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Chemical and medicational
[edit]Multi-decade studies have identified an increased likelihood of Parkinson's in association with agricultural work, pesticide exposure, and rural habitation.[1] Moreover, chlorinated solvents—used in various commercial and industrial application like dry cleaning and degreasing—are also associated with increased PD risk, particularly trichloroethylene.[2] Carbon disulfide is another risk factor, and has been identified in industrial worker case studies and has induced parkinsonism in mice.[3] Manganese, which has induced Parkinson's-like pathology in mice, is also associated with a higher risk. Welders are at a higher PD risk, tentatively from manganese fumes.[2] Moreover, exposure to suspended particles from traffic fumes is also associated with PD.[2]
Medical drugs are implicated in parkinsonism.[citation needed] Drug-induced parkinsonism is normally reversible by stopping the offending agent,[4] such as phenothiazines (chlorpromazine, promazine, etc.); butyrophenones (haloperidol, benperidol, etc.); metoclopramide and Tetrabenazine. 1-Methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) is a drug known for causing irreversible parkinsonism that is commonly used in animal-model research.[4][5][6] Low concentrations of urate in the blood are associated with an increased risk.[7]
Psychological
[edit]Behavioral and psychological factors have also been associated with risk of PD. For example, a meta-analysis found that neuroticism was associated with higher risk of incident PD.[8] Similarly, in a sample of about a half million individuals found that adults who reported being lonely had a greater risk of developing PD over a 15 years of follow-up.[9]
Biological
[edit]Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) are strongly implicated as risk factors for PD.[10][note 1] Possibly due to the recurrent head impacts, playing American football for a longer period and at higher levels is associated with higher PD risk.[12] Veterans are also at a higher risk.[13] Proposed mechanisms by which TBIs could induce or accelerate Parkinson's include alpha-synuclein accumulation, inflammation, and metabolic dysregulation.[14]
Vascular parkinsonism is the phenomenon of the presence of Parkinson's disease symptoms combined with findings of vascular events (such as a cerebral stroke). The damaging of the dopaminergic pathways is similar in cause for both vascular parkinsonism and idiopathic PD, and so present with similar symptoms. Differentiation can be made with careful bedside examination, history evaluation, and imaging.[15][4][16]
A possible link exists between PD and Helicobacter pylori infection that can prevent the absorption of some drugs, including levodopa.[17][18]
- ^ Simon et al. (2020), p. 2.
- ^ a b c Simon et al. (2020), p. 3.
- ^ Liu et al. (2023), pp. 1-13.
- ^ a b c Simon RP, Greenberg D, Aminoff MJ (2017). Clinical Neurology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-1-259-86172-7.
- ^ Langston JW (6 March 2017). "The MPTP Story". Journal of Parkinson's Disease. 7 (s1): S11–S19. doi:10.3233/JPD-179006. PMC 5345642. PMID 28282815.
- ^ Song L, Xu MB, Zhou XL, Zhang DP, Zhang SL, Zheng GQ (2017). "A Preclinical Systematic Review of Ginsenoside-Rg1 in Experimental Parkinson's Disease". Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. 2017: 2163053. doi:10.1155/2017/2163053. PMC 5366755. PMID 28386306.
- ^ Chahine LM, Stern MB, Chen-Plotkin A (January 2014). "Blood-based biomarkers for Parkinson's disease". Parkinsonism & Related Disorders. 20 (Suppl 1): S99–103. doi:10.1016/S1353-8020(13)70025-7. PMC 4070332. PMID 24262199.
- ^ Terracciano, A; Aschwanden, D; Stephan, Y; Cerasa, A; Passamonti, L; Toschi, N; Sutin, AR (August 2021). "Neuroticism and Risk of Parkinson's Disease: A Meta-Analysis". Movement Disorders. 36 (8): 1863–1870. doi:10.1002/mds.28575. PMC 8376751. PMID 33817817.
- ^ Terracciano, Antonio; Luchetti, Martina; Karakose, Selin; Stephan, Yannick; Sutin, Angelina R. (2 October 2023). "Loneliness and Risk of Parkinson Disease". JAMA Neurology. doi:10.1001/jamaneurol.2023.3382. ISSN 2168-6149. PMC 10546293. PMID 37782489.
- ^ Delic et al. (2020), pp. 1-15.
- ^ Bellou (2015), p. 6.
- ^ Bruce et al. (2023), pp. 1-10.
- ^ Delic et al. (2020), p. 1.
- ^ Delic et al. (2020), pp. 3-8.
- ^ Gupta D, Kuruvilla A (December 2011). "Vascular parkinsonism: what makes it different?". Postgraduate Medical Journal. 87 (1034): 829–836. doi:10.1136/postgradmedj-2011-130051. PMID 22121251. S2CID 29227069.
- ^ Miguel-Puga A, Villafuerte G, Salas-Pacheco J, Arias-Carrión O (22 September 2017). "Therapeutic Interventions for Vascular Parkinsonism: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis". Frontiers in Neurology. 8: 481. doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00481. PMC 5614922. PMID 29018399.
- ^ Çamcı G, Oğuz S (April 2016). "Association between Parkinson's Disease and Helicobacter Pylori". Journal of Clinical Neurology. 12 (2): 147–150. doi:10.3988/jcn.2016.12.2.147. PMC 4828559. PMID 26932258.
- ^ McGee DJ, Lu XH, Disbrow EA (2018). "Stomaching the Possibility of a Pathogenic Role for Helicobacter pylori in Parkinson's Disease". Journal of Parkinson's Disease. 8 (3): 367–374. doi:10.3233/JPD-181327. PMC 6130334. PMID 29966206.
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