concentrated in seven villages of the former Mandatory Territory, they were expelled by Israeli forces during the 1948 war and sought refuge in Lebanon.[67] However, they consider themselves Lebanese instead of Palestinian.[68]

Out of 14.3 million Palestinians worldwide, around 800,000 of them are Palestinian Christians.[62] Due to Arab-Israeli wars, most of them fled or settled abroad.[62] According to Bernard Sabella of the Bethlehem University, 56% of them live outside of historic Palestine.[69] Around 45,000 Christians live in the country (West Bank and Gaza).[62] Most of them are concentrated in Bethlehem, Jerusalem, Nablus and Ramallah.[62] The majority of the Palestinian Christians belong to the Eastern Orthodox Churches, including Greek Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, and Syriac Orthodox.[62] The largest diaspora of Palestinian Christians is located in Chile.

After 1948, many Jewish Palestinians either left or were absorbed into the broader Jewish population in Israel.[70] There are few Jews, who consider themselves Palestinian. Israeli Jewish settlers living in the West Bank and East Jerusalem makes 13% of the population.[71] Samaritans number around 400 and are concentrated in Mount Gerizim near Nablus, which is holy place to them.[72] Due to their similarity to the Jews, they are called as "the Jews of Palestine".[73] There is also a community of Palestinian Baháʼís in the West Bank.[74][75]

Religion

[edit]

Ethnicity

[edit]

Palestinians are ethnically Arabs, who speak Arabic language. However, significant population non-Arabs are also part of the Palestinian community. These ethnic groups includes Assyrians, Armenians, Turks, Kurds,

Education

[edit]
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