User:Decampr/sandbox
Other animals
[edit]General
[edit]Although the clitoris exists in all mammal species,[1] few detailed studies of the anatomy of the clitoris in non-humans exist.[2] The clitoris is especially developed in fossas,[3] apes, lemurs[4], moles[5][6], and, like the penis in many non-human placental mammals, often contains a small bone. In females, this bone is known as the os clitoridis.[7] The clitoris exists in turtles,[8] ostriches,[9] crocodiles,[8] and in species of birds in which the male counterpart has a penis.[8]
Non-human primates
[edit]In spider monkeys, the clitoris is especially developed and has an interior passage, or urethra, that makes it almost identical to the penis, and it retains and distributes urine droplets as the female spider monkey moves around. Scholar Alan F. Dixson stated that this urine "is voided at the bases of the clitoris, flows down the shallow groove on its perineal surface, and is held by the skin folds on each side of the groove".[10] Because spider monkeys of South America have pendulous and erectile clitorises long enough to be mistaken for a penis, researchers and observers of the species look for a scrotum to determine the animal's sex; a similar approach is to identify scent-marking glands that may also be present on the clitoris.[11]
The clitoris erects in squirrel monkeys during dominance displays, which indirectly influences the squirrel monkeys' reproductive success[12].
The clitoris of bonobos is larger and more externalized than in most mammals;[13] Natalie Angier said that a young adolescent "female bonobo is maybe half the weight of a human teenager, but her clitoris is three times bigger than the human equivalent, and visible enough to waggle unmistakably as she walks".[14] Female bonobos often engage in the practice of genital-genital (GG) rubbing, which is the non-human form of tribadism that human females engage in. Ethologist Jonathan Balcombe stated that female bonobos rub their clitorises together rapidly for ten to twenty seconds, and this behavior, "which may be repeated in rapid succession, is usually accompanied by grinding, shrieking, and clitoral engorgement"; he added that, on average, they engage in this practice "about once every two hours", and as bonobos sometimes mate face-to-face, "evolutionary biologist Marlene Zuk has suggested that the position of the clitoris in bonobos and some other primates has evolved to maximize stimulation during sexual intercourse".[13]
Many strepsirrhine species exhibit elongated clitorises that are either fully or partially tunneled by the urethra, including mouse lemurs, dwarf lemurs, all Eulemur species, lorises and galagos.[15] [16][17] Some of these species also exhibit a membrane seal across the vagina that closes the vaginal opening during the non-mating seasons, most notably mouse and dwarf lemurs.[15] The clitoral morphology of the ring-tailed lemur is the most well-studied. They are described as having "elongated, pendulous clitorises that are [fully] tunneled by a urethra", but they do not erect like the male penis because they lack a corpus spongiosum.[4] Non-pregnant adult ring-tailed females do not show higher testosterone levels than males, but they do exhibit higher A4 and estrogen levels during seasonal aggression. During pregnancy, estrogen, A4, and testosterone levels are raised, but female fetuses are still "protected" from excess testosterone.[18] These "masculinized" genitalia are often found alongside other traits, such as female-dominated social groups, reduced sexual dimorphism that makes females the same size as males, and even ratios of sexes in adult populations.[19][18] This phenomenon that has been dubbed the "lemur syndrome" [20]. A 2014 study of Eulemur masculinization proposed that behavioral and morphological masculinization in female lemuriformes is an ancestral trait that likely emerged after their split from lorisiformes.[17]
Spotted hyenas
[edit]
While female spotted hyenas are sometimes referred to as hermaphrodites or as intersex,[11] and scientists of ancient and later historical times believed that they were hermaphrodites,[11][21][22] modern scientists do not refer to them as such.[21][23] That designation is typically reserved for those who simultaneously exhibit features of both sexes;[23] the genetic makeup of female spotted hyenas "are clearly distinct" from male spotted hyenas.[21][23]
Female spotted hyenas have a clitoris 90 percent as long and the same diameter as a male penis (171 millimeters long and 22 millimeters in diameter),[11] and this pseudo-penis's formation is largely androgen-independent because it appears in the female fetus before differentiation of the fetal ovary and adrenal gland.[21] The spotted hyenas have a highly erectile clitoris, complete with a false scrotum; author John C. Wingfield stated that "the resemblance to male genitalia is so close that sex can be determined with confidence only by palpation of the scrotum".[12] The pseudo-penis can also be distinguished from the males' genitalia by its greater thickness and more rounded glans.[21] The female possesses no external vagina, as the labia are fused to form a pseudo-scrotum. In the females, this scrotum consists of soft adipose tissue.[12][21][24] Like male spotted hyenas with regard to their penises, the female spotted hyenas have small penile spines on the head of their clitorises, which scholar Catherine Blackledge said makes "the clitoris tip feel like soft sandpaper". She added that the clitoris "extends away from the body in a sleek and slender arc, measuring, on average, over 17 cm from root to tip. Just like a penis, [it] is fully erectile, raising its head in hyena greeting ceremonies, social displays, games of rough and tumble or when sniffing out peers".[25]
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Due to their higher levels of androgen exposure during fetal development, female hyenas are significantly more muscular and aggressive than their male counterparts; social-wise, females are of higher rank than the males.[18] There is also a clear dominance hierarchy among females. Subordinate females lick the clitorises of higher-ranked females as a sign of submission and obedience, but females also lick each other's clitorises as a greeting or to strengthen social bonds; in contrast, while all males lick the clitorises of dominant females, the females will not lick the penises of males because males are considered to be of lowest rank.[24][27]
The urethra and vagina of the female spotted hyena exit through the clitoris, allowing the females to urinate, copulate and give birth through this organ.[12][21][25][28] This trait makes mating more laborious for the male than in other mammals, and also makes attempts to sexually coerce (physically force sexual activity on) females futile.[24] Joan Roughgarden, an ecologist and evolutionary biologist, said that because the hyena's clitoris is higher on the belly than the vagina in most mammals, the male hyena "must slide his rear under the female when mating so that his penis lines up with [her clitoris]". In an action similar to pushing up a shirtsleeve, the "female retracts the [pseudo-penis] on itself, and creates an opening into which the male inserts his own penis".[11] The male must practice this act, which can take a couple of months to successfully perform.[27] Female spotted hyenas exposed to larger doses of androgen have significantly damaged ovaries, making it difficult to conceive.[27] After giving birth, the pseudo-penis is stretched and loses much of its original aspects; it becomes a slack-walled and reduced prepuce with an enlarged orifice with split lips.[29] Approximately 15% of the females die during their first time giving birth, and over 60% of their species' firstborn young die.[11]
A 2006 Baskin et al. study concluded, "The basic anatomical structures of the corporeal bodies in both sexes of humans and spotted hyenas were similar. As in humans, the dorsal nerve distribution was unique in being devoid of nerves at the 12 o'clock position in the penis and clitoris of the spotted hyena" and that "[d]orsal nerves of the penis/clitoris in humans and male spotted hyenas tracked along both sides of the corporeal body to the corpus spongiosum at the 5 and 7 o'clock positions. The dorsal nerves penetrated the corporeal body and distally the glans in the hyena" and, in female hyenas, "the dorsal nerves fanned out laterally on the clitoral body. Glans morphology was different in appearance in both sexes, being wide and blunt in the female and tapered in the male".[28]
Moles
[edit]Many species of Talpid moles exhibit peniform clitorises that are tunneled by the urethra and are found to have erectile tissue, most notably species from the Talpa genus found in Europe.[30] Unique to this clade are the presence of ovotestes, wherein the female ovary also is mostly made up of sterile testicular tissue that secretes testosterone with only a small portion of the gonad containing ovarian tissue. Genetic studies have revealed that females have an XX genotype and do not have any translocated Y-linked genes.[30] Detailed developmental studies of Talpa occidentalis have revealed that the female gonads develop in a "testis-like pattern". DMRT1, a gene that regulates development of Sertoli cells, was found to be expressed in female germ cells before meiosis, however no Sertoli cells were present in the fully-developed ovotestes. Additionally, the female germ cells only enter meiosis postnatally, a phenomenon that has not been found in any other eutherian mammal. [30] Phylogenetic analyses have suggested that, like in lemuroids, this trait must have evolved in a common ancestor of the clade, and has been "turned off and on" in different Talpid lineages.[31]
Female European moles are highly territorial and will not allow males in to their territory outside of breeding season, the probable cause of this behavior being the high levels of testosterone secreted by the female ovotestes.[30][31] During the non-breeding season, their vaginal opening is covered by skin, akin to the condition seen in mouse and dwarf lemurs.[30]
Other mammals
[edit]Researchers studying the peripheral and central afferent pathways from the feline clitoris concluded that "afferent neurons projecting to the clitoris of the cat were identified by WGA-HRP tracing in the S1 and S2 dorsal root ganglia. An average of 433 cells were identified on each side of the animal. 85 percent and 15 percent of the labeled cells were located in the S1 and S2 dorsal root ganglia, respectively. The average cross sectional area of clitoral afferent neuron profiles was 1.479±627 μm2." They also stated that light "constant pressure on the clitoris produced an initial burst of single unit firing (maximum frequencies 170–255 Hz) followed by rapid adaptation and a sustained firing (maximum 40 Hz), which was maintained during the stimulation" and that further examination of tonic firing "indicate that the clitoris is innervated by mechano-sensitive myelinated afferent fibers in the pudental nerve which project centrally to the region of the dorsal commissure in the L7-S1 spinal cord".[32]
The external phenotype and reproductive behavior of 21 freemartin sheep and two male pseudohermaphrodite sheep were recorded with the aim of identifying any characteristics that could predict a failure to breed. The vagina's length and the size and shape of the vulva and clitoris were among the aspects analyzed. While the study reported that "a number of physical and behavioural abnormalities were detected," it also concluded that "the only consistent finding in all 23 animals was a short vagina which varied in length from 3.1 to 7.0 cm, compared with 10 to 14 cm in normal animals."[33]
In a study concerning the clitoral structure of mice, the mouse perineal urethra was documented as being surrounded by erectile tissue forming the bulbs of the clitoris.[2] The researchers stated, "In the mouse, as in human females, tissue organization in the corpora cavernosa of the clitoris is essentially similar to that of the penis except for the absence of a subalbugineal layer interposed between the tunica albuginea and the erectile tissue."[2]
Some intersex female bears mate and give birth through the tip of the clitoris; these species are grizzly bears, brown bears, American black bears and polar bears. Although the bears have been described as having "a birth canal that runs through the clitoris rather than forming a separate vagina" (a feature that is estimated to make up 10 to 20 percent of the bears' population),[34] scientists state that female spotted hyenas are the only non-hermaphroditic female mammals devoid of an external vaginal opening, and whose sexual anatomy is distinct from usual intersex cases.[21]
References
[edit]- ^ Balcombe 2007, p. 111
- ^ a b c Martin-Alguacil et al. 2008, pp. 1407–1413
- ^ Hawkins et al. 2002
- ^ a b Drea, Christine M.; Weil, Anne (2007-10-30). "External genital morphology of the ring-tailed lemur (Lemur catta): Females are naturally "masculinized"". Journal of Morphology. 269 (4): 451–463. doi:10.1002/jmor.10594. ISSN 0362-2525. PMID 17972270. S2CID 29073999.
- ^ Sinclair et al. 2016
- ^ Rubenstein et al. 2003
- ^ Angier 1999, pp. 68–69; Hall 2005, p. 344; Goodman 2009.
- ^ a b c Fishbeck & Sebastiani 2015, p. 64
- ^ Kotpal 2010, p. 394
- ^ Dixson 2012, p. 364
- ^ a b c d e f Roughgarden 2004, pp. 37–40
- ^ a b c d Wingfield 2006, p. 2023
- ^ a b Balcombe 2011, p. 88
- ^ Angier 1999, p. 68
- ^ a b PETTER-ROUSSEAUX, A. (1964), "Reproductive Physiology and Behavior of the Lemuroidea", Evolutionary and Genetic Biology of Primates, Elsevier, pp. 91–132, doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-395562-3.50009-6, ISBN 978-0-12-395562-3, retrieved 2020-03-11
- ^ Hill, W. C. Osman. (1957). Primates : comparative anatomy and taxonomy ; a monograph. Univ. Press. OCLC 915471566.
- ^ a b Petty, Joseph M. A.; Drea, Christine M. (2015-05-07). "Female rule in lemurs is ancestral and hormonally mediated". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 9631. doi:10.1038/srep09631. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4423346. PMID 25950904.
- ^ a b c Drea, Christine M. (August 2009). "Endocrine Mediators of Masculinization in Female Mammals". Current Directions in Psychological Science. 18 (4): 221–226. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01640.x. ISSN 0963-7214. S2CID 145424854.
- ^ Kappeler, Peter M; Fichtel, Claudia (2015). "Eco-evo-devo of the lemur syndrome: did adaptive behavioral plasticity get canalized in a large primate radiation?". Frontiers in Zoology. 12 (Suppl 1): S15. doi:10.1186/1742-9994-12-S1-S15. ISSN 1742-9994. PMC 4722368. PMID 26816515.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - ^ Kappeler, Peter M.; Schäffler, Livia (2007-12-18). "The lemur syndrome unresolved: extreme male reproductive skew in sifakas (Propithecus verreauxi), a sexually monomorphic primate with female dominance". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 62 (6): 1007–1015. doi:10.1007/s00265-007-0528-6. ISSN 0340-5443. S2CID 23914183.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Glickman et al. 2006, pp. 349–356
- ^ Rosenzweig, Leiman & Breedlove 1996, p. 438
- ^ a b c Blumberg 2009, pp. 232–236
- ^ a b c Szykman et al. 2007, pp. 815–846
- ^ a b Blackledge 2003, p. 90
- ^ Schmotzer & Zimmerman 1922, p. 260
- ^ a b c Carey, Bjorn (26 April 2006). "The Painful Realities of Hyena Sex". LiveScience. Retrieved 7 November 2012.
- ^ a b Baskin et al. 2006, pp. 276–283
- ^ Rosevear 1974, pp. 357–358
- ^ a b c d e Jiménez, R.; Barrionuevo, F.J.; Burgos, M. (2013). "Natural Exceptions to Normal Gonad Development in Mammals". Sexual Development. 7 (1–3): 147–162. doi:10.1159/000338768. ISSN 1661-5433. PMID 22626995. S2CID 8721211.
- ^ a b Carmona, F. David; Motokawa, Masaharu; Tokita, Masayoshi; Tsuchiya, Kimiyuki; Jiménez, Rafael; Sánchez-Villagra, Marcelo R. (2008-05-15). "The evolution of female mole ovotestes evidences high plasticity of mammalian gonad development". Journal of Experimental Zoology Part B: Molecular and Developmental Evolution. 310B (3): 259–266. doi:10.1002/jez.b.21209. ISSN 1552-5007. PMID 18085526.
- ^ Kawatani, Tanowitza & de Groata 1994, pp. 26–36
- ^ Smith et al. 2000, pp. 574–578
- ^ Girshick & Green 2009, p. 24; Roughgarden 2004, pp. 37–40
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Journals
[edit]- Baskin, Laurence S.; Yucel, Selcuk; Cunha, Gerald R.; Glickman, Stephen E.; Place, Ned J. (January 2006). "A Neuroanatomical Comparison of Humans and Spotted Hyena, a Natural Animal Model for Common Urogenital Sinus: Clinical Reflections on Feminizing Genitoplasty". Journal of Urology. 175 (1): 276–83. doi:10.1016/S0022-5347(05)00014-5. PMID 16406926.
- Battaglia, Cesare; Venturoli, Stefano (August 2009). "Persistent Genital Arousal Disorder and Trazodone. Morphometric and Vascular Modifications of the Clitoris. A Case Report". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 6 (10): 2896–2900. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01418.x. PMID 19674253.
- Foldès, Pierre; Buisson, Odile (2009). "The clitoral complex: a dynamic sonographic study". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 6 (5): 1223–31. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2009.01231.x. PMID 19453931.
- Blechner, Mark J. (2017). "The Clitoris: Anatomical and Psychological Issues". Studies in Gender and Sexuality. 18 (3): 190–200. doi:10.1080/15240657.2017.1349509. S2CID 148717326.
- Chivers, Meredith L. (2007). Wiederman, Michael W (ed.). "A Narrow (But Thorough) Examination of the Evolutionary Significance of Female Orgasm". Journal of Sex Research. 44 (1): 104–5. doi:10.1080/00224490709336797.
- Copcu, Eray; Aktas, Alper; Sivrioglu, Nazan; Copcu, Ozgen; Oztan, Yucel (2004). "Idiopathic isolated clitoromegaly: A report of two cases". Reprod Health. 1 (1): 4. doi:10.1186/1742-4755-1-4. PMC 523860. PMID 15461813.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - Glickman, Stephen E.; Cunha, Gerald R.; Drea, Christine M.; Conley, Alan J.; Place, Ned J. (2006). "Mammalian sexual differentiation: lessons from the spotted hyena". Trends in Endocrinology and Metabolism. 17 (9): 349–56. doi:10.1016/j.tem.2006.09.005. PMID 17010637. S2CID 18227659.
- Goldmeier, D; Leiblum, SR (2006). "Persistent genital arousal in women – a new syndrome entity". International Journal of STD & AIDS. 17 (4): 215–6. doi:10.1258/095646206776253480. PMID 16595040. S2CID 38012437.
- Harvey, Elizabeth D. (Winter 2002). "Anatomies of Rapture: Clitoral Politics/Medical Blazons". Signs. 27 (2): 315–46. doi:10.1086/495689. JSTOR 3175784. S2CID 144437433.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: ref duplicates default (link) - Hawkins, C. E.; Dallas, J. F.; Fowler, P. A.; Woodroffe, R.; Racey, P. A. (1 March 2002). "Transient Masculinization in the Fossa, Cryptoprocta ferox (Carnivora, Viverridae)". Biology of Reproduction. 66 (3): 610–615. doi:10.1095/biolreprod66.3.610. PMID 11870065.
- Jocelyn, Henry David; Setchell, Brian Peter (1972). "Regnier de Graaf on the human reproductive organs. An annotated translation of 'Tractatus de Virorum Organis Generationi Inservientibus' (1668) and 'De Mulierub Organis Generationi Inservientibus Tractatus Novus' (1672)". Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement. 17: 1–222. OCLC 468341279. PMID 4567037.
- Kammerer-Doak, Dorothy; Rogers, Rebecca G. (June 2008). "Female Sexual Function and Dysfunction". Obstetrics and Gynecology Clinics of North America. 35 (2): 169–83, vii. doi:10.1016/j.ogc.2008.03.006. PMID 18486835.
- Kawatani, Masahito; Tanowitza, Michael; et al. (February 1994). "Morphological and electrophysiological analysis of the peripheral and central afferent pathways from the clitoris of the cat". Brain Research. 646 (1): 26–36. doi:10.1016/0006-8993(94)90054-X. PMID 7519963. S2CID 20616698.
- Kilchevsky, Amichai; Vardi, Yoram; Lowenstein, Lior; Gruenwald, Ilan (January 2012). "Is the Female G-Spot Truly a Distinct Anatomic Entity?". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 9 (3): 719–26. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02623.x. PMID 22240236.
- Cox, Lauren (19 January 2012). "G-Spot Does Not Exist, 'Without A Doubt,' Say Researchers". The Huffington Post.
- Komisaruk, Barry R.; Wise, Nan; Frangos, Eleni; Liu, Wen-Ching; Allen, Kachina; Brody, Stuart (October 2011). "Women's Clitoris, Vagina, and Cervix Mapped on the Sensory Cortex: fMRI Evidence". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 8 (10): 2822–30. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2011.02388.x. PMC 3186818. PMID 21797981.
- "Surprise finding in response to nipple stimulation". CBS News. 5 August 2011.
- Lloyd, Jillian; Crouch, Naomi S.; Minto, Catherine L.; Liao, Lih-Mei; Creighton, Sarah M (May 2005). "Female genital appearance: 'normality' unfolds" (PDF). British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 112 (6): 643–646. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.585.1427. doi:10.1111/j.1471-0528.2004.00517.x. PMID 15842291. S2CID 17818072.
- Mah, Kenneth; Binik, Yitzchak M (August 2001). "The nature of human orgasm: a critical review of major trends". Clinical Psychology Review. 21 (6): 823–56. doi:10.1016/S0272-7358(00)00069-6. PMID 11497209.
- Martin-Alguacil, Nieves; Pfaff, Donald W.; Shelley, Deborah N.; Schober, Justine M. (June 2008). "Clitoral sexual arousal: an immunocytochemical and innervation study of the clitoris". BJUI. 101 (11): 1407–13. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2008.07625.x. PMID 18454796. S2CID 31132967.
- O'Connell, Helen E.; Sanjeevan, Kalavampara V.; Hutson, John M. (October 2005). "Anatomy of the clitoris". The Journal of Urology. 174 (4): 1189–95. doi:10.1097/01.ju.0000173639.38898.cd. PMID 16145367. S2CID 26109805.
- Mascall, Sharon (11 June 2006). "Time for rethink on the clitoris". BBC News.
- Ogletree, Shirley Matile; Ginsburg, Harvey J. (2000). "Kept Under the Hood: Neglect of the Clitoris in Common Vernacular". Sex Roles. 43 (11–12): 917–26. doi:10.1023/A:1011093123517. S2CID 140325571.
- Moore, Lisa Jean; Clarke, Adele E. (April 1995). "Clitoral Conventions and Transgressions: Graphic Representations in Anatomy Texts, c1900-1991". Feminist Studies. 21 (2): 255–301. doi:10.2307/3178262. JSTOR 3178262.
- Puppo, Vincenzo (September 2011). "Anatomy of the Clitoris: Revision and Clarifications about the Anatomical Terms for the Clitoris Proposed (without Scientific Bases) by Helen O'Connell, Emmanuele Jannini, and Odile Buisson". ISRN Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2011 (ID 261464): 261464. doi:10.5402/2011/261464. PMC 3175415. PMID 21941661.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link) - Rubenstein, N. M.; Cunha, G. R.; Wang, Y. Z.; Campbell, K. L.; Conley, A. J.; Catania, K. C.; Glickman, S. E.; Place, N. J. (December 2003). "Variation in ovarian morphology in four species of New World moles with a peniform clitoris". Reproduction. 126 (6): 713–719. doi:10.1530/rep.0.1260713. PMID 14748690.
- Schmotzer, B.; Zimmerman, A. (15 April 1922). von Eggeling, H. (ed.). "Über die weiblichen Begattungsorgane der gefleckten Hyäne" [About the female sexual organs of the spotted hyena]. Anatomischer Anzeiger [Anatomical Gazette] (in German). 55 (12/13): 257–64.
- Şenaylı, Atilla; Ankara, Etlik (December 2011). "Controversies on clitoroplasty". Therapeutic Advances in Urology. 3 (6): 273–7. doi:10.1177/1756287211428165. PMC 3229251. PMID 22164197.
- Sinclair, Adriane Watkins; Glickman, Stephen E.; Baskin, Laurence; Cunha, Gerald R. (March 2016). "Anatomy of mole external genitalia: setting the record straight". The Anatomical Record. 299 (3): 385–399. doi:10.1002/ar.23309. PMC 4752857. PMID 26694958.
- Smith, K. C.; Parkinson, T. J.; Long, S. E.; Barr, F. J. (2000). "Anatomical, cytogenetic and behavioural studies of freemartin ewes". Veterinary Record. 146 (20): 574–8. doi:10.1136/vr.146.20.574. PMID 10839234. S2CID 35207213.
- Szykman, Micaela; Engh, Anne; Van Horn, Russell; Holekamp, Kay; Boydston, Erin (2007). "Courtship and mating in free-living spotted hyenas" (PDF). Behaviour. 144 (7): 815–46. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.630.5755. doi:10.1163/156853907781476418. JSTOR 4536481.
- Verkauf, BS; Von Thron, J; O'Brien, WF (1992). "Clitoral size in normal women". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 80 (1): 41–4. PMID 1603495.
- Wade, Lisa D.; Kremer, Emily C.; Brown, Jessica (2005). "The Incidental Orgasm: The Presence of Clitoral Knowledge and the Absence of Orgasm for Women". Women & Health. 42 (1): 117–38. doi:10.1300/J013v42n01_07. PMID 16418125. S2CID 39966093.
- Waskul, Dennis D.; Vannini, Phillip; Wiesen, Desiree (2007). "Women and Their Clitoris: Personal Discovery, Signification, and Use". Symbolic Interaction. 30 (2): 151–74. doi:10.1525/si.2007.30.2.151. hdl:10170/157.
- Yang, Claire C.; Cold, Christopher J.; Yilmaz, Ugur; Maravilla, Kenneth R. (April 2006). "Sexually responsive vascular tissue of the vulva". BJUI. 97 (4): 766–72. doi:10.1111/j.1464-410X.2005.05961.x. PMID 16536770.
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External links
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Category:Mammal female reproductive system * Category:Women's health