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Epigenetic therapy is the use of drugs or other epigenome-influencing techniques to treat medical conditions. Many diseases, including cancer, heart disease, diabetes, and mental illnesses are influenced by epigenetic mechanisms[1]. Epigenetic therapy offers a potential way to influence those pathways directly.

Background

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Epigenetics refers to the study of changes in gene expressions that do not result from alterations in the DNA sequence[1]. Altered gene expression patterns can result from chemical modifications in DNA and chromatin, to changes in several regulatory mechanisms. Epigenetic markings can be inherited in some cases, and can change in response to environmental stimuli over the course of an organism's life[2].

Many diseases are known to have a genetic component, but the epigenetic mechanisms underlying many conditions are still being discovered. A significant number of diseases are known to change the expression of genes within the body, and epigenetic involvement is a plausible hypothesis for how they do this. These changes can be the cause of symptoms to the disease. Several diseases, especially cancer, have been suspected of selectively turning genes on or off, thereby resulting in a capability for the tumorous tissues to escape the host’s immune reaction[2].

Known epigenetic mechanisms typically cluster into three categories. The first is DNA methylation, where a cytosine residue that is followed by a guanine residue (CpG) is methylated. In general, DNA methylation attracts proteins which fold that section of the chromatin and repress the related genes[3]. The second category is histone modifications. Histones are proteins which are involved in the folding and compaction of the chromatin. There are several different types of histones, and they can be chemically modified in a number of ways. Acetylation of histone tails typically leads to weaker interactions between the histones and the DNA, which is associated with gene expression. Histones can be modified in many positions, with many different types of chemical modifications, but the precise details of the histone code are currently unknown[4]. The final category of epigenetic mechanism is regulatory RNA. MicroRNAs are small, noncoding sequences that are involved in gene expression. Thousands of miRNAs are known, and the extent of their involvement in epigenetic regulation is an area of ongoing research[5].

Diabetic retinopathy

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Diabetes is a disease where an affected individual is unable to convert food into energy. When left untreated, the condition can lead to other, more severe complications[6]. A common sign of diabetes is the degradation of blood vessels in various tissues throughout the body. Retinopathy refers to damage from this process in the retina, the part of the eye that senses light[7][8]. Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in the United States. Diabetic retinopathy is known to be associated with a number of epigenetic markers, including methylation of the Sod2 and MMP-9 genes, an increase in transcription of LSD1, a H3K4 and H3K9 demethylase, and various DNA Methyl-Transferases (DNMTs), and increased presence of miRNAs for transcription factors and VEGF[7].

File:IDDM loci.jpg
Loci[9]

It is believed that much of the retinal vascular degeneration characteristic of diabetic retinopathy is due to impaired mitochondrial activity in the retina. Sod2 codes for a superoxide dismutase enzyme, which scavenges free radicals and prevents oxidative damage to cells. LSD1 may play a major role in diabetic retinopathy through the downregulation of Sod2 in retinal vascular tissue, leading to oxidative damage in those cells. MMP-9 is believed to be involved in cellular apoptosis, and is similarly downregulated, which may help to propagate the effects of diabetic retinopathy[7].

Several avenues to epigenetic treatment of diabetic retinopathy have been studied. One approach is to inhibit the methylation of the Sod2 and MMP-9. The DNMT inhibitors 5-azacytidine and 5-aza-20-deoxycytidine have both been approved by the FDA for the treatment of other conditions, and studies have examined the effects of those compounds on diabetic retinopathy, where they seem to inhibit these methylation patterns with some success at reducing symptoms. The DNA methylation inhibitor Zebularine has also been studied, although results are currently inconclusive. A second approach is to attempt to reduce the miRNAs observed at elevated levels in retinopathic patients, although the exact role of those miRNAs is still unclear. The Histone Acetyltransferase (HAT) inhibitors Epigallocatechin-3-gallate, Vorinostat, and Romidepsin have also been the subject of experimentation for this purpose, with some limited success[7]. The possibility of using Small Interfering RNAs, or siRNAs, to target the miRNAs mentioned above has been discussed, but there are currently no known methods to do so. This method is somewhat hindered by the difficulty involved in delivering the siRNAs to the affected tissues[7].

Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) has many variations and factors that influence how it affects the body. DNA methylation is a process by which methyl groups attach to DNA structure causing a the gene to not be expressed. This is thought to be an epigenetic cause of T2DM by causing the body to develop an insulin resistance and inhibit the production of beta cells in the pancreas.[10] Because of the repressed genes the body does not regulate blood sugar transport to cells, causing a high concentration of glucose in the blood stream.

Another variation of T2DM is mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) which causes a lack of antioxidants in the blood. This leads to oxidation stress of cells leading to the release of free radicals inhibiting blood glucose regulation and hyperglycemic conditions. This leads to persistent vascular complications that can inhibit blood flow to limbs and the eyes. This persistent hyperglycemic environment is leads to DNA methylation as well because the chemistry within chromatin in the nucleus is affected[11].

Current medicine used by T2DM sufferers includes Metformin hydrochloride which stimulates production in the pancreas and promotes insulin sensitivity. A number of preclinical studies have suggested that adding a treatment to metformin that would inhibit acetylation and methylation of DNA and histone complexes[11]. DNA methylation occurs throughout the human genome and is believed to be a natural method of suppressing genes during development. Treatments targeting specific genes with methylation and acetylation inhibitors is being studied and debated[12].

Cardiac dysfunction

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A number of cardiac dysfunctions have been linked to cytosine methylation patterns. DNMT deficient mice show upregulation of inflammatory mediators, which cause increased atherosclerosis and inflammation. Atherosclerotic tissue has increased methylation in the promoter region for the estrogen gene, although any connection between the two is unknown. Hypermethylation of the HSD11B2 gene, which catalyzes conversions between cortisone and cortisol, and is therefore influential in the stress response in mammals, has been correlated with hypertension. Decreased LINE-1 methylation is a strong predictive indicator of ischemic heart disease and stroke, although the mechanism is unknown. Various impairments in lipid metabolism, leading to clogging of arteries, has been associated with the hypermethylation of GNASAS, IL-10, MEG3, ABCA1, and the hypomethylation of INSIGF and IGF2. Additionally, upregulation of a number of miRNAs has been shown to be associated with acute myocardial infarction, coronary artery disease, and heart failure. Strong research efforts into this area are very recent, with all of the aforementioned discoveries being made since 2009. Mechanisms are entirely speculative at this point, and an area of future research[13].

Epigenetic treatment methods for cardiac dysfunction are still highly speculative. SiRNA therapy targeting the miRNAs mentioned above is being investigated. The primary area of research in this field is on using epigenetic methods to increase the regeneration of cardiac tissues damaged by various diseases[13].

Cancer

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Main article: Cancer epigenetics

The role of epigenetics in cancer has been the subject of intensive study. For the purposes of epigenetic therapy, the two key findings from this research are that cancers frequently use epigenetic mechanisms to deactivate cellular antitumor systems [14][15][16][17] and that most human cancers epigenetically activate oncogenes, such as the MYC proto-oncogene, at some point in their development[18]. For more information on the exact epigenetic changes which take place in cancerous tissues, see the Cancer epigenetics page.

The DNMT inhibitors 5-azacytidine and 5-aza-20-deoxycytidine mentioned above have both been approved by the FDA for the treatment of various forms of cancer. These drugs have been shown to reactivate the cellular antitumor systems repressed by the cancer, enabling the body to weaken the tumor[14][15][16][17]. Zebularine, an activator of a demethylation enzyme has also been used with some success[7]. Because of their wide-ranging effects throughout the entire organism, all of these drugs have major side effects, but survival rates are increased significantly when they are used for treatment.

Dietary polyphenols, such as those found in green tea and red wine, are linked to antitumor activity, and are known to epigenetically influence many systems within the human body. An epigenetic mechanism for polyphenol anti-cancer effects seems likely, although beyond the basic finding that global DNA methylation rates decrease in response to increased consumption of polyphenol compounds, no specific information is known[19].

Schizophrenia

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Main article: Epigenetics of schizophrenia

Research findings have demonstrated that schizophrenia is linked to numerous epigenetic alterations, including DNA methylation and histone modifications[20]. For example, the therapeutic efficacy of schizophrenic drugs such as antipsychotics are limited by epigenetic alterations[21] and future studies are looking into the related biochemical mechanisms to improve the efficacy of such therapies. Even if epigenetic therapy wouldn't allow to fully reverse the disease, it can significantly improve the quality of life[22].


References

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Togliatto, G., Dentelli, P. and Brizzi, MF (2015) Skewed Epigenetics: An Alternative Therapeutic Option for Diabetes Complications, Journal of Diabetic Research, Vol. 2015, Article ID 373708, from the website https://doi.org/10.1155/2015/373708


Zhou, Z., Sun, B., Li, X. et al. (2018) DNA methylation landscapes in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Nutr Metab (Lond) 15, 47 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-018-0283-x

[23]Diabetic nephropathy is a severe micro-vascular condition that is associated with both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. It often causes renal failure. High glucose conditions lead to growth factor imbalance in protein productions such as collagen and fibronectin. This can cause production of TGF-β1 and oxidant stresses leading to signal transduction. This causes organs such as the kidneys to not function correctly.


[24]Rise in Diabetes and cardiovascular disease cases follows the rising obesity trend in western culture.  

[25]Periconceptional exposure to famine conditions shows a correlation with diabetic conditions in offspring at adulthood.

"Diabetic Eye Disease, Facts About [NEI Health Information]". National Institute of Health. Archived from the original on 12 May 2014. Retrieved 29 April 2014.

Kato, Mitsuo; Natarajan, Rama (2014-9). "Diabetic nephropathy—emerging epigenetic mechanisms". Nature reviews. Nephrology. 10 (9): 517–530. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2014.116. ISSN 1759-5061. PMC 6089507. PMID 25003613


Reddy, Marpadga A.; Natarajan, Rama (2011-06-01). "Epigenetic mechanisms in diabetic vascular complications". Cardiovascular Research. 90 (3): 421–429. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvr024. ISSN 0008-6363


Heijmans, Bastiaan T.; Tobi, Elmar W.; Stein, Aryeh D.; Putter, Hein; Blauw, Gerard J.; Susser, Ezra S.; Slagboom, P. Eline; Lumey, L. H. (2008-11-04). "Persistent epigenetic differences associated with prenatal exposure to famine in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105(44): 17046–17049. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806560105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2579375. PMID 18955703.

  1. ^ a b Moore, David Scott, 1960-. The developing genome : an introduction to behavioral epigenetics. Oxford. ISBN 978-0-19-992234-5. OCLC 894139943.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  2. ^ a b Portela, Anna; Esteller, Manel (October 2010). "Epigenetic modifications and human disease". Nature Biotechnology. 28 (10): 1057–1068. doi:10.1038/nbt.1685. ISSN 1087-0156.
  3. ^ Razin, A. (1998-09-01). "CpG methylation, chromatin structure and gene silencing-a three-way connection". The EMBO journal. 17 (17): 4905–4908. doi:10.1093/emboj/17.17.4905. ISSN 0261-4189. PMC 1170819. PMID 9724627.
  4. ^ Razin, A. (1998-09-01). "CpG methylation, chromatin structure and gene silencing-a three-way connection". The EMBO journal. 17 (17): 4905–4908. doi:10.1093/emboj/17.17.4905. ISSN 0261-4189. PMC 1170819. PMID 9724627.
  5. ^ Prasanth, Kannanganattu V.; Spector, David L. (2007-01-01). "Eukaryotic regulatory RNAs: an answer to the 'genome complexity' conundrum". Genes & Development. 21 (1): 11–42. doi:10.1101/gad.1484207. ISSN 0890-9369. PMID 17210785.
  6. ^ "Diabetes: Symptoms, treatment, and early diagnosis". www.medicalnewstoday.com. Retrieved 2020-03-06.
  7. ^ a b c d e f Kowluru, Renu A.; Santos, Julia M.; Mishra, Manish (2013). "Epigenetic Modifications and Diabetic Retinopathy". BioMed Research International. 2013: 1–9. doi:10.1155/2013/635284. ISSN 2314-6133.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  8. ^ Boyer, Kelly, "National Eye Institute (NEI)", Encyclopedia of Global Health, SAGE Publications, Inc., ISBN 978-1-4129-4186-0, retrieved 2020-03-05
  9. ^ Dean, Laura; McEntyre, Jo (2004-07-07). Genetic Factors in Type 1 Diabetes. National Center for Biotechnology Information (US).
  10. ^ Zhou, Zheng; Sun, Bao; Li, Xiaoping; Zhu, Chunsheng (2018-06-28). "DNA methylation landscapes in the pathogenesis of type 2 diabetes mellitus". Nutrition & Metabolism. 15 (1): 47. doi:10.1186/s12986-018-0283-x. ISSN 1743-7075. PMC 6025823. PMID 29988495.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  11. ^ a b Togliatto, Gabriele; Dentelli, Patrizia; Brizzi, Maria Felice (2015). "Skewed Epigenetics: An Alternative Therapeutic Option for Diabetes Complications". Journal of Diabetes Research. Retrieved 2020-03-04.
  12. ^ Edwards, John R.; Yarychkivska, Olya; Boulard, Mathieu; Bestor, Timothy H. (2017-05-08). "DNA methylation and DNA methyltransferases". Epigenetics & Chromatin. 10 (1): 23. doi:10.1186/s13072-017-0130-8. ISSN 1756-8935. PMC 5422929. PMID 28503201.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
  13. ^ a b Chaturvedi, Pankaj; Tyagi, Suresh C. (2014-04-15). "Epigenetic mechanisms underlying cardiac degeneration and regeneration". International Journal of Cardiology. 173 (1): 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2014.02.008. ISSN 1874-1754. PMC 3982321. PMID 24636549.
  14. ^ a b Wells, R. A.; Leber, B.; Zhu, N. Y.; Storring, J. M. (February 2014). "Optimizing outcomes with azacitidine: recommendations from Canadian centres of excellence". Current Oncology (Toronto, Ont.). 21 (1): 44–50. doi:10.3747/co.21.1871. ISSN 1198-0052. PMC 3921030. PMID 24523604.
  15. ^ a b Vendetti, Frank P.; Rudin, Charles M. (September 2013). "Epigenetic therapy in non-small-cell lung cancer: targeting DNA methyltransferases and histone deacetylases". Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy. 13 (9): 1273–1285. doi:10.1517/14712598.2013.819337. ISSN 1744-7682. PMID 23859704.
  16. ^ a b Li, Huili; Chiappinelli, Katherine B.; Guzzetta, Angela A.; Easwaran, Hariharan; Yen, Ray-Whay Chiu; Vatapalli, Rajita; Topper, Michael J.; Luo, Jianjun; Connolly, Roisin M.; Azad, Nilofer S.; Stearns, Vered (2014-02-15). "Immune regulation by low doses of the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-azacitidine in common human epithelial cancers". Oncotarget. 5 (3): 587–598. doi:10.18632/oncotarget.1782. ISSN 1949-2553. PMC 3996658. PMID 24583822.
  17. ^ a b Foulks, Jason M.; Parnell, K. Mark; Nix, Rebecca N.; Chau, Suzanna; Swierczek, Krzysztof; Saunders, Michael; Wright, Kevin; Hendrickson, Thomas F.; Ho, Koc-Kan; McCullar, Michael V.; Kanner, Steven B. (January 2001). "Epigenetic drug discovery: targeting DNA methyltransferases". Journal of Biomolecular Screening. 17 (1): 2–17. doi:10.1177/1087057111421212. ISSN 1552-454X. PMID 21965114.
  18. ^ Li, Y.; Casey, S. C.; Felsher, D. W. (July 2014). "Inactivation of MYC reverses tumorigenesis". Journal of Internal Medicine. 276 (1): 52–60. doi:10.1111/joim.12237. ISSN 1365-2796. PMC 4065197. PMID 24645771.
  19. ^ Henning, Susanne M.; Wang, Piwen; Carpenter, Catherine L.; Heber, David (December 2013). "Epigenetic effects of green tea polyphenols in cancer". Epigenomics. 5 (6): 729–741. doi:10.2217/epi.13.57. ISSN 1750-192X. PMC 3970408. PMID 24283885.
  20. ^ Roth, Tania L.; Lubin, Farah D.; Sodhi, Monsheel; Kleinman, Joel E. (September 2009). "Epigenetic mechanisms in schizophrenia". Biochimica Et Biophysica Acta. 1790 (9): 869–877. doi:10.1016/j.bbagen.2009.06.009. ISSN 0006-3002. PMC 2779706. PMID 19559755.
  21. ^ Ibi, Daisuke; González-Maeso, Javier (October 2015). "Epigenetic signaling in schizophrenia". Cellular Signalling. 27 (10): 2131–2136. doi:10.1016/j.cellsig.2015.06.003. ISSN 1873-3913. PMC 4540693. PMID 26120009.
  22. ^ Gavin, David P.; Sharma, Rajiv P. (May 2010). "Histone modifications, DNA methylation, and schizophrenia". Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews. 34 (6): 882–888. doi:10.1016/j.neubiorev.2009.10.010. ISSN 1873-7528. PMC 2848916. PMID 19879893.
  23. ^ Kato, Mitsuo; Natarajan, Rama (2014-9). "Diabetic nephropathy—emerging epigenetic mechanisms". Nature reviews. Nephrology. 10 (9): 517–530. doi:10.1038/nrneph.2014.116. ISSN 1759-5061. PMC 6089507. PMID 25003613. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  24. ^ Reddy, Marpadga A.; Natarajan, Rama (2011-06-01). "Epigenetic mechanisms in diabetic vascular complications". Cardiovascular Research. 90 (3): 421–429. doi:10.1093/cvr/cvr024. ISSN 0008-6363.
  25. ^ Heijmans, Bastiaan T.; Tobi, Elmar W.; Stein, Aryeh D.; Putter, Hein; Blauw, Gerard J.; Susser, Ezra S.; Slagboom, P. Eline; Lumey, L. H. (2008-11-04). "Persistent epigenetic differences associated with prenatal exposure to famine in humans". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 105 (44): 17046–17049. doi:10.1073/pnas.0806560105. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 2579375. PMID 18955703.

**ORIGINAL DOCUMENT**

Diabetic retinopathy (Added New Information)

[edit]

A common sign of diabetes is the degradation of blood vessels in various tissues throughout the body. Retinopathy refers to damage from this process in the retina, the part of the eye that senses light. Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in the United States. Diabetic retinopathy is known to be associated with a number of epigenetic markers, including methylation of the Sod2 and MMP-9 genes, an increase in transcription of LSD1, a H3K4 and H3K9 demethylase, and various DNA Methyl-Transferases (DNMTs), and increased presence of miRNAs for transcription factors and VEGF.

It is believed that much of the retinal vascular degeneration characteristic of diabetic retinopathy is due to impaired mitochondrial activity in the retina. Sod2 codes for a superoxide dismutase enzyme, which scavenges free radicals and prevents oxidative damage to cells. LSD1 may play a major role in diabetic retinopathy through the downregulation of Sod2 in retinal vascular tissue, leading to oxidative damage in those cells. MMP-9 is believed to be involved in cellular apoptosis, and is similarly downregulated, which may help to propagate the effects of diabetic retinopathy.

Several avenues to epigenetic treatment of diabetic retinopathy have been studied. One approach is to inhibit the methylation of the Sod2 and MMP-9. The DNMT inhibitors 5-azacytidine and 5-aza-20-deoxycytidine have both been approved by the FDA for the treatment of other conditions, and studies have examined the effects of those compounds on diabetic retinopathy, where they seem to inhibit these methylation patterns with some success at reducing symptoms. The DNA methylation inhibitor Zebularine has also been studied, although results are currently inconclusive. A second approach is to attempt to reduce the miRNAs observed at elevated levels in retinopathic patients, although the exact role of those miRNAs is still unclear. The Histone Acetyltransferase (HAT) inhibitors Epigallocatechin-3-gallate, Vorinostat, and Romidepsin have also been the subject of experimentation for this purpose, with some limited success. The possibility of using Small Interfering RNAs, or siRNAs, to target the miRNAs mentioned above has been discussed, but there are currently no known methods to do so. This method is somewhat hindered by the difficulty involved in delivering the siRNAs to the affected tissues.

Sexual orientation change (Removed Section)

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Main article: Epigenetic theories of homosexuality

An epigenetic model of sexual development, published in 2012, suggests that homosexuality may be the result of epi-marks being inherited from the parent of opposite gender. Following the publication, some suggested that it could be possible to change one’s sexual orientation with epigenetic therapy.

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