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The table that follows is very broad in scope like the cloud template that follows it. There are some variations in styles of nomenclature between the classification scheme used for the troposphere (strict Latin except for surface based aerosols) and the higher levels of the homosphere (common terms, some informally derived from Latin). However, the schemes presented here share a cross-classification of physical forms and altitude levels to derive the 10 tropospheric genera,at the fog and mist that forms surface level, and several additional major types above the troposphere. The cumulus genus includes four species that indicate vertical size which can affect the altitude levels.
For a similar type of overview at bottom of article, see Cloud genera and selected species, supplementary features, and other airborne hydrometeors.
Intro: Added flag to direct attention to similar type of overview at bottom of article in response to a user enquiry as to whether there was a precedence on Wikipedia for providing a composite classification table as an index or illustration.
The prevailing doctrine of ethos, as explained by ancient Greek philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle, was based on the belief that music has a direct effect upon the soul and actions of humankind. As a result, the Greek political and social systems were intertwined with music, which had a primary role in the dramas of Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides, and Aristophanes. And the Grecian educational system was focused upon musica and gymnastica, the former referring to all cultural and intellectual studies, as distinguished from those related to physical training.
To support its fundamental role in society, an intricate scientific rationale of music evolved, encompassing tuning, instruments, modes (melodic formulas based on certain scales), and rhythms. The 6th-century-bce philosopher and mathematician Pythagoras was the first to record the vibratory ratios that established the series of notes still used in Western music. From the total gamut of notes used were derived the various modes bearing the names of Grecian tribes—Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, etc. The rhythmic system, deriving from poetry, was based on long–short relationships rather than strong–weak accentual metre. After Pythagoras, Aristoxenus was the major historian and theoretician of Greek music.
Ancient Rome
When the musical culture of the eastern Mediterranean was transplanted into the western Mediterranean by the returning Roman legions, it was inevitably modified by local tastes and traditions. In most cases, the resulting practices were more limited than their models. The diatonic (seven-note) scale, for example, became the standard, displacing the chromatic and enharmonic structures of the Grecian system. Of particular consequence was the new concept of metre as a series of equal durations, with emphasis being determined by accent (stress) rather than by duration.
An inventory of the musical heritage transplanted from the ancient East (particularly Greece) to Rome reveals the rich treasure inherited: an acoustical theory that accounted for the identification and classification of tones; a concept of tonal organization resulting in the system of modes; principles of rhythmic organization; basic principles of instrument construction; a system of notation that conveyed all necessary indications of pitch and duration; and a large repertory of melodies to serve as models for further composition.
The music of the ancient Greeks provided a direct link between pre-Roman Mediterranean civilizations and musical developments much later in western Europe. Starting around 1000 bce, the Greeks built a dominant culture that assimilated other earlier cultures into a sophisticated and enlightened civilization. The music of ancient Greece was almost universally present in ancient Greek society, from religious ceremonies to theatre, folk music, and the ballad-like reciting of epic poetry. It thus played an integral role in the lives of ancient Greeks. There is significant archeological evidence as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music that provide some idea what the music sounded like as well as its general role in society.
Pythagoras laid the foundations of our knowledge of the study of harmonics. Plato complained that an unmusical anarchy was led by poets who had natural talent, but were ignorant of the laws of music. Aristotle believed that these laws along should be part of a person's basic education, along with learning a musical insrument.
Songs took several forms, including hymns that addressed individual gods, paeans expressing triumph or thanksgiving, prosodions that invoked or praised a god, hyporchemas with a marked rhythmic movement, and dithyrambs which spefically honored the god Appollo..
Music played an integral role in ancient Greek society. Pericles' teacher Damon said, according to Plato in the Republic, "when fundamental modes of music change, the fundamental modes of the state change with them." Music and gymnastics comprised the main divisions in one's schooling. "The word 'music' expressed the entire education".[11]
Instrumental music served a religious and entertaining role in ancient Greece as it would often accompany religious events, including marriages, funerals, rituals, and festivals. Music was also used for entertainment when it accompanied drinking-parties or symposia. A popular type of piece to be played while drinking at these drinking parties was the skolion, a piece composed to be heard while drinking.[12] Before and after the Greek drinking parties, religious libations, or the religious the act of partaking and pouring out drink, would be made to deities, usually the Olympic gods, the heroes, and Zeus. The offering of libations were often accompanied by a special libation melody called the spondeion, which was often accompanied by an aulos player.[13] The aulos also present in war time, especially at Sparta where the aulos accompanied the hoplites into battle.[14]
There are significant fragments of actual Greek musical notation[15][16] as well as many literary references to ancient Greek music, such that some things can be known—or reasonably surmised—about what the music sounded like, the general role of music in society, the economics of music, the importance of a professional caste of musicians, etc. Even archaeological remains reveal an abundance of depictions on ceramics, for example, of music being performed.
Whether or not long narrative dramatic poetry, or epic poetry like those of Homer, were sung is not entirely known. Music was more known to be present in ancient Greek lyric poetry, which by definition is poetry or a song accompanied by a lyre. Lyric poetry eventually branched into two paths, monodic lyric which were performed by a singular person, and choral lyric which were sung and sometimes danced by a group of people choros. Famous lyric poets include Alkaios and Sappho from the Island of Lesbos. Sappho is known for her lyric poetry, written to be sung while accompanied by a lyre.[17] In ancient times, Sappho was widely regarded as one of the greatest lyric poets and was given names such as the "Tenth Muse" and "The Poetess". Most of Sappho's poetry is now lost, and what is extant has mostly survived in fragmentary form; two notable exceptions are the "Ode to Aphrodite" and the Tithonus poem.[18]
In Greek mythology: Amphion learned music from Hermes and then with a golden lyre built Thebes by moving the stones into place with the sound of his playing; Orpheus, the master-musician and lyre-player, played so magically that he could soothe wild beasts; the Orphic creation myths have Rhea "playing on a brazen drum, and compelling man's attention to the oracles of the goddess";[19]: 30 or Hermes [showing to Apollo] "... his newly-invented tortoise-shell lyre and [playing] such a ravishing tune on it with the plectrum he had also invented, at the same time singing to praise Apollo's nobility[19]: 64 that he was forgiven at once ..."; or Apollo's musical victories over Marsyas and Pan.[19]: 77
There are many such references that indicate that music was an integral part of the Greek perception of how their race had even come into existence and how their destinies continued to be watched over and controlled by the Gods. It is no wonder, then, that music was omnipresent at the Pythian Games, the Olympic Games, religious ceremonies, leisure activities, and even the beginnings of drama as an outgrowth of the dithyrambs performed in honor of Dionysus.[20]
It may be that the actual sounds of the music heard at rituals, games, dramas, etc. underwent a change after the traumatic fall of Athens in 404 BC at the end of the first Peloponnesian War. Indeed, one reads of the "revolution" in Greek culture, and Plato's lament that the new music "... used high musical talent, showmanship and virtuosity ... consciously rejecting educated standards of judgement." [21] Although instrumental virtuosity was prized, this complaint included excessive attention to instrumental music such as to interfere with accompanying the human voice, and the falling away from the traditional ethos in music.
A metric composition whose text addresses a god, either directly or indirectly. They are the earliest formal type in Greek music, and survive in relatively large numbers.[22]: 29–30
A song or lyric poem expressing triumph or thanksgiving. In classical antiquity, it is usually performed by a chorus, but some examples seem intended for an individual voice (monody). It comes from the Greek παιάν (also παιήων or παιών), "song of triumph, any solemn song or chant."[23]
A type of hymn or processional that invoked or praised a god. Prosodions were usually sung on the road to an altar or shrine, before or after a paean.[24]: 3
A dance-song with a marked rhythmic movement, commonly associated with the paean, and often difficult to distinguish from it. For example, the First Delphic Hymn is titled "Paean or Hyporchema".[22]: 88
An ancient Greekhymn sung and danced in honour of Dionysus, the god of wine and fertility; the term was also used as an epithet of the god:[25]Plato, in The Laws, while discussing various kinds of music mentions "the birth of Dionysos, called, I think, the dithyramb."[26] Plato also remarks in the Republic that dithyrambs are the clearest example of poetry in which the poet is the only speaker.[27]
The following were among the instruments used in the music of ancient Greece.
The lyre, kithara, aulos, hydraulis, and salpinx all found their way into the music of ancient Rome.
a strummed and occasionally plucked string instrument, essentially a hand-held zither built on a tortoise-shell (chelys) frame, generally with seven or more strings tuned to the notes of one of the modes. The lyre was a folk-instrument, associated with the cult of Apollo. It was used to accompany others or even oneself for recitation and song, and was the conventional training-instrument for an aristocratic education. According to the Homeric Hymn to Hermes, after stealing his brother Apollo's sacred cattle, Hermes was inspired to build an instrument out of a tortoise shell; he attached horns, and gut-string, to the shell and invented the first lyre. Afterward Hermes gave his lyre to Apollo, who took interest in the instrument, in repayment for the stolen cattle. In other accounts, Hermes gave his newly invented lyre to Amphion, a son of Zeus and a skilled musician.[28]
A larger, bass-version of the kithara, considered to be east-Ionian, an exotic and somewhat foreign instrument. It was the primary instrument of the highly regarded ancient lyricist Sappho, as well as often associated with satyrs.
A trapezoidal psaltery, invented by the Pythagoreans in the 6th century BC, however, may have had Mycenaean origins. It was held on the thighs of the player, and plucked with both hands with bone pickings.
Harps are among the oldest known string instruments, and were in use by Sumerians and Egyptians long before they were present in Greece. The ancient version of the harp resembles a bow, with the strings connecting to the top and bottom of the arch. The strings are perpendicular to the soundbox, while the strings on a lyre are parallel.[29]
The hydraulis. Note the presence of the curved trumpet, called the bukanē by the Greeks and, later, cornu by the Romans.Warrior playing a salpinx, 6th–5th century BC. Attic lekythos.
Usually double, consisting of two double-reed (like an oboe) pipes, not joined but generally played with a mouth-band to hold both pipes steadily between the player's lips. Modern reconstructions indicate that they produced a low, clarinet-like sound. There is some confusion about the exact nature of the instrument; alternate descriptions indicate single-reeds instead of double reeds. It was associated with the cult of Dionysus. According to Pindar's Twelfth Pythian Ode, after Perseus beheaded Medusa, Athena 'found' or 'invented' the aulos in order to reproduce the lamentation of Medusa's sisters. Since the same Greek word is used for 'find' and 'invent', it is unclear; however, the writer Telestes in the 5th century states that Athena found the instrument in a thicket. In Plutarch's essay On the Restraint of Anger, he writes that Athena, after seeing her reflection while playing the aulos, threw the instrument away because it distorted her facial features when played. After which Marsyas a satyr, picked up her aulos and took it up as his own.[30]
(Greek συριγξ, syrinx) is also known as pan-flute is an ancient musical instrument based on the principle of the stopped pipe, consisting of a series of such pipes of gradually increasing length, tuned (by cutting) to a desired scale. Sound is produced by blowing across the top of the open pipe (like blowing across a bottle top).the Pan pipes, or syrinx. According to Ovid's Metamorpheses, the original Syrinx was a Naiad, a water nymph, who ran away from Pan after he tried to woo her. While she fled, she came upon an uncrossable river and prayed to her sisters to transform her so that she may escape Pan. Her Nymph sisters transformed Syrinx into a bundle of reeds which Pan found and fashioned an instrument out of, the pan pipe or syrinx.[31]
A keyboard instrument, the forerunner of the modern pipe organ. As the name indicates, the instrument used water to supply a constant flow of pressure to the pipes. Two detailed descriptions have survived: that of Vitruvius[32] and Heron of Alexandria.[33] These descriptions deal primarily with the keyboard mechanism and with the apparatus that supplied the instrument with air.[c]
The enigmatic ancient Greek figure of Pythagoras with mathematical devotion laid the foundations of our knowledge of the study of harmonics—how strings and columns of air vibrate, how they produce overtones, how the overtones are related arithmetically to one another, etc.[35] It was common to hear of the "music of the spheres" from the Pythagoreans. After studying the sound hammers made in a blacksmith's forge, Pythagoras invented the monochord, which has a movable bridge along with a string stretched over a sounding board. Using the monochord, he found the association between the vibrations and the lengths of the strings.[36]
At a certain point, Plato complained about the new music:
Our music was once divided into its proper forms ... It was not permitted to exchange the melodic styles of these established forms and others. Knowledge and informed judgment penalized disobedience. There were no whistles, unmusical mob-noises, or clapping for applause. The rule was to listen silently and learn; boys, teachers, and the crowd were kept in order by threat of the stick. ... But later, an unmusical anarchy was led by poets who had natural talent, but were ignorant of the laws of music ... Through foolishness they deceived themselves into thinking that there was no right or wrong way in music, that it was to be judged good or bad by the pleasure it gave. By their works and their theories they infected the masses with the presumption to think themselves adequate judges. So our theatres, once silent, grew vocal, and aristocracy of music gave way to a pernicious theatrocracy ... the criterion was not music, but a reputation for promiscuous cleverness and a spirit of law-breaking.[37]
Photograph of the original stone at Delphi containing the second of the two hymns to Apollo. The music notation is the line of occasional symbols above the main, uninterrupted line of Greek lettering.
From his references to "established forms" and "laws of music" we can assume that at least some of the formality of the Pythagorean system of harmonics and consonance had taken hold of Greek music, at least as it was performed by professional musicians in public, and that Plato was complaining about the falling away from such principles into a "spirit of law-breaking".
Playing what "sounded good" violated the established ethos of modes that the Greeks had developed by the time of Plato: a complex system of relating certain emotional and spiritual characteristics to certain modes (scales). The names for the various modes derived from the names of Greek tribes and peoples, the temperament and emotions of which were said to be characterized by the unique sound of each mode. Thus, Dorian modes were "harsh", Phrygian modes "sensual", and so forth. In his Republic,[38] Plato talks about the proper use of various modes, the Dorian, Phrygian, Lydian, etc. It is difficult for the modern listener to relate to that concept of ethos in music except by comparing our own perceptions that a minor scale is used for melancholy and a major scale for virtually everything else, from happy to heroic music.
The sounds of scales vary depending on the placement of tones. Modern Western scales use the placement of whole tones, such as C to D on a modern piano keyboard, and half tones, such as C to C-sharp, but not quarter-tones ("in the cracks" on a modern keyboard) at all. This limit on tone types creates relatively few kinds of scales in modern Western music compared to that of the Greeks, who used the placement of whole-tones, half-tones, and even quarter-tones (or still smaller intervals) to develop a large repertoire of scales, each with a unique ethos. The Greek concepts of scales (including the names) found its way into later Roman music and then the European Middle Ages to the extent that one can find references to, for example, a "Lydian church mode", although name is simply a historical reference with no relationship to the original Greek sound or ethos.
A representation from the 1500s of the Muses dancing
From the descriptions that have come down to us through the writings of those such as Plato, *****Aristoxenus[39] and, later, Boethius,[40]***** we can say with some caution that the ancient Greeks, at least before Plato, heard music that was primarily monophonic; that is, music built on single melodies based on a system of modes / scales, themselves built on the concept that notes should be placed between consonant intervals. It is a commonplace of musicology to say that harmony, in the sense of a developed system of composition, in which many tones at once contribute to the listener's expectation of resolution, was invented in the European Middle Ages and that ancient cultures had no developed system of harmony—that is, for example, playing the third and seventh above the dominant, in order to create the expectation for the listener that the tritone will resolve to the third.
Plato's Republic notes that Greek musicians sometimes played more than one note at a time, although this was apparently considered an advanced technique. The Orestes fragment of Euripides seems to clearly call for more than one note to be sounded at once.*****[41] Research by Kilmer and Crocker***** in the field of music from the ancient Mediterranean—decipherings of cuneiform music script—argue for the sounding of different pitches simultaneously and for the theoretical recognition of a "scale" many centuries before the Greeks learned to write, which they would have done before they developed their system for notating music and recorded the written evidence for simultaneous tones. All we can say from the available evidence is that, while Greek musicians clearly employed the technique of sounding more than one note at the same time, the most basic, common texture of Greek music was monophonic.
That much seems evident from another passage from Plato:
... The lyre should be used together with the voices ... the player and the pupil producing note for note in unison, Heterophony and embroidery by the lyre—the strings throwing out melodic lines different from the melodia which the poet composed; crowded notes where his are sparse, quick time to his slow ... and similarly all sorts of rhythmic complications against the voices—none of this should be imposed upon pupils ...[42]
Aristotle had a strong belief that music should be a part of one's education, alongside reading and writing, and gymnastics. Just as men must work hard in their duties, they must also be able to relax well. According to Aristotle, all men could agree that music was one of the most pleasurable things, so to have this as a means of leisure was only logical. Amusing oneself was not considered a viable hobby, or else we would not want to help in society. Since music combined relaxing ourselves, along with others, Aristotle claimed that learning an instrument was essential to our development.[43]: 10
Virtues is a topic that Aristotle is widely known for, and he also used them to justify why music should be involved in education. Since virtues consist of loving and rejoicing in something, then music could be pursued without issue. Music forms our character, so it should also be a part of our education. Aristotle also comments on how getting children involved in music would be a way to keep them occupied and quiet. It is important to note that since music helps in forming the character, it could cause either adverse or pleasant effects. The way in which music is taught can have a large impact on development.[43]: 16
Learning music should not interfere with the younger years, nor should it damage the body in a way that a person is unable to fulfill duties in the military. Those that have learned music in education should not be at the same level as a professional, but they should have a greater knowledge than the slaves and other commoners.[43]: 15 Aristotle was specific in what instruments should be learned. The harp and flute should not be taught in school, as they are too complicated. Additionally, only certain melodies have benefits in an educational setting. Ethical melodies should be taught, but melodies of passion and melodies of action should be for performances.[43]: 16
The music and music theory of ancient Greece laid the foundation for western music and western music theory, as it would go on to influence the ancient Romans, the early Christian church and the medieval composers.[44] Specifically the teachings of the Pythagoreans, Ptolemy, Philodemus, Aristoxenus, Aristides, and Plato compile most of our modern understanding of ancient Greek music theory, musical systems, and musical ethos.
The study of music in ancient Greece was included in the curriculum of great philosophers, Pythagoras in particular believed that music was delegated to the same mathematical laws of harmony as the mechanics of the cosmos,[45] evolving into an idea known as the music of the spheres.[46] The Pythagoreans focused on the mathematics and the acoustical science of sound and music. They developed tuning systems and harmonic principles that focused on simple integers and ratios, laying a foundation for acoustic science which has continued to our own time. However, this was not the only school of thought in ancient Greece.} Aristoxenus, who wrote a number of musicological treatises, for example, studied music with a more empirical tendency. Aristoxenus believed that intervals should be judged by ear instead of mathematical ratios,[47] though Aristoxenus was influenced by Pythagoras and used mathematic terminology and measurements in his research.
This article's lead sectionmay be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article.(September 2018)
I wonder if you could go on the edit page for the template with the title "Western classical music periods and eras" and find out the "name", which is apparently different from the title. The name I'm looking for appears near the top of the edit page just under "{{sidebar". The only reason I haven't been on the edit page myself is I can no longer go there simply by clicking the "T" button at the bottom of the display template. It's a long story but it seems to be a result of the accident I had trying to edit the original title. I can now only access the edit page by typing its full url (including the name, but not the title) into the address bar at the very top of my computer screen. Because of the mishap, the only url that appears automatically is that of the aborted template which has the title placed where the name should be, so all I'm getting instead of the edit page is a notice that the unwanted template has been removed. Many thanks!ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 09:50, 16 September 2020 (UTC)
I think I'm not doing any more work on this music history template as long as its reverter-in-chief Francis What's-his-name maintains his reign of terror. Instead, I've found another pre-existing template that starts earlier in pre-history and is much simpler because it only covers the periods and eras without all those numerous and sometimes dubious "movements" and "schools". It's current title is "Western classical music eras" and it can be found with the article "Common practice period". The only problem is the current title doesn't quite match the content, so I went onto the edit page to try and expand the title a bit by adding "periods" to "eras". However, when I clicked the save button, it didn't publish the edit, but replaced the edit page with a "Create new template" page that Ii can't seem to delete or cancel. I don't think is should be necessary to create an entire new template just to add one word to the title. If that's how it works, then I'd rather just leave the title as is. If you can go to this template in the aforementioned article, I wonder if you could go onto the edit page yourself and see if you run into this same page I want to get rid of, or if you just see the original edit page. If you see this create-new-template page, can you figure out how to delete it? I've poked around this page and elsewhere on Wikipedia but I cannot see any instructions or click-ons to get rid of this page. Can you help me with this? Many thanks if you can!
Creating Template:Western classical music periods and eras
It looks like I'm the one taking a while to answer this time, but I've been looking up quite a bit about ancient Greco-Roman music and medieval music to try and see first hand how much they're different and how much they're alike. My impression so far is that they have at least as many similarities as differences, and that medieval music has as much in common with ancient Western music as it does with what we now identify as Western classical music. If ancient Western music is stylistically and chronologically too far removed from the Common Practice Period to be on the same template, I would have to say your idea to have a separate template for ancient and medieval music makes the most sense. Since the latter era can be viewed as a transition between ancient and renaissance/common practice, it can also remain on the template for classical music as well. In case you haven't seen it yet, here is a Youtube video done by an early music ensemble (really early!) that has been carefully and with much research reconstructing some of the music of ancient Greece. I'd be interested to know what you think of it. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4hOK7bU0S1YChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 11:26, 12 September 2020 (UTC)
Herman Moll (c. 1715) draws the boundary along the Don and Volga Rivers, cutting across land from Samara to the Tobol, Irtysh, and Ob Rivers
Covid song
If you don't want any Covid wash your hands, X2
If you don't want any Covid,
Then your life will surely show it,
If you don't want any Covid wash your hands!
Post Romantic Music
Unlike late romantic composers [dubious – discuss] such as Richard Strauss...
Cite error: The <ref> tag has too many names (see the help page). Philip Johan von Strahlenberg in 1725 was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary by proposing that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents whenever there were deemed to be no suitable waterways. He drew a new line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between Volga and Ural) and then north along Ural Mountains.[35] This was adopted by the Russian Empire, and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted, but not without criticism by many modern analytical geographers.[36] Until this time, mountains had been recognized as the northern boundary of the Indian subcontinent, but not as a boundary between full continents. In 1715, the Ob River just east of the Ural Mountains had been suggested as a suitable waterway for part of Europe's eastern boundary, but the idea was never taken up by the
Russian Empire.
Regions of Canada
The five multi-region models in common use do not completely contradict each other so much as they harmonize with each other on a hierachy. The four-region model is simply the three-region scheme with one of the national regions divided into two smaller regions. The same general process produces in turn the five-, six-, and seven-regions models. However, while some of the Senate regions are the same or similar to some of the regions in the other models, there are some differences unique to the the Senate scheme that cannot be related to the other models.
This is a list of classical musiccomposers by era. For the purpose of this table, the Modernist era has been combined with the Postmodern.
For a similar timeline of composers that separates the two eras, see Classical music.
Deleted sections
I've place several deleted sections of the article "classical music" here on the discussion page because they have numerous issues of relevance, clarity, and referencing that have been flagged. I don't think they belong in the article at this time because of these issues. They are here now so that any interested editors can see if there are any parts that might be restored to the article after any necessary improvements have been made.~~ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 09:56, 26 May 2019 (UTC)
American in Paris
On September 9, 2017, The Cincinnati Symphony Orchestra gave the world premiere of the long-awaited critical edition of the piece prepared by Mark Clague, director of the Gershwin initiative at the University of Michigan. This also featured a restoration of the original 1928 orchestration, except that it upheld the deletion of the contrabassoon part, an alteration usually attributed to arranger F. Campbell-Watson.[50]
Critical Edition of George Gershwin's An American in Paris Debuts with the Cincinnati and Atlanta Symphony Orchestras
Homospheric types include the ten tropospheric genera and several additional major types above the troposphere. The cumulus genus includes four species as defined by vertical size and structure.
Type I veils are very tenuous and lack well-defined structure, somewhat like cirrostratus or poorly defined cirrus[53]. Type II bands are long streaks that often occur in groups arranged roughly parallel to each other. They are usually more widely spaced than the bands or elements seen with cirrocumulus clouds.[54] Type III billows are arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly resemble cirrus.[55] Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings of cloud with dark centres.[56]
(облака конвекции). Кучевые : свободно конвективный. Кучево-дождевые; сильный конвективный.
(convection clouds). Cumulus: freely convective. Cumulonimbus; strong convective.
Удалена дублирующаяся информация. Облака уже определены как конвективные. Duplicate information removed. Clouds already identified as convective.
The World Meteorological Organization has combined "vertical clouds" with "clouds of several tiers" into a category that includes any cloud that can occupy all three tiers.
Семейства
Род
Облака верхнего яруса (в средних широтах высота — от 6 до 13 км)
Cześć; Wykonałem wszystkie kroki opisane w ostatniej wiadomości, a także uprościłem moją oryginalną edycję, cofając jej część, aby usunąć nadmiar szczegółów. Próbowałem dwa razy podać cytat lub odniesienie, ale artykuł nie zaakceptuje tego ani razu. Zrobiłem błąd formatowania, ale nie mogę go znaleźć. Za pierwszym razem skopiowałem format używany w innych częściach artykułu w języku polskim, a następnie spróbowałem ponownie, używając formatu użytego w artykule w języku angielskim, ale żadna próba się nie powiodła. Bez poprawnie sformatowanego cytatu moja edycja prawdopodobnie nie zostanie zaakceptowana. Może zobaczysz mój błąd, jeśli spojrzysz na stronę edycji i poprawisz ją lub wyślesz wiadomość o tym, jak to naprawić.~~ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 13:15, 25 August 2019 (UTC)
Hello; I've followed all the steps you outlined in your last message and also simplified my original edit by reverting part of it to remove some excess detail. I have tried twice to provide a citation or reference, but the article wouldn't accept it either time. I have made a formatting error but I can't find the error. The first time, I copied the format that is used in other parts of the Polish language article, then I tried again using the format used in the English language article, but neither attempt was successful. Without a properly formatted citation, my edit probably will not be accepted. Maybe you can see what my mistake is if you look at the edit page yourself and either correct it or show me how to correct it.
Zmodyfikowano klasyfikację, tak aby chmury pionowe zostały zdefiniowane jako wszelkie typy, które mogą zajmować wszystkie trzy poziomy wysokości.
[58]
Classification modified so that vertical clouds are defined as any types that can occupy all three altitude levels.
Cloud types in this table arranged by altitude level with vertical clouds identified as those that can occupy all three levels according to the World Meteorological Organization International Cloud Atlas.
It is correct that the changes I made to the cloud classification table are according to the World Meteorological Organization International Cloud Atlas. In my explanation of the changes made, I included the "URL" for the online edition of the atlas for verification by other editors, but I didn't attempt a citation right away because Polish isn't my first language. I will attempt a draft of citation very soon which I will post on the discussion page so you or other editors can check that I did the citation properly. Once I know it is done correctly, I will post it with the table as verification.
I gather the original table was based on an agrometeorological classification that is not familiar to me. I know the classification of nimbostratus is a matter of debate. The cloud atlas presents it as a middle cloud with significant vertical extent based on the medium level altitude at which is usuallly forms, while some other sources claim nimbostratus as a low cloud based on the usual level of the cloud base. I worked professionally in meteorology years ago and I think I can say that most if not all meteorological agencies consider the International Cloud Atlas to be the top authority on cloud classification. Decades ago, cloud classification was based mostly on the altitude level of the cloud base, but a more modern method is to base the classification more on the altitude of initial formation of the cloud and its vertical extent, which is the method used in the cloud atlas.
Prawdą jest, że zmiany, które wprowadziłem w tabeli klasyfikacji chmur, są zgodne z Międzynarodowym Atlasem Chmur Światowej Organizacji Meteorologicznej. W wyjaśnieniu dokonanych zmian podałem „URL” internetowego wydania atlasu do weryfikacji przez innych redaktorów, ale nie podjąłem od razu cytowania, ponieważ polski nie jest moim pierwszym językiem. Wkrótce spróbuję sporządzić wersję cytatu, którą opublikuję na stronie dyskusji, abyś Ty lub inni redaktorzy mogli sprawdzić, czy poprawnie wykonałem cytowanie. Gdy się dowiem, że jest to zrobione poprawnie, opublikuję je w tabeli jako weryfikację.
Wydaje mi się, że oryginalna tabela oparta była na nieznanej mi klasyfikacji agrometeorologicznej. Wiem, że klasyfikacja nimbostratus jest kwestią dyskusyjną. Atlas chmur przedstawia ją jako chmurę środkową o znacznym zasięgu pionowym, opartym na średniej wysokości, na której zwykle się formuje, podczas gdy inne źródła twierdzą, że nimbostratus jest chmurą niską opartą na zwykłym poziomie podstawy chmury. Przed laty pracowałem zawodowo w meteorologii i myślę, że mogę powiedzieć, że większość, jeśli nie wszystkie agencje meteorologiczne uważają Międzynarodowy Atlas Chmur za najwyższy autorytet w dziedzinie klasyfikacji chmur. Kilkadziesiąt lat temu klasyfikacja chmur opierała się głównie na wysokości wysokości podstawy chmur, ale bardziej nowoczesną metodą jest bardziej oparte na wysokości początkowej formacji chmury i jej pionowym zasięgu, co jest metodą stosowaną w chmurze atlas.~~ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 09:32, 18 August 2019 (UTC)
Indonesian
Pengeditan yang dibatalkan
Halo Dzaky17; Saya melihat bahwa Anda membatalkan beberapa pengeditan yang saya buat untuk artikel Wikipedia, Cloud. Ketika saya meninjau suntingan saya, saya melihat bahwa saya telah membuat beberapa kesalahan ejaan yang kemudian saya koreksi. Harap beri tahu saya jika saya perlu melakukan hal lain agar suntingan dapat diterima. Terima kasih.~~ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 11:13, 14 September 2019 (UTC)
Tidak ada alasan yang diberikan untuk pembatalan.
Genus altocumulus (Ac): Ini adalah awan tengah yang biasanya muncul dalam bentuk tambalan tidak teratur atau lembaran lebih luas yang disusun dalam kelompok, garis, atau gelombang. Altocumulus dapat menghasilkan virga, presipitasi yang sangat ringan yang menguap sebelum mencapai tanah.
Spesies altocumulus stratiformis (Ac str): Sheets atau patch yang relatif datar altocumulus.
Spesies altocumulus lenticularis]] (Ac len): Lens altocumulus berbentuk.
Spesies altocumulus volutus (Ac vol): Altocumulus memanjang dan berbentuk tabung.
Spesies altocumulus castellanus (Ac cas): Altocumulus menara.
Spesies altocumulus floccus (Ac flo): Altocumulus berumbai.
Genus altostratus (As): Altostratus adalah lapisan abu-abu buram tingkat menengah atau tembus cahaya yang sering terbentuk di sepanjang bagian depan yang hangat dan di sekitar area bertekanan rendah. Altostratus biasanya terdiri dari tetesan air, tetapi dapat dicampur dengan kristal es di ketinggian yang lebih tinggi. Altostratus buram yang tersebar luas dapat menghasilkan presipitasi kontinu atau intermiten yang ringan.
Tidak ada spesies yang dibedakan.
Tambahkan teks tambahan untuk beberapa jenis.
Awan Rendah (Keluarga C1)
Ini ditemukan dari dekat permukaan hingga 6.500 kaki (2.000 m) [2] dan termasuk Stratus genus. Ketika awan Stratus kontak dengan tanah, mereka disebut kabut, meskipun tidak semua bentuk kabut dari Stratus.
Awan di Keluarga C1 meliputi:
Genus stratocumulus (Sc): awan konveksi yang sedikit biasanya dalam bentuk pola-pola tidak teratur atau bulat, mirip dengan altocumulus tetapi ukurannya lebih besar dan bewarna lebih gelap.
Spesies stratocumulus stratiformis (Sc str): Sheets atau patch yang relatif datar stratocumulus.
Spesies stratocumulus lenticularis (Sc len): Lens stratocumulus berbentuk.
Spesies stratocumulus castellanus (Sc cas): stratocumulus menara.
Spesies stratocumulus floccus (Sc flo): Stratocumulus berumbai.
Genus Stratus (St): awan berlapisan seragam yang menyerupai kabut tetapi tidak menyentuh ke permukaan tanah (relatif tinggi).[60]
Spesies nebulosus Stratus (St cotok): rata selubung Stratus.
Spesies Stratus fractus (St fra): kasar putus selembar Stratus.
Tambahkan teks tambahan untuk beberapa jenis.
Genus nimbostratus (Ns): Nimbostratus adalah lapisan abu-abu gelap yang difus yang terlihat lemah dari dalam dan umumnya membawa curah hujan yang luas dan visibilitas rendah.
Tidak ada spesies yang dibedakan.
Genus cumulus (Cu): Ini adalah awan konvektif yang terbentuk di tumpukan dan memiliki tingkat vertikal variabel tergantung pada spesies.
Spesies cumulus humilis (Cu hum): Awan dari spesies ini memiliki pangkalan rata berwarna abu-abu muda dan atasan putih. Mereka tidak menghasilkan presipitasi apa pun karena kurangnya pengembangan vertikal.
Spesies cumulus fractus (Cu fra): Spesies ini terlihat ketika awan kumulus kecil memiliki penampilan yang kasar.
Spesies cumulus mediocris (Cu med): Awan ini memiliki dasar datar abu-abu sedang dan bagian atas berkubah putih. Hujan ringan lokal kadang-kadang terlihat pada spesies ini.
Tambahkan teks tambahan untuk beberapa jenis.
Vietnamese
Very thick, low to medium elevation. Rất dày, độ cao thấp đến trung bình. Đã thêm một sự khác biệt đáng kể về độ dày và chiều cao giữa nimbostratus và các đám mây thấp khác. Không dày lắm, độ cao thấp thôi. Not very thick, low elevation only.
Mây trung bình
Chúng được tạo ra dưới 2.000 m (6.500 ft) và bao gồm mây tầng (đặc và xám). Khi các mây tầng tiếp xúc với mặt đất, chúng được gọi là sương mù.
Chúng được tạo ra dưới 2.000 m (6.500 ft) và bao gồm tầng (dày đặc và màu xám). Khi các tầng mây tiếp xúc với mặt đất, chúng được gọi là sương mù.
Chúng được tạo ra dưới 2.000 m (6.500 ft) và bao gồm các lớp (dày đặc và màu xám). Khi những đám mây tiếp xúc với mặt đất, chúng được gọi là sương mù.
Lista de clasificare modificată pentru a se conforma mai strâns tabelului de clasificare, cu listarea separată a norilor joși, cu întindere verticală la nivelurile de altitudine medie și mare.
Modified classification list to conform more closely to classification table with separate listing of low clouds with vertical extent into the middle and high altitude levels.
Noctilucent clouds
Type I veils are very tenuous and lack well-defined structure, somewhat like cirrostratus or poorly defined cirrus. Type II bands are long streaks that often occur in groups arranged roughly parallel to each other. They are usually more widely spaced than the bands or elements seen with cirrocumulus clouds. Type III billows are arrangements of closely spaced, roughly parallel short streaks that mostly resemble cirrus. Type IV whirls are partial or, more rarely, complete rings of cloud with dark centres.
There are several types of noctilucent clouds; type I veils, type II bands, type III waves and type IV cloud swirls.
Hay varios tipos de nubes noctilucentes; velos tipo I, bandas tipo II, ondas tipo III y remolinos de nubes tipo IV.
Tipos de nubes noctilucentes añadidas. Added noctilucent cloud types.
Aeronautical classification has evolved from the international system using the same principal genus types with their Latin names. However, some secondary cloud types have common names rather than the Latin names used by the World Meteorological Organization.
Another difference is that the international system classifies the 10 main genus types partly by the altitude at which each initially forms. However aeronautical height classification is concerned only with the altitude of the cloud base of non-convective types. This difference has already been noted in connection with nimbostratus cloud, although there are a few aeronautical documents that attribute to it some significant vertical extent. (https://www.brisbanehotairballooning.com.au/wp-content/uploads/Aviation-Cloud-Chart.pdf) However, when this aspect is not acknowledged, or only referenced with imprecise terms such as **thick** (https://www.cfinotebook.net/notebook/weather-and-atmosphere/clouds) it can lead to the incorrect depiction or illustration of nimbostratus as a cloud artificially confined to the lower troposphere where it would be too small or thin to produce moderate or heavy precipitation.
Nimbostratus is classified in the international system as a mid-level cloud because of its usual formation in the middle range of the troposphere before spreading vertically into the other levels, which leads to its more informal characterization as a multi-level cloud. However, aeronautical classification is mostly interested in the lower base height of this very thick cloud, and generally classifies it as low level only.
Philip Johan von Strahlenberg in 1725 was the first to depart from the classical Don boundary by proposing that mountain ranges could be included as boundaries between continents whenever there were no suitable waterways. He drew a new line along the Volga, following the Volga north until the Samara Bend, along Obshchy Syrt (the drainage divide between Volga and Ural) and then north along Ural Mountains.[63] This was adopted by the Russian Empire, and introduced the convention that would eventually become commonly accepted, but not without criticism by many modern analytical geographers.[64]
The Far North covers 42% of Ontario’s land mass. About 3 times the size of Lake Superior, it stretches from Manitoba in the west to James Bay and Quebec in the east.
It is home to:
24,000 people (90% of them First Nations)
31 First Nations communities
2 municipalities (Pickle Lake and Moosonee)
1 community with a Local Service Board (Moose Factory)
The Far North has 2 distinct ecological regions, which play a key role in helping reduce global warming:
the bogs and fens of the Hudson Bay Lowlands
the boreal forest of the Canadian Shield
They also provide essential habitat for:
more than 200 sensitive species, including species at risk like woodland caribou and wolverine
Ontario’s only populations of polar bears, beluga whales and snow geese
Economic development
Economic development in the Far North is limited, but the natural resource potential is great and the demand is growing.
To help ensure sustainable development, the Ontario government and First Nations are working together on community based land use planning.
The Pan-American Highway from Prudhoe Bay, U.S.A. to Quellón, Chile and Ushuaia, Argentina, with official and unofficial routes shown in South America, and a few selected unofficial routes shown through the United States and Canada as they existed in the early 1940's. Prior to its completion, only a handful of intrepid souls had dared to attempt driving the entire route of the Pan-American Highway through Mexico. The most noteworthy expedition was the three-man Pan-American Highway Expedition of 1941. Amazingly, with only occasional assistance from mules, trucks, passers-by and boats, this expedition successfully drove all the way from Detroit in the U.S. to Tierra del Fuego, Chile. The three men team, a journalist Sullivan C Richardson, Arnold Whitaker and Kenneth C. Van Hee with one car a 1941 Plymouth 4 door Sedan... Aided in the interstate highway system and brought official status to most previously unofficial routes in the lower 48 states.[citation needed]
The following list of regions of Canada is a summary of geographical areas on a hierarchy which includes regional groupings of provinces at the top and subdivisions of provinces at the bottom. Administrative regions that rank below a province and above a municipality are also included in this list. Some provinces or groupings of provinces are also quasi-administrative regions at the federal level for purposes such as representation in the Senate of Canada. However regional municipalities (or regional districts in some parts of Canada) are not included, but are found in the Wikipedia article List of municipalities in Canada.
Cloud identification chart using aeronautical terms of reference that differ from the international system regarding the altitude range of nimbostratus (variously classified as low, middle, or vertical/multi-level) and the use of English rather than Latin nomenclature for some secondary cloud types.
Cumuliform cloudscape over Swifts Creek, Australia
In meteorology, a cloud is an aerosol comprising a visible mass of minute liquiddroplets, frozen crystals, or particles suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of a planetary body.[65] The droplets and crystals may be made of water or various chemicals. On Earth, clouds are formed as a result of saturation of the air when it is cooled to its dew point, or when it gains sufficient moisture (usually in the form of water vapor) from an adjacent source to raise the dew point to the ambient temperature. They are seen in the Earth's homosphere (which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere). Nephology is the science of clouds which is undertaken in the cloud physics branch of meteorology.
There are two methods of naming clouds in their respective layers of the atmosphere; Latin and common. Cloud types in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's surface, have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard's nomenclature. Formally proposed in 1802, it became the basis of a modern international system that divides clouds into five physical forms that appear in any or all of three altitude levels (formerly known as étages). These physical types, in approximate ascending order of convective activity, include stratiform sheets, cirriform wisps and patches, stratocumuliform layers (mainly structured as rolls, ripples, and patches), cumuliform heaps, and very large cumulonimbiform heaps that often show complex structure. The physical forms are divided by altitude level into ten basic genus-types. The Latin names for applicable high-level genera carry a cirro- prefix, and an alto- prefix is added to the names of the mid-level genus-types. Most of the genera can be subdivided into species and further subdivided into varieties.
Two cirriform clouds that form higher up in the stratosphere and mesosphere have common names for their main types. They are seen infrequently, mostly in the polar regions of Earth. Clouds have been observed in the atmospheres of other planets and moons in the Solar System and beyond. However, due to their different temperature characteristics, they are often composed of other substances such as methane, ammonia, and sulfuric acid as well as water.
Taken as a whole, homospheric clouds can be cross-classified by form and level to derive the ten tropospheric genera and the two additional major types above the troposphere. The cumulus genus includes three species that indicate vertical size. Clouds with sufficient vertical extent to occupy more than one altitude level are officially classified as low- or mid-level according to the altitude range at which each initially forms. However they are also more informally classified as multi-level or vertical.
World Meteorological Organization, ed. (2017). "Stratocumulus, International Cloud Atlas". Retrieved 16 May 2017. FIXED.
No missing citations :
Two of the forms are each divided into several genera that are differentiated mainly by altitude range or level. Of these, one form is characterized by genus types with the structure of uniform continuous or broken layers, and and the second form has genera that are made up of rolls or elements. The other three comprise just one genus type for each form. [7][66]
If the inversion layer is absent or higher in the troposphere, increased instability may cause the cloud layers to develop tops in the form of turrets consisting of embedded cumuliform buildups.[67][68] FIXED.
The stratocumuliform group is divided into cirrocumulus (high-level), altocumulus (mid-level), and stratocumulus (low-level).https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/cloud-identification-guide.html FIXED.
Depending on their vertical size, clouds of the cumulus genus type may be low-level or multi-level with moderate to towering vertical extent. FIXED.
and have fuzzy outlines at the upper parts of the clouds that sometimes include anvil tops. https://cloudatlas.wmo.int/cloud-identification-guide.html FIXED.
which is the same type that the International Civil Aviation Organization refers to as 'towering cumulus'. FIXED.
They usually form in the low level of the troposphere except during conditions of very low relative humidity when the clouds bases can rise into the middle altitude range. Moderate cumulus is officially classified as low-level and more informally characterized as having vertical extent that can involve more than one altitude level. FIXED.
This uncertainty arises because of the delicate balance of processes related to clouds, spanning scales from millimeters to planetary. Hence, interactions between large-scale weather events (synoptic meteorology) and clouds becomes difficult to represent in global models. REMOVED
Castellanus resembles the turrets of a castle when viewed from the side, and can be found with stratocumuliform genera at any tropospheric altitude level and with limited-convective patches of high-level cirrus. Tufted clouds of the more detached floccus species are subdivisions of genus-types which may be cirriform or stratocumuliform in overall structure. They are sometimes seen with cirrus, and with tufted cirrocumulus, altocumulus, and stratocumulus. FIXED.
and a fluid cycle on Titan, including lakes near the poles and fluvial channels on the surface of the moon. [69] FIXED.
Moisture is scarce in the stratosphere, so nacreous and non-nacreous cloud at this altitude range is rare and is usually restricted to polar regions in the winter where the air is coldest. FIXED.
However, an increasing frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may be the result of climate change. .[70] FIXED.
Cirrocumulus occasionally forms alongside cirrus and may be accompanied or replaced by cirrostratus clouds near the leading edge of an active weather system.[71] FIXED.
Altocumulus may occasionally resemble cirrocumulus but is usually thicker and composed of a mix of water droplets and ice crystals, so that the bases show at least some light-grey shading.[72] Altocumulus can produce virga, very light intermittent precipitation that evaporates before reaching the ground.[73]. FIXED.
Stratocumulus is often present during wet weather originating from other rain clouds, but can only produce very light precipitation on its own.[74] FIXED.
This cloud often forms under a precipitating deck of altostratus or high-based nimbostratus associated with a well-developed warm front, slow-moving cold front, or low-pressure area. This can create the illusion of continuous precipitation of more than very light intensity falling from stratocumulus. REMOVED
although radiation and advection types of fog tend to form in clear air rather than from stratus layers. FIXED.
Only very weak precipitation can fall from this cloud (usually drizzle or snow grains} [75][76] FIXED.
When a low stratiform cloud contacts the ground, it is called fog [77] if the prevailing surface visibility is less than 1 kilometer , If the visibility increases to 1 kilometer or higher in any kind of fog, the visible condensation is termed mist. [78] FIXED.
When stratiform and cumuliform genus-types take on a ragged appearance, they are given the species name fractus [79]. FIXED. Fractus clouds can form in precipitation at low altitudes, with or without brisk or gusty winds. REMOVED. They are closely associated with precipitating cloud systems with vertical and sometimes horizontal extent, so they are also classified as accessory clouds under the name pannus (see section on supplementary features) [80]. FIXED.
Similarly, these varieties are also not associated with moderate and towering vertical clouds because they are always opaque. REMOVED.
and with the genus altostratus. [81] FIXED.
The heavier precipitating clouds, nimbostratus, towering cumulus (cumulus congestus), and cumulonimbus typically see the formation in precipitation of the pannus feature, low ragged clouds of the genera and species cumulus fractus or stratus fractus.[80] FIXED.
When wind driven clouds are forced through a mountain range, or when ocean wind driven clouds encounter a high elevation island, they can begin to circle the mountain or high land mass. [82] FIXED.
Cloudiness tends to be least prevalent near the poles and in the subtropics close to the 30th parallels, north and south. The latter are sometimes referred to as the horse latitudes. The presence of a large-scale high-pressure subtropical ridge on each side of the equator reduces cloudiness at these low latitudes.[83] Similar patterns also occur at higher latitudes in both hemispheres.[84] FIXED.
The precipitation associated with vertically developed clouds releases heat into the atmosphere thus mitigating the cooling effect to some degree.[85] FIXED.
@ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31: I'm placing the review on hold due to the missing citations
Intro
The list of cloud types is a summarisation of the modern systems of cloud classification. The ten Latin genus-types in the troposphere are grouped into altitude-levels: high (cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus), middle (altocumulus and altostratus), vertical (nimbostratus, cumulus, and cumulonimbus), and low (stratocumulus and stratus). Cumulus may be grouped with the low clouds if they do not show significant vertical extent.
The genera are also grouped into five physical forms. These are, in approximate ascending order of instability or convective activity: stratiform sheets; cirriform wisps and patches; stratocumuliform patches, rolls, and ripples; cumuliform heaps and tufts, and cumulonimbiform towers that often have complex structures. Most genera are divided into species, some of which are common to more than one genus. Most genera and species can be subdivided into varieties, also with Latin names, some of which are common to more than one genus or species. The essentials of the modern nomenclature system for tropospheric clouds were proposed by Luke Howard, a British manufacturing chemist and an amateurmeteorologist with broad interests in science, in an 1802 presentation to the Askesian Society. Since 1890, clouds have been classified and illustrated in cloud atlases. Mesospheric and stratospheric clouds have their own classifications with common names for the major types and alpha-numeric nomenclature for the subtypes.
Nimbostratus
Relation to other clouds
Multi-level nimbostratus is physically related to other stratiform genus-types by way of being non-convective in nature. However, the other sheet-like clouds usually each occupy only one or two levels at the same time. Stratus clouds are low-level and form from near ground level to 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) at all latitudes. In the middle level are the altostratus, mid-level clouds form from 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) to 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) in polar areas, 7,000 metres (23,000 ft) in temperate areas, and 7,600 metres (24,900 ft) in tropical areas. Altostratus forms mostly in the middle level, but can extend into the high-level. The other clouds in this level are cirrus and cirrostratus, although only the latter of these is considered true high stratiform. High clouds form 3,000 to 7,600 metres (9,800 to 24,900 ft) in high latitudes, 5,000 to 12,000 metres (16,000 to 39,000 ft) in temperate latitudes, and 6,100 to 18,000 metres (20,000 to 59,100 ft) in low, tropical latitudes.[86]
Tropospheric cloud classification by altitude of occurrence.
Replaced altered cloud classification chart with another chart which is better organized, shows altitude levels more clearly, and has a more accurate depiction of nimbostratus.
References
Italian Wikipedia
, , ,
Aggiunte caratteristiche convettive dei principali tipi di cloud.
Mehr als vier Fünftel der Fläche Québecs liegen auf der Labrador-Halbinsel, die zum Kanadischen Schild gehört. Die Landschaft ist überwiegend unwirtlich und sehr dünn besiedelt, weist aber reiche Vorkommen an Bodenschätzen und große Wasserkraftressourcen auf. Der am nördlichsten gelegene Teil, die Region Nunavik auf der Ungava-Halbinsel, besteht aus arktischer Tundra. Weiter südlich schließt sich ein mehrere hundert Kilometer breiter Streifen mit borealem Nadelwald an. Die Begrenzung des Schilds bilden die Laurentinischen Berge, einer der ältesten Gebirgszüge der Welt. An der südöstlichen Grenze der Provinz erstrecken sich die Appalachen, die von Mischwäldern bedeckt sind.
Saskatchewan
Saskatchewan besteht aus zwei Hauptbiomen. Der boreale oder Taiga-Wald bedeckt den gesamten kanadischen Schild und einen Teil der inneren Ebene der Provinz, und das Grasland besetzt den südlichen Teil von Saskatchewan. Diese beiden großen Regionen sind durch das Aspen Parkland getrennt. Dies ist ein sekundäres Biom im Übergang zwischen Hochgrasland und borealem Nadelwald, der hauptsächlich dem North Saskatchewan River folgt.
Saskatchewan comprises two main biomes. The boreal or taiga forest covers the entire Canadian Shield and part of the Inner Plain of the Province, and the prairie grassland occupies the southern part of Saskatchewan. These two large regions are separated by the Aspen Parkland. This is a secondary biome in the transition between high grass prairie and boreal coniferous forest which mainly follows the North Saskatchewan River.
Als Aspen Parkland, bzw. entsprechend Aspen Parkland Region wird eine Ökoregion in Nordamerika bezeichnet, die vorwiegend im mittleren Kanada Sie wird demnach dem Landschaftstyp der Waldsteppe zugerechnet.
As Aspen Parkland, or according to Aspen Parkland region an ecoregion in North America is referred to, which is mainly in central Canada in the transition between high grass prairie and boreal coniferous forest. It is therefore assigned to the landscape type of the forest steppe.
Cloud atlas using aeronautical classification which differs from the International System in some ways. Nimbostratus is characterized here as a low cloud rather than as middle or vertical. Several secondary cloud types are identified using common terms rather than Latin as used by the World Meterological Organization.
nicht konvektive oder begrenzt konvektive, frei konvektive, stark konvektive cumuliforme Wolke, Schichtwolke.
Konvektive Merkmale für jeden Hauptwolkentyp in der Klassifizierungstabelle hinzugefügt.
mittlere Schafwolke - medium sheep cloud.
Die Weltorganisation für Meteorologie hat Floccus als eine Art Stratocumulus bezeichnet. The WMO has designated floccus as a species of stratocumulus.
Floccus ist eine Spezies der mit Schafwolken assoziiert ist, daher wurde die Beschreibung des Stratocumulus entsprechend erweitert. Floccus is a species associated with sheeps clouds, so the description of stratocumulus has been expanded accordingly.
Russian Wikipedia
Морфологическая классификация облаков
1 тонкий, один слой, 2 слоя, несколько ярусов
1 tonkiy, odin sloy, 2 sloya, neskol'ko yarusov
1 неконвективный 2 в основном неконвективный 3 ограниченный конвективный 4 свободный конвективный 5
Добавлена обновленная ссылка на Всемирную метеорологическую организацию 2017 «Международный облачный атлас». Nimbostratus - это больше, чем облако низкого уровня.
Добавлена обновленная ссылка на Всемирную метеорологическую организацию 2017 «Международный облачный атлас». Nimbostratus - это больше, чем облако низкого уровня.
An updated reference to the World Meteorological Organization 2017 "International Cloud Atlas" has been added. Nimbostratus is more than a low-level cloud.
По данным Всемирной метеорологической организации, nimbostratus можно найти в нижнем и среднем ярусах, а верхняя часть может находиться на более высоком уровне.
According to the World Meteorological Organization, nimbostratus can be found in the lower and middle tiers, and the upper part can be at a higher level.
Облака верхнего яруса (в средних широтах высота — от 6 до 13 км) Перистые (Cirrus, Ci)
Перисто-кучевые (Cirrocumulus, Cc)
Перисто-слоистые (Cirrostratus, Cs)
Облака среднего яруса (в средних широтах высота — от 2 до 6 км) Высококучевые (Altocumulus, Ac)
Высокослоистые (Altostratus, As)
Облака нижнего яруса (в средних широтах высота — до 2 км) Слоисто-дождевые (Nimbostratus, Ns)[2]
Слоисто-кучевые (Stratocumulus, Sc)
Слоистые (Stratus, St)
Облака вертикального развития (облака конвекции)
нижний ярус, несколько ярусов
Одиночный ярус. Несколько уровней. Single tier. Multiple tier. Несколько уровней. Multiple levels. несколько уровней. Multi level. несколько уровней
Верхний ярус. Upper tier.
Несколько яруса.
French Wikipedia
l'étage
Non-convectifs
Non-convectifs ou convection limitée
Convection limitée
Convectifs
Forte convection
Nuages élevés
Cirrostratus
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus
Moyens
Altostratus
Altocumulus
Bas
Stratus
Stratocumulus
Cumulus humilis (convection faible)
Moyen développement vertical
Cumulus mediocris (convection faible à moyenne)
Grand développement vertical
Nimbostratus
Cumulus congestus (convection moyenne)
Cumulonimbus
Niveau de convection libre
Cumulonimbus: fusionné deux phrases dans le tableau de classification.
Identified cloud types that often result from strong convection and produce severe turbulence.
Je vois que vous avez annulé ma dernière révision de l'article sur le nuage. Malheureusement, votre explication de l'annulation semble avoir été coupée en raison d'un manque d'espace dans la section sur l'historique des révisions. Il n'est donc pas clair pour moi si votre objection à la différentiation entre les espèces de cirrus non convectifs et les espèces à convection limitée du même genre est scientifique ou philosophique. Il y a des articles dans Wikipédia en français et en anglais qui décrivent les espèces castellanus et floccus en utilisant des mots comme "cumuliform", "instable", et "convective", même avec cirrus floccus et tous les types de castellanus. Cependant, il se peut que vous pensiez que cette différenciation entre les espèces du même genre est trop compliquée même si elle est scientifiquement valide. Je suis intéressé de connaître les détails spécifiques de votre opinion à ce sujet. Merci! ~~ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 09:46, 22 February 2018 (UTC)
Merci pour votre réponse. J'ai examiné l'article du point de vue de vos commentaires et je suis d'accord que j'ai fait trop de changements qui n'étaient pas nécessaires. Cependant, je pense qu'il y a une justification scientifique pour faire un petit changement de «non convectif» à «essentiellement non convectif» dans le cas des cirrus. Je pense que la description non-convective sans aucun qualificatif est une simplification excessive qui n'est pas entièrement supportée par des informations ailleurs dans l'article sur le cloud ou dans d'autres articles de Wikipédia. Cirrus de convection limitée est assez rare, mais pas inouï. ~~ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31 (talk) 00:00, 24 February 2018 (UTC)
Ajout de nouvelles espèces et de particularités supplémentaires.
Added new OMM species and supplementary features.
Caractéristiques convectives clarifiées des principaux types de nuages.
Selon l'article wikipedia 'cumulating', ce nuage peut atteindre 7km d'altitude.
Nuages élevés (Famille A)
Ils se forment au-dessus de 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) dans la région froide de la troposphère. Ils sont classés en utilisant le préfixe cirro- ou cirrus. À cette altitude, l'eau gèle quasiment toujours : les nuages sont donc composés de cristaux de glace.
Pas un genre de l'OMM mais un type de Genitus[89]. Long et fin nuage formé après le passage d'un avion à haute altitude (appelé contrail en anglais). Il peut persister de quelques minutes à plusieurs heures selon la stabilité et l'humidité relative à la hauteur de production[90]
Selon l'article wikipedia 'Cumulus bourgeonnant' (cumulus congestus), ce nuage peut atteindre 7km d'altitude.
Italian Wikipedia
Forme e altezze
Stratiforme
Cirriforme
Stratocumuliforme
Cumuliforme
Cumulonembiforme
Estremamente alte
Nottilucenti
Molto alte
Madreperlacee
Alte
Cirrostrati
Cirri
Cirrocumuli
Medie
Altostrati
Altocumuli
Basse
Strati
Stratocumuli
Cumuli humilis
Medio sviluppo verticale
Nembostrati
Cumuli mediocris
Grande sviluppo verticale
Cumuli congesti
Cumulonimbi
Portugese Wikipedia
Tabela de classificação cruzada
Formas e alturas
Estratiformes não convectivo
Cirriformes principalmente não convectivo
Estratocumuliformes
Cumuliformes
Cumulonimbiformes
Altas
Cirrostratus
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus
Médias
Altostratus
Altocumulus
Baixas
Stratus
Stratocumulus
Cumulus fractus
Desenvolvimento vertical médio
Nimbostratus
Cumulus
Grande desenvolvimento vertical
Cumulus congestus
Cumulonimbus
Tabela de classificação cruzada adicionada.
Quando se apresentam fraccionadas são chamadas fractocumulus (Fc). As muito desenvolvidas são chamadas cumulus congestus. É sinal de bom tempo.
Quando se apresentam fraccionadas são chamadas fractocumulus (Fc) que são alturas baixas . As muito desenvolvidas são chamadas cumulus congestus que são grande desenvolvimento vertical. É sinal de bom tempo.
Esclareceu alguns textos e títulos.
Spanish Wikipedia
Cambiado noctilucente a la traducción al español.
Especifica diferentes formas de nubes estratosféricas polares. Fuente: atlas de nubes de la Organización Meteorológica Mundial. Estratosférico polar superenfriado: nubes que contienen agua y ácido nítrico, a veces con ácido sulfúrico.
Los frentes son zonas de contacto entre dos masas de aire que tienen distinta temperatura y densidad. Si una masa de aire caliente y húmedo, en movimiento, choca contra una de aire frío, se forman nubes horizontales, llamadas nimboestratos (3 km de altitud), altostratus (entre 3 y 5 km de altitud) o cirros e cirrostratus (12 km de altitud). Los nimbostratos y los altostratos producen, generalmente, lluvia. En cambio, los cirros indican buen tiempo si no se mueven deprisa. Cuando una masa de aire frío, que se desplaza, choca contra una masa de aire caliente se forman cumulonimbos.1
Las nubes atmosféricas pueden clasificarse por categoría o forma y varios rangos de altura para derivar diez tipos de troposféricos principales y dos tipos principales adicionales sobre la troposfera. El tipo de cúmulo incluye tres especies que indican el tamaño vertical.
Una combinación particular de estratiformes y cúmuliformes se considera a menudo una quinta categoría designada estratocúmuliformes.
Tipos de género
Los nombres oficiales de los diferentes tipos de nubes se dan en Latín y se traducen aquí al español. La Organización Meteorológica Mundial (OMM) distingue diez tipos combinados, según su forma: cirrus (Latin)/cirros (Español), Cirrocumulus/cirrocúmulos, Cirrostratus/cirrostratos, Altostratus/altostratos, Altocumulus/altocúmulos, stratus/estratos, Stratocumulus/estratocúmulos, Nimbostratus/nimbostratos, Cumulus/cúmulos, y Cumulonimbus/cumulonimbos. Las primeras ocho son nubes estratiformes, porque son paralelas a la superficie terrestre; las últimas dos son cumuliformes, porque se forman de manera vertical.
Géneros
Cúmuliform tipo de género (Cúmulos -desarrollo vertical,): nubes que forma redondeada (de días soleados)
Estratiform tipos de género (Estratos -altura bajo, Altostratos -altura medio, Cirrostratos -gran altura, Nimbostratos -altura múltiple): son nubes que como su nombre indica se encuentran estratificadas (formando niveles o estratos)
Cumulonimbiform tipo de género (Cumulonimbos -gran desarrollo vertical): nubes capaces de formar precipitaciones (Nube de tormenta)
Cirriform tipo de género (Cirros): nubes blancas muy elevadas y de aspecto fibroso.
Hay también una categoría secundaria de cúmulos con desarrollo vertical limitado que se forma en rollos u ondulaciones.[2]
Estratocúmuliform tipos de género (Estratocumulos -altura bajo, Altocúmulos -altura media, Cirrocúmulos-gran altura) .
La mayoría pero no todos los géneros se pueden dividir en especies, algunas de las cuales se puede subdividir en variedades. Las nubes accesorias son formaciones especiales a veces consideradas como un género o especie en particular.
Especies
Los distintos tipos de géneros se dividen en especies que indican detalles estructurales específicos. Sin embargo, debido a que estos últimos tipos no están siempre limitados por rango de altura, algunas especies pueden ser comunes a varios géneros distintos.
Castellanus species that resemble the towers of a castle when viewed laterally, can be found in any types of partially convective stratocumuliform and cirriform clouds . The floccus species is also sometimes seen in clouds of the same categories or forms when they appear as separate globular tufts.
Las especies de Castellanus que se asemejan a las torres de un castillo cuando se ven lateralmente, pueden encontrarse en cualquier tipo de nubes estratocumuliformes y circriformes parcialmente convectivas. La especie floccus también se ve a veces en nubes de las mismas categorías o formas cuando aparecen como mechones globulares separados.
Las especies de Castellanus que se asemejan a las torres de un castillo cuando se ven lateralmente, se pueden encontrar en cualquier tipo de nubes estratocumuliformes y cirriformes parcialmente convectivas. La especie floccus también se ve a veces en nubes de las mismas categorías o formas cuando aparecen como mechones globulares separados.
Estructuras que se asemejan a las torres de un castillo cuando se ven lateralmente, se pueden encontrar en cualquier género estratocumuliforme. Esta especie también se ve a veces en masas de cirros convectivos, como son las especies de formas globulares separadas, que son comunes a los cirros, cirrocúmulos y altocúmulos, pero no a los stratocúmulos.[citation needed]
Cumuliformes y cumulonimbiformes
Con la excepción de los stratocúmulos, una masa de aire local inestable situada en los niveles más bajos tiende a producir cúmulos convectivos y distintos géneros de cumulonimbos, cuyas especies son principalmente indicadores del grado de desarrollo vertical. Un cúmulo de nubes se forma inicialmente como una nubecilla de las especies fractus o humilis, que solo muestra un desarrollo ligeramente vertical. Si el aire se vuelve más inestable, la nube tiende a crecer verticalmente en primero en la especie mediocris, y a continuación en la congestus, la especie de cúmulos más altos. Con una mayor inestabilidad, la nube puede seguir creciendo en cumulonimbus calvus (esencialmente, una nube congestus muy alta, que produce el trueno), a continuación, en última instancia, cuando las gotas de agua en el umbral superior son superenfriadas, se convierten en cristales de hielo, dándole a los capillatus una apariencia cirriforme.[citation needed]
Asperitas and murus are just two of the names you'll see among several new classifications added to an updated cloud reference released this week by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
This update is the first in 30 years for the International Cloud Atlas, which the WMO calls "the global reference for observing and identifying clouds."
A new cloud species has been added to the atlas called volutus, more commonly known as a roll cloud by meteorologists. Cloud species are subdivisions of the 10 basic cloud "genera," the WMO says.
A roll/volutus cloud in Sterling, Virginia, during September 2013. (National Weather Service Baltimore/Washington)
Roll/volutus clouds are a relatively rare, low-level, horizontal, tube-shaped cloud. Although they are associated with a thunderstorm (or occasionally a cold front), they are completely detached from the base of the cumulonimbus cloud. Volutus is a Latin term for rolled, which perfectly matches their appearance.
(MORE: How a Roll Cloud Forms)
Five new supplementary features have also been added to the updated cloud atlas. Those new names include asperitas, cavum, cauda, fluctus, and murus, all of which are currently known as other more common names by sky watchers.
Asperitas, Latin for wave-like and roughness, has been added to the atlas thanks to the work of the Cloud Appreciation Society.
Asperitas Clouds
Cincinnati, Ohio, on August 3, 2015. (Ron Steele)
“Asperitas was first identified with the help of citizen science, enabled by modern technology. When Cloud Appreciation Society members send us photographs of dramatic skies from around the world, it is possible to spot patterns. This is how the proposal for a new classification came about, and we are delighted the WMO has chosen to include it in their definitive reference work for cloud classification,” said Gavin Pretor-Pinney, founder of the Cloud Appreciation Society.
(MORE: The Formation of Undulatus Asperatus)
The other four new supplementary features now in the atlas also have more commonly known names among meteorologists.
Murus and cauda are a wall cloud and tail cloud, respectively. They are features of cumulonimbus clouds, which are associated with thunderstorms. Wall clouds are a lowering, rotating cloud base and sometimes the location where tornadoes can develop. A tail cloud extends horizontally away from the wall cloud and illustrates air feeding into the storm.
Wall Cloud with a Tail Cloud
NOAA Photo Library, NOAA Central Library; OAR/ERL/National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL)
Hole-punch, or fallstreak, clouds have been given the supplementary feature name Cavum, while Fluctus has been added to describe Kelvin-Helmholtz wave clouds.
Breckenridge, Colorado, in late October 2015. (Instagram/danielbannach)
Clouds that formed or grew from localized factors have also been added to the atlas. Among the five new "special clouds" is homogenitus, which is a contrail created by airplanes.
The International Cloud Atlas was first published in the 19th century and was last updated in 1987. This new 2017 version will primarily be accessible through the internet, but it could be published in print later.
“The International Cloud Atlas is the single most authoritative and comprehensive reference for identifying clouds. Its reputation is legendary among cloud enthusiasts and it serves as an essential training tool for professionals working in meteorological services, and in sectors such as aviation and shipping,” said WMO Secretary-General Petteri Taalas.
The other main changes to the atlas are the addition of a new accessory cloud, or a cloud that accompanies another, larger cloud, and the establishment of five new special clouds, which describe unusual cloud formation circumstances. The new accessory cloud type is called "flumen" and describes a low cloud associated with severe supercell storms.
The five new special clouds are: cataractagenitus, describing clouds that develop from the spray of large waterfalls; flammagenitus, describing clouds formed under the influence of wildfires; homogenitus, describing clouds formed by human activities, such as airplane contrails; silvagenitus, describing clouds formed under the influence of moisture from respiring trees; and homomutatus, describing clouds originally made by humans that gradually transform into more natural-looking forms, like a contrail that eventually spreads in the wind.
The cloud atlas is available online and will be official unveiled today (March 23) for World Meteorological Day.
MORE ON WEATHER.COM: Mammatus Clouds
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These eerie mammatus clouds appeared over a high school graduation ceremony in Pekin, Ill., on May 22, 2011, as part of the tornado outbreak that produced the devastating Joplin tornado the same day. (Credit: iWitness Weather/Candi Carter Kupris)
Etymology and history of cloud science and nomenclature
The origin of the term cloud can be found in the old Englishclud or clod, meaning a hill or a mass of rock. Around the beginning of the 13th century, it was extended as a metaphor to include rain clouds as masses of evaporated water in the sky because of the similarity in appearance between a mass of rock and a cumulus heap cloud. Over time, the metaphoric term replaced the original old English weolcan to refer to clouds in general.[95][96]
Classification of major types: 1803
Stratiform
Cirriform
Stratocumuliform
Cumuliform
Nimbiform
High-level
Cirrostratus
Cirrus
Cirrocumulus
Mid-level
Low-level
Stratus
Cumulus
Multi-level/vertical
Cumulostratus
Cumulostratus
Nimbus
Howard
Howard's original system established three physical categories or forms based on appearance and process of formation: cirriform (mainly detached and wispy), cumuliform or convective (mostly detached and heaped, rolled, or rippled), and non-convective stratiform (mainly continuous layers in sheets). These were cross-classified into lower and upper étages. Cumuliform clouds forming in the lower level were given the genus name cumulus from the Latin word for heap,[97] while low stratiform clouds took the genus name stratus from the Latin word for a flattened or spread out sheet. Cirriform clouds were identified as always upper level and given the genus name cirrus from the Latin for hair. From this genus name, the prefix cirro- was derived and attached to the names of upper level cumulus and stratus, yielding the names cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus.[98]
In addition to these individual cloud types; Howard added two names to designate cloud systems consisting of more than one form joined together or located in very close proximity. Cumulostratus described large cumulus clouds blended with stratiform layers in the lower or upper levels.[99] The term nimbus, taken from the Latin word for rain cloud,[98] was given to complex systems of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation,[100][101] and it came to be identified as a distinct nimbiform physical category.[102]
Howard's successors
In 1840, German meteorologist Ludwig Kaemtz added stratocumulus to Howard's canon as a mostly detached low-étage genus of limitedconvection.[103] It was defined as having cumuliform and stratiform characteristics integrated into a single layer (in contrast to cumulostratus which was deemed to be composite in nature and could be structured into more than one layer).[100] This led to the recognition of a stratocumuliform[2] physical category that included rolled and rippled clouds classified separately from the more freely convective heaped cumuliform clouds.
Middle clouds over Santa Clarita, CA. Altocumulus floccus producing virga near top and middle of image merging into altostratus translucidus near horizon.
During the mid 1850s, Emilien Renou, director of the Parc Saint-Maur and Montsouris observatories, began work on an elaboration of Howard's classifications that would lead to the introduction during the 1870s of a newly defined middle étage .[100] Clouds in this altitude range were given the prefix alto- derived from the Latin word altum pertaining to height above the low-level clouds. This resulted in the genus name altocumulus for mid-level cumuliform and stratocumuliform types and altostratus for stratiform types in the same altitude range.[98]
In 1880, Philip Weilbach, secretary and librarian at the Art Academy in Copenhagen, and like Luke Howard, an amateur meteorologist, unsuccessfully proposed an alternative to Howard's classification. However, he also proposed and had accepted by the permanent committee of the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), a forerunner of the present-day World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the designation of a new free-convective vertical or multi-étage genus type, cumulonimbus (heaped rain cloud), which would be distinct from cumulus and nimbus and identifiable by its often very complex structure (frequently including a cirriform top and what are now recognized as multiple accessory clouds), and its ability to produce thunder. With this addition, a canon of ten tropospheric cloud genera was established that came to be officially and universally accepted.[100] Howard's cumulostratus was not included as a distinct type, having effectively been reclassified into its component cumuliform and stratiform genus types already included in the new canon.
In 1890, Otto Jesse revealed the discovery and identification of the first clouds known to form above the troposphere. He proposed the name noctilucent which is Latin for night shining. Because of the extremely high altitudes of these clouds in what is now known to be the mesosphere, they could become illuminated by the a sun's rays when the sky was nearly dark after sunset and before sunrise.[104] Three years later, Henrik Mohn revealed a similar discovery of nacreous clouds in what is now considered the stratosphere.[105]
In 1896, the first cloud atlas sanctioned by the IMO was produced by Teisserenc de Borte based on collaborations with Hugo H. Hildebrandsson. The latter had become the first researcher to use photography for the study and classification of clouds in 1879.[100]
Alternatives to Howard's classification system were proposed throughout the 19th century. Heinrich Dove of Germany and Elias Loomis of the United States came up with other schemes in 1828 and 1841 respectively, but neither met with international success.[106] Additional proposals were made by Andre Poey (1863), Clemment Ley (1894), and H.H. Clayton (1896), but their systems, like earlier alternative schemes, differed too much from Howard's to have any success beyond the adoption of some secondary cloud types.[100] However, Clayton's idea to formalize the division of clouds by their physical structures into cirriform, stratiform, "flocciform" (stratocumuliform)[107] and cumuliform (with the later addition of cumulonimbiform), eventually found favor as an aid in the analysis of satellite cloud images.[2]
20th-century developments
A further modification of the genus classification system came when an IMC commission for the study of clouds put forward a refined and more restricted definition of the genus nimbus which was effectively reclassified as a stratiform cloud type. It was then renamed nimbostratus (flattened or spread out rain cloud) and published with the new name in the 1932 edition of the International Atlas of Clouds and of States of the Sky.[100] This left cumulonimbus as the only nimbiform type as indicated by its root-name.
On April 1, 1960, the first successful weather satellite, TIROS-1 (Television Infrared Observation Satellite), was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with the participation of The US Army Signal Research and Development Lab, RCA, the US Weather Bureau, and the US Naval Photographic Center. During its 78-day mission, it relayed thousands of pictures showing the structure of large-scale cloud regimes, and proved that satellites could provide useful surveillance of global weather conditions from space.[108]
In 1976, the United Kingdom Department of Industry published a modification of the international cloud classification system adapted for satellite cloud observations. It was co-sponsored by NASA and showed a change in name of the nimbiform type to cumulonimbiform,[2] although the earlier name and original meaning pertaining to all rain clouds can still be found in some classifications.[109]
Antiquity
Ancient cloud studies were not made in isolation, but were observed in combination with other weather elements and even other natural sciences.
3000 BC – Meteorology in India can be traced back to around 3000 BC, with writings such as the Upanishads, containing discussions about the processes of cloud formation and rain and the seasonal cycles caused by the movement of earth round the sun.[110]
600 BC – Thales may qualify as the first Greek meteorologist. He described the water cycle in a fairly accurate way. He also issued the first seasonal crop forecast.[111]
400 BC – There is some evidence that Democritus predicted changes in the weather, and that he used this ability to convince people that he could predict other future events.[112]
400 BC – Hippocrates writes a treatise called Airs, Waters and Places, the earliest known work to include a discussion of weather. More generally, he wrote about common diseases that occur in particular locations, seasons, winds and air.[112]
350 BC – The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote Meteorology, a work which represented the sum of knowledge of the time about earth sciences, including weather and climate. It was the first known work that attempted to treat a broad range of meteorological topics.[113] For the first time, precipitation and the clouds from which precipitation fell were called meteors, which originate from the Greek word meteoros, meaning 'high in the sky'. From that word came the modern term meteorology, the study of clouds and weather.
Although the term meteorology is used today to describe a subdiscipline of the atmospheric sciences, Aristotle's work is more general. Meteorologica was based on intuition and simple observation, but not on what is now considered the scientific method. In his own words:
...all the affections we may call common to air and water, and the kinds and parts of the earth and the affections of its parts.[114]
Cloud is a vaporous mass, concentrated and producing water. Rain is produced from the compression of a closely condensed cloud, varying according to the pressure exerted on the cloud; when the pressure is slight it scatters gentle drops; when it is great it produces a more violent fall, and we call this a shower, being heavier than ordinary rain, and forming continuous masses of water falling over earth. Snow is produced by the breaking up of condensed clouds, the cleavage taking place before the change into water; it is the process of cleavage which causes its resemblance to foam and its intense whiteness, while the cause of its coldness is the congelation of the moisture in it before it is dispersed or rarefied. When snow is violent and falls heavily we call it a blizzard. Hail is produced when snow becomes densified and acquires impetus for a swifter fall from its close mass; the weight becomes greater and the fall more violent in proportion to the size of the broken fragments of cloud. Such then are the phenomena which occur as the result of moist exhalation.
One of the most impressive achievements in Meteorology is his description of what is now known as the hydrologic cycle:
Now the sun, moving as it does, sets up processes of change and becoming and decay, and by its agency the finest and sweetest water is every day carried up and is dissolved into vapour and rises to the upper region, where it is condensed again by the cold and so returns to the earth.[114]
Aristotle
Several years after Aristotle's book, his pupil Theophrastus put together a book on weather forecasting called The Book of Signs. Various indicators such as solar and lunar halos formed by high clouds were presented as ways to forecast the weather. The combined works of Aristotle and Theophrastus had such authority they became the main influence in the study of clouds, weather and weather forecasting for nearly 2000 years.[113]
c. 80 AD – In his Lunheng (論衡; Critical Essays), the Han DynastyChinese philosopherWang Chong (27–97 AD) dispels the Chinese myth of rain coming from the heavens, and states that rain is evaporated from water on the earth into the air and forms clouds, stating that clouds condense into rain and also form dew, and says when the clothes of people in high mountains are moistened, this is because of the air-suspended rain water.[117] However, Wang Chong supports his theory by quoting a similar one of Gongyang Gao's,[117] the latter's commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals, the Gongyang Zhuan, compiled in the 2nd century BC,[117] showing that the Chinese conception of rain evaporating and rising to form clouds goes back much farther than Wang Chong. Wang Chong wrote:
As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew.[117]
1800 – The Voltaic pile is the first modern electric battery, invented by Alessandro Volta, which leads to later inventions vital to meteorology like the telegraph.
1802–1803 – Luke Howard writes On the Modification of Clouds in which he assigns cloud typesLatin names. Howard's system establishes three physical categories or forms based on appearance and process of formation: cirriform (mainly detached and wispy), cumuliform or convective (mostly detached and heaped, rolled, or rippled), and non-convective stratiform (mainly continuous layers in sheets). These are cross-classified into lower and upper étages. Cumuliform clouds forming in the lower level are given the genus name cumulus from the Latin word for heap,[118] while low stratiform clouds are given the genus name stratus from the Latin word for a flattened or spread out sheet. Cirriform clouds are identified as always upper level and given the genus name cirrus from the Latin for hair. From this genus name, the prefix cirro- is derived and attached to the names of upper level cumulus and stratus, yielding the names cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus.[98] In addition to these individual cloud types; Howard adds two names to designate cloud systems consisting of more than one form joined together or located in very close proximity. Cumulostratus describes large cumulus clouds blended with stratiform layers in the lower or upper levels.[99] The term nimbus, taken from the Latin word for rain cloud,[98] is given to complex systems of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation,[100][101] and it comes to be identified as a distinct nimbiform physical category.[119]
1804 – Sir John Leslie observes that a matte black surface radiates heat more effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the importance of black body radiation.
1808 – John Dalton defends caloric theory in A New System of Chemistry and describes how it combines with matter, especially gases; he proposes that the heat capacity of gases varies inversely with atomic weight.
1810 – Sir John Leslie freezes water to ice artificially.
1817 – Alexander von Humboldt publishes a global map of average temperature, the first global climate analysis.
– John Herapath develops some ideas in the kinetic theory of gases but mistakenly associates temperature with molecularmomentum rather than kinetic energy; his work receives little attention other than from Joule.
1822 – Joseph Fourier formally introduces the use of dimensions for physical quantities in his Theorie Analytique de la Chaleur.
1832 – An electromagnetic telegraph was created by Baron Schilling.
1834 – Émile Clapeyron popularises Carnot's work through a graphical and analytic formulation.
1835 – Gaspard-Gustave Coriolis publishes theoretical discussions of machines with revolving parts and their efficiency, for example the efficiency of waterweels.[120] At the end of the 19th century, meteorologists recognized that the way the Earth's rotation is taken into account in meteorology is analogous to what Coriolis discussed: an example of Coriolis Effect.
1836 – An American scientist, Dr. David Alter, invented the first known American electric telegraph in Elderton, Pennsylvania, one year before the much more popular Morse telegraph was invented.
1837 – Samuel Morse independently developed an electrical telegraph, an alternative design that was capable of transmitting over long distances using poor quality wire. His assistant, Alfred Vail, developed the Morse code signaling alphabet with Morse. The first electric telegram using this device was sent by Morse on May 24, 1844 from the U.S. Capitol in Washington, D.C. to the B&O Railroad "outer depot" in Baltimore and sent the message:
1840 – Elias Loomis the first person known to attempt to devise a theory on frontal zones. The idea of fronts did not catch on until expanded upon by the Norwegians in the years following World War I.[122]
- German meteorologist Ludwig Kaemtz adds stratocumulus to Howard's canon as a mostly detached low-étage genus of limitedconvection.[103] It was defined as having cumuliform and stratiform characteristics integrated into a single layer (in contrast to cumulostratus which was deemed to be composite in nature and could be structured into more than one layer).[100] This led to the recognition of a stratocumuliform[2] physical category that included rolled and rippled clouds classified separately from the more freely convective heaped cumuliform clouds.
1843 – John James Waterston fully expounds the kinetic theory of gases, but is ridiculed and ignored.
– The Manchester Examiner newspaper organises the first weather reports collected by electrical means.[126]
1848 – William Thomson extends the concept of absolute zero from gases to all substances.
1849 – Smithsonian Institution begins to establish an observation network across the United States, with 150 observers via telegraph, under the leadership of Joseph Henry.[127]
1850 – Rankine uses his vortex theory to establish accurate relationships between the temperature, pressure, and density of gases, and expressions for the latent heat of evaporation of a liquid; he accurately predicts the surprising fact that the apparent specific heat of saturatedsteam will be negative.
– Rudolf Clausius gives the first clear joint statement of the first and second law of thermodynamics, abandoning the caloric theory, but preserving Carnot's principle.
1852 – Joule and Thomson demonstrate that a rapidly expanding gas cools, later named the Joule-Thomson effect.
1853 – The first International Meteorological Conference was held in Brussels at the initiative of Matthew Fontaine Maury, U.S. Navy, recommending standard observing times, methods of observation and logging format for weather reports from ships at sea.[128]
1854 – The French astronomer Leverrier showed that a storm in the Black Sea could be followed across Europe and would have been predictable if the telegraph had been used. A service of storm forecasts was established a year later by the Paris Observatory.
– Rankine introduces his thermodynamic function, later identified as entropy.
Mid 1850s - Emilien Renou, director of the Parc Saint-Maur and Montsouris observatories, begins work on an elaboration of Howard's classifications that would lead to the introduction during the 1870s of a newly defined middle étage .[100] Clouds in this altitude range were given the prefix alto- derived from the Latin word altum pertaining to height above the low-level clouds. This resulted in the genus name altocumulus for mid-level cumuliform and stratocumuliform types and altostratus for stratiform types in the same altitude range.[98]
1860 – Robert FitzRoy uses the new telegraph system to gather daily observations from across England and produces the first synoptic charts. He also coined the term "weather forecast" and his were the first ever daily weather forecasts to be published in this year.
– After establishment in 1849, 500 U.S. telegraph stations are now making weather observations and submitting them back to the Smithsonian Institution. The observations are later interrupted by the American Civil War.
1865 – Josef Loschmidt applies Maxwell's theory to estimate the number-density of molecules in gases, given observed gas viscosities.
– Manila Observatory founded in the Philippines.[129]
1870 – The US Weather Bureau is founded. Data recorded in several Midwestern cities such as Chicago begins.
1870 – Benito Viñes becomes the head of the Meteorological Observatory at Belen in Havana, Cuba. He develops the first observing network in Cuba and creates some of the first hurricane-related forecasts.[129]
1872 – The "Oficina Meteorológica Argentina" (today "Argentinean National Weather Service") is founded.
– United States Army Signal Corp, forerunner of the National Weather Service, issues its first hurricane warning.[129]
Synoptic chart from 1874.
1875 – The India Meteorological Department is established, after a tropical cyclone struck Calcutta in 1864 and monsoon failures during 1866 and 1871.[110]
1880 - Philip Weilbach, secretary and librarian at the Art Academy in Copenhagen proposes and has accepted by the permanent committee of the International Meteorological Organization (IMO), a forerunner of the present-day World Meteorological Organization (WMO), the designation of a new free-convective vertical or multi-étage genus type, cumulonimbus (heaped rain cloud). It would be distinct from cumulus and nimbus and identifiable by its often very complex structure (frequently including a cirriform top and what are now recognized as multiple accessory clouds), and its ability to produce thunder. With this addition, a canon of ten tropospheric cloud genera is established that comes to be officially and universally accepted.[100] Howard's cumulostratus is not included as a distinct type, having effectively been reclassified into its component cumuliform and stratiform genus types already included in the new canon.
1881 – Finnish Meteorological Central Office formed from part of Magnetic Observatory of Helsinki University.
- Otto Jesse reveals the discovery and identification of the first clouds known to form above the troposphere. He proposes the name noctilucent which is Latin for night shining. Because of the extremely high altitudes of these clouds in what is now known to be the mesosphere, they can become illuminated by the a sun's rays when the sky is nearly dark after sunset and before sunrise.[104]
1892 – William Henry Dines invented another kind of anemometer, called the pressure-tube (Dines) anemometer. His device measured the difference in pressure arising from wind blowing in a tube versus that blowing across the tube.[130]
– The first mention of the term "El Niño" to refer to climate occurs when Captain Camilo Carrilo told the Geographical society congress in Lima that Peruvian sailors named the warm northerly current "El Niño" because it was most noticeable around Christmas.
1893 - Henrik Mohn reveals a discovery of nacreous clouds in what is now considered the stratosphere.[105]
- H.H. Clayton proposes formalizing the division of clouds by their physical structures into cirriform, stratiform, "flocciform" (stratocumuliform)[107] and cumuliform. With the later addition of cumulonimbiform, the idea eventually finds favor as an aid in the analysis of satellite cloud images.[2]
1898 – US Weather Bureau established a hurricane warning network at Kingston, Jamaica.[129]
1919 – Norwegian cyclone model introduced for the first time in meteorological literature. Marks a revolution in the way the atmosphere is conceived and immediately starts leading to improved forecasts.[135]
- Sakuhei Fujiwhara is the first to note that hurricanes move with the larger scale flow, and later publishes a paper on the Fujiwhara effect in 1921.[129]
1920 – Milutin Milanković proposes that long term climatic cycles may be due to changes in the eccentricity of the Earth's orbit and changes in the Earth's obliquity.
1922 – Lewis Fry Richardson organises the first numerical weather prediction experiment.
1923 – The oscillation effects of ENSO were first erroneously described by Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker from whom the Walker circulation takes its name; now an important aspect of the Pacific ENSO phenomenon.
1930, January 30 – Pavel Molchanov invents and launches the first radiosonde. Named "271120", it was released 13:44 Moscow Time in Pavlovsk, USSR from the Main Geophysical Observatory, reached a height of 7.8 kilometers measuring temperature there (−40.7 °C) and sent the first aerological message to the Leningrad Weather Bureau and Moscow Central Forecast Institute.[136]
1932 - A further modification of Luke Howard's cloud classification system comes when an IMC commission for the study of clouds puts forward a refined and more restricted definition of the genus nimbus which is effectively reclassified as a stratiform cloud type. It is renamed nimbostratus (flattened or spread out rain cloud) and published with the new name in the 1932 edition of the International Atlas of Clouds and of States of the Sky.[100] This leaves cumulonimbus as the only nimbiform type as indicated by its root-name.
1935 – IMO decides on the 30 years normal period (1900–1930) to describe the climate.
1937 – The U.S. Army Air Forces Weather Service was established (redesignated in 1946 as AWS-Air Weather Service).
1941 – Pulsed radar network is implemented in England during World War II. Generally during the war, operators started noticing echoes from weather elements such as rain and snow.
1943 – 10 years after flying into the Washington Hoover Airport on mainly instruments during the August 1933 Chesapeake-Potomac hurricane,[137] J. B. Duckworth flies his airplane into a Gulf hurricane off the coast of Texas, proving to the military and meteorological community the utility of weather reconnaissance.[129]
1944 – The Great Atlantic Hurricane is caught on radar near the Mid-Atlantic coast, the first such picture noted from the United States.[129]
1947 – The Soviet Union launched its first Long Range Ballistic Rocket October 18, based on the German rocket A4 (V-2). The photographs demonstrated the immense potential of observing weather from space.[138]
1948 – First correct tornado prediction by Robert C. Miller and E. J. Fawbush for tornado in Oklahoma.
– Erik Palmén publishes his findings that hurricanes require surface water temperatures of at least 26°C (80°F) in order to form.
1954 – First routine real-time numerical weather forecasting undertaken by the Royal Swedish Air Force Weather Service.
– A United States Navy rocket captures a picture of an inland tropical depression near the Texas/Mexico border, which leads to a surprise flood event in New Mexico. This convinces the government to set up a weather satellite program.[129]
– NSSP National Severe Storms Project and NHRP National Hurricane Research Projects established. The Miami office of the United States Weather Bureau is designated the main hurricane warning center for the Atlantic Basin.[129]
The first television image of Earth from space from the TIROS-1 weather satellite.
1959 – The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, launched on February 17. It is designed to measure cloud cover, but a poor axis of rotation keeps it from collecting a notable amount of useful data.
1960 - The first successful weather satellite, TIROS-1 (Television Infrared Observation Satellite), is launched on April 1 from Cape Canaveral, Florida by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) with the participation of The US Army Signal Research and Development Lab, RCA, the US Weather Bureau, and the US Naval Photographic Center. During its 78-day mission, it relays thousands of pictures showing the structure of large-scale cloud regimes, and proves that satellites can provide useful surveillance of global weather conditions from space.[108] TIROS paves the way for the Nimbus program, whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then.[129]
1962 – Keith Browning and Frank Ludlam publish first detailed study of a supercell storm (over Wokingham, UK). Project STORMFURY begins its 10-year project of seeding hurricanes with silver iodide, attempting to weaken the cyclones.[129]
1968 – A hurricane database for Atlantic hurricanes is created for NASA by Charlie Newmann and John Hope, named HURDAT.[129]
1969 – Saffir–Simpson Hurricane Scale created, used to describe hurricane strength on a category range of 1 to 5. Popularized during Hurricane Gloria of 1985 by media.
– Jacob Bjerknes described ENSO by suggesting that an anomalously warm spot in the eastern Pacific can weaken the east-west temperature difference, causing weakening in the Walker circulation and trade wind flows, which push warm water to the west.
1970s Weather radars are becoming more standardized and organized into networks. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, which allowed studies of thunderstorms. Experiments with the Doppler effect begin.
1970 – NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration established. Weather Bureau is renamed the National Weather Service.
1974 – AMeDAS network, developed by Japan Meteorological Agency used for gathering regional weather data and verifying forecast performance, begun operation on November 1, the system consists of about 1,300 stations with automatic observation equipment. These stations, of which more than 1,100 are unmanned, are located at an average interval of 17 km throughout Japan.
1975 – The first Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES, was launched into orbit. Their role and design is to aid in hurricane tracking. Also this year, Vern Dvorak develops a scheme to estimate tropical cyclone intensity from satellite imagery.[129]
1976 - The United Kingdom Department of Industry publishes a modification of the international cloud classification system adapted for satellite cloud observations. It is co-sponsored by NASA and showes a change in name of the nimbiform type to cumulonimbiform,[2] although the earlier name and original meaning pertaining to all rain clouds can still be found in some classifications.[109]
1980s onwards, networks of weather radars are further expanded in the developed world. Doppler weather radar is becoming gradually more common, adds velocity information.
1982 – The first Synoptic Flow experiment is flown around Hurricane Debby to help define the large scale atmospheric winds that steer the storm.
1988 – WSR-88D type weather radar implemented in the United States. Weather surveillance radar that uses several modes to detect severe weather conditions.
1992 – Computers first used in the United States to draw surface analyses.
1998 – Improving technology and software finally allows for the digital underlying of satellite imagery, radar imagery, model data, and surface observations improving the quality of United States Surface Analyses.
– CAMEX3, a NASA experiment run in conjunction with NOAA's Hurricane Field Program collects detailed data sets on Hurricanes Bonnie, Danielle, and Georges.
1999 – Hurricane Floyd induces fright factor in some coastal States and causes a massive evacuation from coastal zones from northern Florida to the Carolinas. It comes ashore in North Carolina and results in nearly 80 dead and $4.5 billion in damages mostly due to extensive flooding.
Europe
Despite the popularity of the current convention, it is not backed by any international laws or treaties. It has therefore remained open to criticism and challenge by analytical Geographers like J. Reynold who has written that "Russia is the geographical antithesis of Europe". The removal of western Russia from Europe would produce a smaller continent consisting of the combined land areas of the European Union, the European Free Trade Association, and several Balkan countries that have their own trade area.
After centuries of speculative theories about the formation and behavior of clouds, the first truly scientific studies were undertaken by Luke Howard in England and Jean-Baptiste Lamarck in France. Howard was a methodical observer with a strong grounding in the Latin language and used his background to classify the various tropospheric cloud types during 1802. He believed that the changing cloud forms in the sky could unlock the key to weather forecasting. Lamarck had worked independently on cloud classification the same year and had come up with a different naming scheme that failed to make an impression even in his home country of France because it used unusual French names for cloud types. His system of nomenclature included twelve categories of clouds, with such names as (translated from French) hazy clouds, dappled clouds and broom-like clouds. By contrast, Howard used universally accepted Latin, which caught on quickly after it was published in 1803.[100] As a sign of the popularity of the naming scheme, the German dramatist and poet Johann Wolfgang von Goethe composed four poems about clouds, dedicating them to Howard. An elaboration of Howard's system was eventually formally adopted by the International Meteorological Conference in 1891.[100]
Alternatives to Howard's classification system were proposed throughout the 19th century. Heinrich Dove of Germany and Elias Loomis of the United States came up with other schemes in 1828 and 1841 respectively, but neither met with international success.[140] Additional proposals were made by Andre Poey (1863), Clemment Ley (1894), and H.H. Clayton (1896), but their systems, like earlier alternative schemes, differed too much from Howard's to have any success beyond the adoption of some secondary cloud types.[100] However,
Cloud classification table 2016 10
Classification of major types
Cirriform
Stratocumuliform
Cumuliform
Stratiform
Cumulonimbiform
Extreme level
Noctilucent
Very high level
Nacreous
High-level
Cirrus
layered Cirrocumulus
tufted Cirrocumulus
Cirrostratus
Mid-level
layered Altocumulus
tufted Altocumulus
Altostratus
Low-level
Stratocumulus
small Cumulus
Stratus
Multi-level/vertical
moderate Cumulus
Nimbostratus
Towering vertical
large Cumulus
Cumulonimbus
2016 11
Classification of major types
Stratiform non-convective
Cirriform mostly non-convective
Stratocumuliform limited convection
Cumuliform convective
Cumulonimbiform strong convection
Extreme level (Mesosphere)
Noctilucent
Very high level (Stratosphere)
Nacreous
High-level
Cirrostratus
Cirrus
Layered Cirrocumulus
Tufted Cirrocumulus
Mid-level
Altostratus
Layered Altocumulus
Tufted Altocumulus
Low-level
Stratus
Stratocumulus
Small Cumulus
Multi-level/vertical
Nimbostratus
Moderate Cumulus
Towering vertical
Towering Cumulus
Cumulonimbus
* One of ten genus types.
** Major sub-genus type (may include one or two species of one genus).
*** Major type above the troposphere.
Species
Species (L-R)
Abbrev.
(1)
Neb (1)
Fib (1,2)
Unc (2)
Spi (2)
Str (3)
Len (3)
Cas (2,3)
Flo (2,4)
Fra (1,4)
Hum (4)
Med (4)
Con (4)
Cal (5)
Cap (5)
Etage
Genus name
Species name L-R
(no species)
Nebulosus
Fibratus
Uncinus
Spissatus
Stratiformis
Lenticularis
Castellanus
Floccus
Fractus
Humilis
Mediocris
Congestus
Calvus
Capillatus
High
Cirrostratus (1)
Cs
+ (1)
+ (1)
Cirrus (2)
Ci
+ (2)
+ (2)
+ (2)
+ (2)
+ (2)
Cirrocumulus (3,4)
Cc
+ (3)
+ (3)
+ (3)
+ (4)
Mid
Altostratus (1)
As
+ (1)
Altocumulus (3,4)
Ac
+ (3)
+ (3)
+ (3)
+ (4)
Vert
Nimbostratus-MV (1)
Ns
+ (1)
Cumulus-MV (4)
Cu
+ (4)
Cumulus-TV (4)
Tcu
+ (4)
Cumulonimbus-TV (5)
Cb
+ (5)
+ (5)
Low
Stratus (1)
St
+ (1)
+ (1)
Stratocumulus (3)
Sc
+ (3)
+ (3)
+ (3)
Cumulus (4)
Cu
+ (4)
+ (4)
Vert=Vertical or multi-étage, MV=Moderate or deep vertical, TV=Towering vertical.
Varieties
abbrev.
tra
per
op
dup
und
rad
lac
int
ver
étage
name
Abbrev.
translucidus
perlucidus
opacus
duplicatus
undulatus
radiatus
lacunosus
intortus
vertebratus
H
Cirrus
Ci
+fib, unc
+fib, unc
+fib
+fib
Cirrocumulus
Cc
+str, len
+str, cas, flo
Cirrostratus
Cs
+fib
+fib
M
Altocumulus
Ac
+str
+str
+str
+str, len
+str, len
+str
+str, cas, flo
Altostratus
As
+
+
+
+
+
V
Cumulonimbus (TV)
Cb
Cumulus (TV)
Tcu
Nimbostratus (MV)
Ns
Cumulus (MV)
Cu
+med
L
Stratocumulus
Sc
+str
+str
+str
+str, len
+str, len
+str
+str, cas
Cumulus
Cu
+hum
Stratus
St
+neb
+neb
+neb
Supplementary features=
Class
Precipitation-based
Cloud-based
Accessory cloud
Etage
Name
Abbrev.
Virga
Praecipitatio
Incus
Mamma
Arcus
Tuba
Pannus
Pileus
Velum
High
Cirrus
Ci
+
+
Cirrocumulus
Cc
+
+
Cirrostratus
Cs
Mid
Altocumulus
Ac
+
+
Altostratus
As
+
+
+
+
Vert
Nimbostratus (MV)
Ns
+
+
+
Cumulus (MV)
Cu
+
+
+
+
+
Cumulus (TV)
Tcu
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Cumulonimbus (TV)
Cb
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Low
Stratocumulus
Sc
+
+
+
Stratus
St
+
Cumulus
Cu
Mother clouds"
Class
Genitus mother
Mutatus mother
Abbrev.
Ac
As
Ci
Cc
Cs
Cu
Cb
Ns
St
Sc
Ac
As
Ci
Cc
Cs
Cu
Cb
Ns
St
Sc
Etage
Name
Abbrev.
altocumulo
altostrato
cirro
cirrocumulo
cirrostrato
cumulo
cumulonimbo
nimbostrato
strato
stratocumulo
altocumulo
altostrato
cirro
cirrocumulo
cirrostrato
cumulo
cumulonimbo
nimbostrato
strato
stratocumulo
High
Cirrus
Ci
+
+
+
+
Cirrocumulus
Cc
+
+
+
Cirrostratus
Cs
+
+
+
+
+
Mid
Altocumulus
Ac
+
+
+
+
+
+
Altostratus
As
+
+
+
+
Vert
Nimbostratus (MV)
Ns
+
+
+
+
+
Cumulus (MV)
Cu
+
+
+
+
Cumulus (TV)
Tcu
Cumulonimbus (TV)
Cb
+
+
+
+
+
+
Low
Stratocumulus
Sc
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
Stratus
St
+
+
+
+
Cumulus
Cu
+
+
+
+
Nimbostratus
Downward-growing nimbostratus can have the same vertical extent as most large upward-growing cumulus, but its horizontal extent tends to be even greater. This sometimes leads to the exclusion of nimbostratus from the group of vertical clouds. Classifications that follow this approach usually show nimbostratus either as low-étage[141][142] to denote its normal base height range, or as middle,[143] based on the altitude range at which it normally forms.
Luminance and reflectivity
The luminance or brightness of a cloud in the homosphere (which includes the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere) is determined by how light is reflected, scattered, and transmitted by the cloud's particles. Its brightness may also be affected by the presence of haze or photometeors such as halos and rainbows.[144] In the troposphere, dense, deep clouds exhibit a high reflectance (70% to 95%) throughout the visible spectrum. Tiny particles of water are densely packed and sunlight cannot penetrate far into the cloud before it is reflected out, giving a cloud its characteristic white color, especially when viewed from the top.[145] Cloud droplets tend to scatter light efficiently, so that the intensity of the solar radiation decreases with depth into the gases. As a result, the cloud base can vary from a very light to very-dark-grey depending on the cloud's thickness and how much light is being reflected or transmitted back to the observer. High thin tropospheric clouds reflect less light because of the comparatively low concentration of constituent ice crystals or supercooled water droplets which results in a slightly off-white appearance. However, a thick dense ice-crystal cloud appears brilliant white with pronounced grey shading because of its greater reflectivity.[144]
As a tropospheric cloud matures, the dense water droplets may combine to produce larger droplets. If the droplets become too large and heavy to be kept aloft by the air circulation, they will fall from the cloud as rain. By this process of accumulation, the space between droplets becomes increasingly larger, permitting light to penetrate farther into the cloud. If the cloud is sufficiently large and the droplets within are spaced far enough apart, a percentage of the light that enters the cloud is not reflected back out but is absorbed giving the cloud a darker look. A simple example of this is one's being able to see farther in heavy rain than in heavy fog. This process of reflection/absorption is what causes the range of cloud color from white to black.[146]
Coloration
An occurrence of altocumulus and cirrocumulus cloud iridescenceSunset reflecting shades of pink onto grey stratocumulus cloudsEffect of sunlight before sunset. Bangalore, India.
Striking cloud colorations can be seen at any altitude, with the color of a cloud usually being the same as the incident light.[147]
During daytime when the sun is relatively high in the sky, tropospheric clouds generally appear bright white on top with varying shades of grey underneath. Thin clouds may look white or appear to have acquired the color of their environment or background. Red, orange, and pink clouds occur almost entirely at sunrise/sunset and are the result of the scattering of sunlight by the atmosphere. When the sun is just below the horizon, low-etage clouds are gray, middle clouds appear rose-colored, and high-etage clouds are white or off-white. Clouds at night are black or dark grey in a moonless sky, or whitish when illuminated by the moon. They may also reflect the colors of large fires, city lights, or auroras that might be present.[147]
A cumulonimbus cloud that appears to have a greenish/bluish tint is a sign that it contains extremely high amounts of water; hail or rain which scatter light in a way that gives the cloud a blue color. A green colorization occurs mostly late in the day when the sun is comparatively low in the sky and the incident sunlight has a reddish tinge that appears green when illuminating a very tall bluish cloud. Supercell type storms are more likely to be characterized by this but any storm can appear this way. Coloration such as this does not directly indicate that it is a severe thunderstorm, it only confirms its potential. Since a green/blue tint signifies copious amounts of water, a strong updraft to support it, high winds from the storm raining out, and wet hail; all elements that improve the chance for it to become severe, can all be inferred from this. In addition, the stronger the updraft is, the more likely the storm is to undergo tornadogenesis and to produce large hail and high winds.[148]
Yellowish clouds may be seen in the troposphere in the late spring through early fall months during forest fire season. The yellow color is due to the presence of pollutants in the smoke. Yellowish clouds caused by the presence of nitrogen dioxide are sometimes seen in urban areas with high air pollution levels.[149]
Particles in the atmosphere and the sun's angle enhance cloud colors at evening twilight
In high latitude regions of the stratosphere, nacreous clouds occasionally found there during the polar winter tend to display quite striking displays of mother-of-pearl colorations.[150] This is due to the refraction and diffusion of the sun's rays through thin clouds with supercooled droplets that often contain compounds other than water. At still higher altitudes up in the mesosphere, noctilucent clouds made of ice crystals are sometimes seen in polar regions in the summer. They typically have a bluish or silvery white coloration that can resemble brightly illuminated cirrus. Noctilucent clouds may occasionally take on more of a red or orange hue.[104]
Global cloud cover, averaged over the month of October 2009. NASA composite satellite image.[151]These maps display the fraction of Earth's area that was cloudy on average during each month from January 2005 to August 2013. The measurements were collected by the Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) on NASA's Terra satellite. Colors range from blue (no clouds) to white (totally cloudy). Like a digital camera, MODIS collects information in gridded boxes, or pixels. Cloud fraction is the portion of each pixel that is covered by clouds. Colors range from blue (no clouds) to white (totally cloudy).[152] (click for more detail)
The role of tropospheric clouds in regulating weather and climate remains a leading source of uncertainty in projections of global warming.[153][154] This uncertainty arises because of the delicate balance of processes related to clouds, spanning scales from millimeters to planetary. Hence, interactions between the large-scale (synoptic meteorology) and clouds becomes difficult to represent in global models.
The complexity and diversity of clouds, as outlined above, adds to the problem. On the one hand, white-colored cloud tops promote cooling of Earth's surface by reflecting short-wave radiation from the sun. Most of the sunlight that reaches the ground is absorbed, warming the surface, which emits radiation upward at longer, infrared, wavelengths. At these wavelengths, however, water in the clouds acts as an efficient absorber. The water reacts by radiating, also in the infrared, both upward and downward, and the downward long-wave radiation results in some warming at the surface. This is analogous to the greenhouse effect of greenhouse gases and water vapor.[155]
High-étage tropospheric genus-types, cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus, particularly show this duality with both short-wave albedo cooling and long-wave greenhouse warming effects. On the whole though, ice-crystal clouds in the upper troposphere tend to favor net warming.[156][157] However, the cooling effect is dominant with lower clouds made of very small water droplets, especially when they form in extensive sheets that block out more of the sun. These include middle-étage layers of altocumulus and altostratus as well as low stratocumulus, and stratus that have droplets with an average radius of about 0.002 mm (0.00008 in).[158] Small-droplet aerosols are not good at absorbing long-wave radiation reflected back from Earth, so there is a net cooling with almost no long-wave effect. This effect is particularly pronounced with low-étage clouds that form over water.[156]
Low and vertical heaps of cumulus, towering cumulus, and cumulonimbus are made of larger water droplets ranging in radius from 0.005 to about 0.015 mm. Nimbostratus cloud droplets can also be quite large, up to 0.015 mm radius.[159] These larger droplets associated with vertically developed clouds are better able to trap the long-wave radiation thus mitigating the cooling effect to some degree. However, these large often precipitating clouds are variable or unpredictable in their overall effect because of variations in their concentration, distribution, and vertical extent. Measurements taken by NASA indicate that on the whole, the effects of low and middle étage clouds that tend to promote cooling are outweighing the warming effects of high layers and the variable outcomes associated with multi-étage or vertically developed clouds.[156]
As difficult as it is to evaluate the effects of current cloud cover characteristics on climate change, it is even more problematic to predict the outcome of this change with respect to future cloud patterns and events. As a consequence, much research has focused on the response of low and vertical clouds to a changing climate. Leading global models can produce quite different results, however, with some showing increasing low-étage clouds and others showing decreases.[160][161]
In the stratosphere, Type I non-nacreous clouds are known to have harmful effects over the polar regions of Earth. They become catalysts which convert relatively benign man-made chlorine into active free radicals like chlorine monoxide which are destructive of the stratospheric ozone layer.[150]
Polar mesospheric clouds are not common or widespread enough to have a significant effect on climate.[162] However, an increasing frequency of occurrence of noctilucent clouds since the 19th century may be the result of climate change.
New research indicates a global brightening trend.[163] The details are not fully understood, but much of the global dimming (and subsequent reversal) is thought to be a consequence of changes in aerosol loading in the atmosphere, especially sulfur-based aerosol associated with biomass burning and urban pollution.[164] Changes in aerosol burden can have indirect effects on clouds by changing the droplet size distribution, or the lifetime and precipitation characteristics of clouds.[165][166]
June 10, 2010
Carried Tavia down the hill today with Rebecca You were hurt, You got help, You should feel good that your friends luv you Tavia! Hope you feel betta
Put it in the trash; trade it in for cash!
Composed 3:23 AM, Sunday, 23/03/2014.
No results found for "put it in the trash trade it in for cash".
Seasonal reckonings
Yosef Robinson - It's not only meteorologists and climatologists that use meteorological seasons rather than astronomical ones. Calendars in places like Great Britain, northern Continental Europe, Russia, and Australia also use the meteorological system. Of course, the *North American* calendar (along with those in France, South America, and so forth) does use the astronomical system to determine the seasons.
Слоисто-дождевых облаков также среднего облако и, следовательно, имеет многоуровневую диапазон высот. Источник: Всемирная метеорологическая организация Международный атлас облаков
Haha it would be great to be able to include this! I checked out 'doughboy' in Latin using google translate. The actual cloud appears to be stratocumulus formed by the spreading of cumulus. I think we could call it "stratocumulus puerus coxeruntque-farinus cumulogenitus", rendered in the customary sequence of genus Sc, species puerus (boy), variety coxeruntque-farinus (dough), mother-cloud cumulogenitus.
Tropospheric cloud classification by altitude of occurrence.
The list of cloud types is a summarisation of the modern systems of cloud classification used in the troposphere, stratosphere, and mesosphere. The ten basic genus-types in the troposphere have Latin names derived from five physical forms. These are cirriform wisps and patches, stratocumuliform patches, rolls, and ripples, stratiform sheets, cumuliform heaps and tufts, and cumulonimbiform towers that often have complex structure. The forms are cross-classified by altitude range or étage into high-level, middle, low, and multi-level. Some of the resultant genus types are common to more than one form or more than one level, as illustrated in the stratocumuliform and cumuliform columns of the classification table below. Most genera are divided into species, some of which are common to more than one genus. Most genera and species can be subdivided into varieties, also with Latin names, some of which are common to more than one genus or species. The essentials of the modern nomenclature system for tropospheric clouds were proposed by Luke Howard, a British manufacturing chemist and an amateurmeteorologist with broad interests in science, in an 1802 presentation to the Askesian Society. Since 1890, clouds have been classified and illustrated in cloud atlases. Mesospheric and stratospheric clouds have their own classifications with common names for the major types and alpha-numeric nomenclature for the subtypes.
Heartland
Craig Arnold as Jeffery "Jeff" Crawley - Georgie's biological older brother. His parents died in a car accident. Jeff lives somewhere else, but he keeps in touch with his little sister. Jeff looks up to Ty. Even though Jeff doesn't spend time with Georgie when he comes to visit, he does care about her. After "Written in Stone" Jeff isn't seen again.
Tom Carey as Wes - an enemy of Amy's family. Wes is introduced in "Born to Run". He's a cruel cowboy who along with some local ranchers tried to round up some wild Mustangs to be tested by a vet. Amy and the gang stopped Wes and saved the mustangs. Wes tried to get revenge on Amy's family by attempting to burn down their barn and kill Jack. He then steals Spartan in the middle of the night and legally buys him at an auction. Wes's plan was to sell Spartan for more money so that Amy would never see her horse again. After beating Wes up Tim and Jack rescue Spartan and return him home to Amy. After "The Ties That Bind" Wes isn't seen or mentioned again.
Aedan Tomney as Jesse Stanton - Val's son, Ashley's brother, and Amy's ex-boyfriend. Ashley and Jesse threw a pool party while Val was out of town. Amy broke up with Jesse after he became drunk and tried to drive her home while under the influence. Thinking that he was hurting Amy Ty beat him up. After "Coming Home" Jesse isn't seen or mentioned again.
Meaghan Rath as Jennifer "Jen"' - Amy's other African Canadian best friend. Jen tried to comfort Amy after Marion died. Jen's the one who talked Amy into going to Ashley and Jesse's pool party while Val wasn't home. After "Coming Home" Jen isn't seen or mentioned again.
Graham Abbey as Steven "Steve" - Lou's high school friend. Steve works at the bank. Steve is the one who gets the bank to approve of Lou's business plan to save Heartland. The bank approves on the condition that Lou stays at Heartland to run the business side. After "Coming Home" Steve isn't seen or mentioned again.
Torrance Coombs as Chase Powers - Amy's rival in "The Ring of Fire". Following a clinic they did together, he kisses her. Later, Ty confronts him about it and hits him twice. One for running Mrs. Bell off the road and one for kissing Amy. While getting ice for the bruises, Chase and Soraya become friends. He is later invited to Amy and Soraya's graduation party as Soraya's date. There he kisses Soraya and they begin dating. In "Leap of Faith", he asks Amy to come along with him and Soraya to a movie. He tells Amy when she arrives that Soraya had to study. After the movie it is shown that he still likes Amy. During "The River", Soraya ends the relationship.
CYRQ
Altocumulus stratiformis duplicatus at Sunrise in the California Mojave Desert, USA
The problem of redefining Europe was finally resolved in 1730 when, instead of waterways, the Swedish geographer and cartographer von Strahlenberg proposed the Ural Mountains as the most significant eastern boundary, a suggestion that found favour in Russia and throughout Europe despite the Russification of Uralic peoples living in Siberia.[21] Although this redefiniton appeared to have been undertaken exclusively by Europeans for their own purposes, the idea came to be spread more globally during the period of European colonialism.
Europe is now generally defined by geographers as the western part of Eurasia, with its boundaries marked by large bodies of water to the north, west and south. Europe's limits to the far east are usually taken to be the Urals, the Ural River, and the Caspian Sea. In the southeast, the line follows the Caucasus Mountains (which creats the oddity of several small geographically and culturally homogeneous countries split between two continents), the Black Sea and the waterways connecting the Black Sea to the Mediterranean Sea.[22]
In meteorology, an étage is any of three main altitude levels in the troposphere where certain cloud types usually form. The term is derived from the French word which means floor or storey, as in the floor of a multi-storey building. With the exception of the low étage, the altitude range of each level varies according to latitude from Earth's equator to the arctic and antarctic regions at the poles.
The high étage ranges from altitudes of 3,000 to 7,600 m (10,000 to 25,000 ft) in the polar regions, 5,000 to 12,200 m (16,500 to 40,000 ft) in the temperate regions and 6,100 to 18,300 m (20,000 to 60,000 ft) in the tropical region. The major high-level cloud types comprise cirrus, cirrocumulus, and cirrostratus.[143]
The middle étage extends from 2,000 m (6,500 ft) above surface at any latitude as high as 4,000 m (13,000 ft) near the poles, 7,000 m (23,000 ft) at mid latitudes, and 7,600 m (25,000 ft) in the tropics. Altocumulus and Altostratus are the main cloud types found in the middle levels of the troposphere.
The low étage is found from surface up to 2,000 m (6,500 ft) at all latitudes. Principle cloud types found in the low levels of the troposphere include stratocumulus, stratus, and small fair weather cumulus. Several additional types usually form in the low or middle étages but typically extend into all three altitude levels. These include nimbostratus, towering cumulus congestus, and cumulonimbus.[174]
One physical form appears as non-convective stratiform sheets in stable air. If the airmass is slightly or partly unstable, limited-convective stratocumuliform rolls or ripples may appear. Both these layered forms have low, middle, and high-étage variants. Cloud types in the two upper étages are identified respectively by the prefixes alto- and cirro-. Thin or occasionally dense cirriform filaments are found only at high altitudes of the troposphere and may form in stable or partly unstable air. More generally unstable air tends to favor the formation of free-convective low or multi-level cumuliform heaps. Strong airmass instability or cyclonic lift can produce storm clouds with considerable vertical extent through more than one étage. Prefixes are then used whenever necessary to express variations or complexities in their physical structures. These include cumulo- for complex highly unstable cumulonimbiform thunder clouds, and nimbo- for stable multi-étage stratiform layers with sufficient vertical depth to produce moderate to heavy precipitation.
http://www.skystef.be/clasclouds.htm
In addition to these individual cloud types; Howard added two names to designate cloud systems consisting of more than one form joined together or located in very close proximity. Cumulostratus described large cumulus clouds blended with stratiform layers in the lower or upper levels.[99] The term nimbus was given to complex sytems of cirriform, cumuliform, and stratiform clouds with sufficient vertical development to produce significant precipitation,[100][101] and it came to be identified as a distinct nimbiform physical category.[176]
Howard's cumulostratus type was not included in the new cloud atlas, haveing effectively been broken down into its component cumuliform and stratiform genus types.
Luke Howard and Cloud Names
howard image
Cumulus Clouds by Luke Howard
In December 1802, a pharmacist called Luke Howard presented his paper, "On the modification of clouds" ('modification' meaning 'classification'), and in it proposed some of the cloud names we still use today.
Howard introduced three basic cloud types:
Cirrus(Latin for a curl of hair), which he described as "parallel, flexuous, or diverging fibres, extensible in any or all directions".
Cumulus(meaning heap), which he described as "convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from a horizontal base".
Stratus,(meaning something spread), which he described as "a widely extended, continuous, horizontal sheet, increasing from below".
He combined these names to form four more cloud types:
Cirro-cumulus, which he described as "small, well-defined roundish masses, in close horizontal arrangement".
Cirro-stratus, which he described as "horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a part or the whole of their circumference, bent downward, or undulated, separate, or in groups consisting of small clouds having these characters".
Cumulostratus, which he described as "the cirrostratus blended with the cumulus, and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter, or super-adding a widespread structure to its base".
Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus, which he called the rain cloud, "a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling". He described it as "a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally and from beneath".
As the major editorial contributer to the Wikipedia article 'Cloud', I would like to commend your rather prodigeous effort which has produced the most comprehensive cloud classsification chart I've yet seen. However, one problem that has arisen is that the chart seems to be based on classifications used by the World Meteorological organization (WMO) prior to 1956. Before that year, nimbostratus was considered a low cloud by WMO, which is relected in your version of the cloud chart. This was part of a 4 "family" approach that that classified free convective Cu and Cb as the only clouds with vertical extent. Now WMO classifies all clouds as high, middle, or low etage, with certain recognition and separate characterizations given to those types, whether convective or deep stratiform, that can simultaneously occupy more than one etage,. The use and anaylysis of newer WMO post-1956 classifications has led this article to come up with 5 groupings which are used in the main text: High -Ci,Cc,Cs; Middle -Ac,As; Low -Sc,St,Cu fra,Cu hum; Moderate or deep verticle -Cu med,Ns; and Towering vertical -Cu con,Cb cal,Cb cap,Cb inc. The article doesn't currently treat surface based layers as a separate group, but makes informal reference to them. Accessory clouds, virga, and praecipitatio are also not treated as separate groups in the article, but are integrated with the genus types and groups with which they are associated. This keeps the overall number of groups in the article at 5; However it may be desirable to continue listing the accessory clouds and surface based layers alongside the towering clouds as you've been doing, which would bring the total number of groups/columns on your chart up to 7 which might be too crowded. Amalgamating the moderate and towering verical clouds would bring that back down to 6 groups/columns. I believe the veritical and accessory clouds should be split into separate groupings to maintain a 6th column. I don't think it's correct to have a column labeled "Towering vertical and other accessory clouds" because the towering clouds are not of the same order as their acccessories. They are completely different I think the columns can be made bit narrower to accommodate a 6th column for the the separately listed accessory clouds.
The amount of water that can exist as vapor in a given volume increases with the temperature. When the amount of water vapor is in equilibrium above a flat surface of water the level of vapor pressure is called saturation and the relative humidity is 100%. At this equilibrium there are equal numbers of molecules evaporating from the water as there are condensing back into the water. If the relative humidity becomes greater than 100%, it is called supersaturated. Supersaturation occurs in the absence of condensation nuclei, for example the flat surface of water.
Since the saturation vapor pressure is proportional to temperature, cold air has a lower saturation point than warm air. The difference between these values is the basis for the formation of clouds. When saturated air cools, it can no longer contain the same amount of water vapor. If the conditions are right, the excess water will condense out of the air until the lower saturation point is reached. Another possibility is that the water stays in vapor form, even though it is beyond the saturation point, resulting in supersaturation.
Supersaturation of more than 1–2% relative to water is rarely seen in the atmosphere, since cloud condensation nuclei are usually present.[178] Much higher degrees of supersaturation are possible in clean air, and are the basis of the cloud chamber.
Supercooling
Water droplets commonly remain as liquid water and do not freeze, even well below 0 °C (32 °F), because of the high surface tension of each microdroplet, which prevents them from expanding to form larger ice crystals. Without ice nuclei supercooled water droplets can exist down to about −40 °C (−40 °F), at which point they will spontaneously freeze.
One theory explaining how the behavior of individual droplets leads to the formation of clouds is the collision-coalescence process. Droplets suspended in the air will interact with each other, either by colliding and bouncing off each other or by combining to form a larger droplet. Eventually, the droplets become large enough that they fall to the earth as precipitation. The collision-coalescence process does not make up a significant part of cloud formation as water droplets have a relatively high surface tension. In addition, the occurrence of collision-coalescence is closely related to entrainment-mixing processes.[179]
The primary mechanism for the formation of ice clouds was discovered by Tor Bergeron. The Bergeron process notes that the saturation vapor pressure of water, or how much water vapor a given volume can hold, depends on what the vapor is interacting with. Specifically, the saturation vapor pressure with respect to ice is lower than the saturation vapor pressure with respect to water. Water vapor interacting with a water droplet may be saturated, at 100% relative humidity, when interacting with a water droplet, but the same amount of water vapor would be supersaturated when interacting with an ice particle.[180] The water vapor will attempt to return to equilibrium, so the extra water vapor will condense into ice on the surface of the particle. These ice particles end up as the nuclei of larger ice crystals. This process only happens at temperatures between 0 °C (32 °F) and −40 °C (−40 °F). Below −40 °C (−40 °F), liquid water will spontaneously nucleate, and freeze. The surface tension of the water allows the droplet to stay liquid well below its normal freezing point. When this happens, it is now supercooled liquid water. The Bergeron process relies on supercooled liquid water interacting with ice nuclei to form larger particles. If there are few ice nuclei compared to the amount of SLW, droplets will be unable to form. A process whereby scientists seed a cloud with artificial ice nuclei to encourage precipitation is known as cloud seeding. This can help cause precipitation in clouds that otherwise may not rain. Cloud seeding adds excess artificial ice nuclei which shifts the balance so that there are many nuclei compared to the amount of supercooled liquid water. An overseeded cloud will form many particles, but each will be very small. This can be done as a preventative measure for areas that are at risk for hail storms.
Dynamic phase hypothesis
The second critical point in the formation of clouds is their dependence on updrafts. As particles group together to form water droplets, they will quickly be pulled down to earth by the force of gravity. The droplets would quickly dissipate and the cloud will never form. However, if warm air interacts with cold air, an updraft can form. Warm air is less dense than colder air, so the warm air rises. The air travelling upward buffers the falling droplets, and can keep them in the air much longer than they would otherwise stay. In addition, the air cools as it rises, so any moisture in the updraft will then condense into liquid form, adding to the amount of water available for precipitation. Violent updrafts can reach speeds of up to 180 miles per hour (290 km/h).[181]
A frozen ice nucleus can pick up 0.5 inches (1.3 cm) in size traveling through one of these updrafts and can cycle through several updrafts before finally becoming so heavy that it falls to the ground. Cutting a hailstone in half shows onion-like layers of ice, indicating distinct times when it passed through a layer of super-cooled water. Hailstones have been found with diameters of up to 7 inches (18 cm).[182]
Cloud evolution in under a minute.Late-summer rainstorm in Denmark. Nearly black color of base indicates main cloud in foreground probably cumulonimbus.
Air can become saturated as a result of being cooled to its dew point or by having moisture added from an adjacent source.
Adiabatic cooling occurs when one or more of three possible lifting agents - cyclonic/frontal, convective, or orographic — causes air containing invisible water vapor to rise and cool to its dew point, the temperature at which the air becomes saturated. The main mechanism behind this process is adiabatic cooling.[183] If the air is cooled to its dew point and becomes saturated, it normally sheds vapor it can no longer retain, which condenses into cloud. Water vapor in saturated air is normally attracted to condensation nuclei such as dust and salt particles that are small enough to be held aloft by normal circulation of the air.[158][184]
Frontal and cyclonic lift occur when stable air is forced aloft at weather fronts and around centers of low pressure.[185]Warm fronts associated with extratropical cyclones tend to generate mostly cirriform and stratiform clouds over a wide area unless the approaching warm airmass is unstable, in which case cumulus congestus or cumulonimbus clouds will usually be embedded in the main precipitating cloud layer.[71]Cold fronts are usually faster moving and generate a narrower line of clouds which are mostly stratocumuliform, cumuliform, or cumulonimbiform depending on the stability of the warm air mass just ahead of the front.[186]
Another agent is the convective upward motion caused by daytime solar heating at surface level.[184] Airmass instability allows for the formation of cumuliform clouds that can produce showers if the air is sufficiently moist.[187] On comparatively rare occasions, convective lift can be powerful enough to penetrate the tropopause and push the cloud top into the stratosphere.[188]
A third source of lift is wind circulation forcing air over a physical barrier such as a mountain (orographic lift).[184] If the air is generally stable, nothing more than lenticular cap clouds will form. However, if the air becomes sufficiently moist and unstable, orographic showers or thunderstorms may appear.[6]
Windy evening twilight enhanced by the Sun's angle, can visually mimic a tornado resulting from orographic lift
Along with adiabatic cooling that requires a lifting agent, there are three other main mechanisms for lowering the temperature of the air to its dew point. Conductive, radiational, and evaporative cooling can cause condensation at surface level resulting in the formation of fog.[189][190][191]
There are several main sources of water vapor that can be added to the air as a way of achieving saturation without any cooling process: Water or moist ground,[192][193][194] precipitation or virga,[195] and transpiration from plants[196]
GEOGRAPHICAL NAMES Spanish Simplified Chinese French German Russian Hindi Arabic Portuguese
CLOUD (from the same root, if not the same word, as "clod," a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages for a mass or lump; it is first applied in the usual sense in the late 13th century; the Anglo-Saxon dud is only used in the sense of "a mass of rock," wolcen being used for "cloud"'), a mass of condensed vapour hanging in the air at some height from the earth.
Table of contents
Classification of Clouds
The earliest serious attempt to name the varieties of cloud was made by J. B. Lamarck in 1801, but he only used French terms, and those were not always happily chosen. The field was therefore still clear when in 1803 Luke Howard published, in Tilloch's Philosophical Magazine, an entirely independent scheme in which the terms were all Latin, and were applied with such excellent judgment that his system remains as the broad basis of those in use to-day. He recognized three primary types of cloud - Cirrus, Cumulus and Stratus - and four derivative or compound forms, - Cirro-cumulus, Cirro-stratus, Cumulo-stratus and Cumulo-cirro-stratus or Nimbus.
His own definitions were: - 00 Cirrus. - Parallel, flexuous or diverging fibres, extensible in any or all directions.
(2) Cumulus. - Convex or conical heaps, increasing upward from a horizontal base.
(3) Stratus
A widely-extended continuous horizontal sheet, increasing from below.
(4) Cirro-cumulus
Small, well-defined, roundish masses, in close horizontal arrangement.
(5) Cirro-stratus. - Horizontal or slightly inclined masses, attenuated towards a part or the whole of their circumferences, bent downward, or undulated, separate or in groups consisting of small clouds having these characters.
(6) Cumulo-stratus
The cirro-stratus blended with the cumulus, and either appearing intermixed with the heaps of the latter or superadding a widespread structure to its base.
(7) Cumulo-cirro-stratus, or nimbus
The rain-cloud: a cloud or system of clouds from which rain is falling. It is a horizontal sheet, above which the cirrus spreads, while the cumulus enters it laterally and from beneath.
This system was universally adopted, and apart from some ambiguity in the definitions of cumulo-stratus and nimbus, it was sufficiently detailed for many purposes, such as the general relations between clouds and the movements of the barometer. When, however, such questions as the mode of origin of particular forms of cloud came to be investigated, it was at once felt that Howard's classes were too wide, and something much more detailed was required. The result has been the promulgation from time to time of revised schemes, most of these being based on Howard's work, and differing from him by the introduction of new terms or of subdivisions of his types. Some of these new terms have come more or less into use, such as A. Posy's gallium to signify a uniform sheet, but as a general rule the proposals were not accompanied by a clear enough exposition of their precise meaning for others to be quite sure of the author's intention. Other writers not appreciating how fully Howard's names had become established, boldly struck out on entirely new lines. The most important of these were probably those due respectively to (1) Posy, published in the Annuaire de la societe meteorologique de France, 1865, (2) M. l'Abbe Maze, published in the Memoires du congres meteorologique international, 1889, and (3) Frederic Gaster, Quart. Jour. R. Meteorological Society, 1893. In all of these Howard's terms are used, but the systems were much more elaborate, and the verbal descriptions sometimes difficult to follow.
In his book Cloudland (1894) Clement Ley published a novel system. He grouped all clouds under four heads, in accordance with the mode in which he believed them to be formed.
I. Clouds of Radiation. Nebula Nebula Stillans Wet fog.
Nebula Pulverea Dust fog.
II. Clouds of Interfret. Nubes Informis. Scud.
Stratus Quietus Quiet cloud.
Stratus Lenticularis Lenticular cloud.
Stratus Maculosus Mackerel cloud.
Stratus Castellatus Turret cloud.
Stratus Precipitans Plane shower.
III. Clouds of Inversion. Cumulo-rudimentum Rudiment.
Cumulus Heap cloud.
Cumulo-stratus Anvil cloud.
Cumulo-stratus Mammatus Tubercled anvil cloud.
Cumulo-nimbus Shower cloud.
Cumulo-nimbus Nivosus Snow shower.
Cumulo-nimbus Grandineus Hail shower.
Cumulo-nimbus Mammatus Festooned shower cloud.
Nimbus Rainfall cloud.
Nimbus nivosus Snowfall.
Nimbus grandineus Hailfall.
IV. Clouds of Inclination. Nubes Fulgens Luminous cloud.
Cirrus Curl cloud.
Cirro-filum Gossamer cloud.
Cirro-velum Veil cloud.
Cirro-macula Speckle cloud.
Cirro-velum Mammatum.' Draped veil cloud.
Varieties.
It will be seen that Ley's scheme is really an amplification of Howard's. The term "Interfret" is defined as the interaction of horizontal currents of different velocities. Inversion is a synonym for vertical convection, and Inclination is used to imply that such clouds consist of sloping lines of falling ice particles.
While Ley had been finishing his work and seeing it through the press, H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson and R. Abercromby had devised another modification which differed from Howard's chiefly by the introduction of a new class, which they distinguished by the use of the prefix Alto. This scheme was formally adopted by the International Meteorological Conference held at Munich in 1891, and a committee was appointed to draw up an atlas showing the exact forms typical of each variety considered. Finally in August 1894 a small sub-committee consisting of Messrs H. Hildebrand-Hildebrandsson, A. RiggenbachBurckhardt and Teisserenc de Bort was charged with the task of producing the atlas. Their task was completed in 1896, and meteorologists were at last supplied with a fairly detailed scheme, and one which was adequately illustrated, so that there could be no doubt of the authors' meaning. It is as follows: The International Classification. (a) Separate or globular masses (most frequently seen in dry weather).
(b) Forms which are widely extended, or completely cover the sky (in wet weather).
A. Upper clouds, average altitude 9000 metres.' a. 1. Cirrus.
b. 2. Cirro-stratus.
B. Intermediate clouds, between 3000 m. and 7000 m.
a. 3. Cirro-cumulus.
4. Alto-cumulus.; b. 5. Alto-stratus.
C. Lower clouds, 2000 m.
a. 6. Strato-cumulus.
b. 7. Nimbus.
D. Clouds of Diurnal Ascending Currents. a. 8. Cumulus, apex 1800 m., base 1400 m.
b. 9. Cumulo-nimbus, apex 3000 m. to 8000 m., base 1400 M.
E. High Fogs, under r000 m.
10. Stratus.
Explanations. i. Cirrus (Ci.). - Detached clouds, delicate and fibrous-looking, taking the form of feathers, generally of a white colour, sometimes arranged in belts which cross a portion of the sky in great circles and by an effect of perspective, converge towards one or two points of the horizon (the Ci.-S. and the Ci.-Cu. often contribute to the formation of these belts). See Plate, fig. i.
2. Cirro-stratus (Ci.-S.). - A thin, whitish sheet, at times completely covering the sky, and only giving it a whitish appearance (it is then sometimes called cirro-nebula), or at others presenting, more or less distinctly, a formation like a tangled web. This sheet often produces halos around the sun and moon. See fig. 2.
3. Cirro-cumulus (Ci.-Cu.). - Small globular masses, or white flakes without shadows, or having very slight shadows, arranged in groups and often in lines. See fig. 3.
4. Alto-cumulus (A.-Cu.). - Largish globular masses, white or greyish, partially shaded, arranged in groups or lines, and often so closely packed that their edges appear confused. The detached masses are generally larger and more compact (changing to S.-Cu.) at the centre of the group; at the margin they form into finer flakes (changing to Ci.-Cu.). They often spread themselves out in lines in one or two directions. See fig. 4.
5. Alto-stratus (A.-S.). - A thick sheet of a grey or bluish colour, showing a brilliant patch in the neighbourhood of the sun or moon, and without causing halos, sometimes giving rise to coronae. This form goes through all the changes like Cirro-stratus, but according to measurements made at Upsala, its altitude is one-half as great. See fig. 5.
6. Strato-cumulus (S.-Cu.). - Large globular masses or rolls of dark cloud, frequently covering the whole sky, especially in winter, and occasionally giving it a wavy appearance. The layer is not, as a rule, very thick, and patches of blue sky are often seen through intervening spaces. All sorts of transitions between this form and Alto-cumulus are seen. It may be distinguished from nimbus by its globular or rolled appearance, and also because it does not bring rain. See fig. 6.
Small cumulus. Large cumulus. Storm cloud.
7. Nimbus (N.), Rain Cloud
A thick layer of dark clouds, without shape and with ragged edges, from which continued rain or snow generally falls. Through openings in these clouds an upper layer of cirro-stratus or alto-stratus may almost invariably be seen. If the layer of nimbus separates up into shreds, or if small loose clouds are visible floating at a low level, underneath a large nimbus they may be described as fracto-nimbus (Scud of sailors). See fig. 9.
8. Cumulus (Cu.) (Wool-pack Clouds). - Thick clouds of which the upper surface is dome-shaped and exhibits' protuberances while the base is horizontal. These clouds appear to be formed by a diurnal ascensional movement which is almost always observable. When the cloud is opposite the sun, the surfaces usually presented to the observer have a greater brilliance than the margins of the protuberances. When the light falls aslant, these clouds give deep shadows, but if they are on the same side as the sun they appear dark, with bright edges. See fig. 7.
The true cumulus has clear superior and inferior limits. It is often broken up by strong winds, and the detached portions undergo continual changes. These altered forms may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-cumulus. 9. Cumulo-nimbus (Cu.-N.); The Thunder-cloud; Shower-cloud. - Heavy masses of clouds, rising in the form of mountains, turrets or anvils, generally having a sheet or screen of fibrous appearance above (false cirrus) and underneath, a mass of cloud similar to nimbus. From the base there generally fall local showers of rain or snow (occasionally hail or soft hail). Sometimes the upper edges have the compact form of cumulus, rising into massive peaks round which the delicate false cirrus floats, and sometimes the edges themselves separate into a fringe of filaments similar to that of cirrus. This last form is particularly common in spring showers. See fig. io.
The front of thunderclouds of wide extent frequently presents the form of a large bow spread over a portion of the sky which is uniformly brighter in colour.
t o. Stratus (S.). - A horizontal sheet of lifted fog. When this sheet is broken up into irregular shreds by the wind, or by the summits of mountains, it may be distinguished by the name of Fracto-stratus. See fig. 8.
The scheme also provides that where a stratus or nimbus takes a lumpy form, this fact shall be described by the adjective cumuliformis, and if its base shows downward projecting bosses the word mammato is prefixed.
Issued as it has been with the authority of an international congress of specialists, this scheme has been generally accepted, and must be regarded as the orthodox system, and for the great majority of observations it is quite detailed enough. But it does not give universal satisfaction. Cirrus clouds, for instance, exhibit many forms, and these so diverse that they must be due to very different causes. Hence for the minuter study of cloud forms a more elaborate scheme is still needed.
Hence in 1896 H. H. Clayton of the Blue Hill observatory, Massachusetts, published in the Annals of the astronomical observatory of Harvard College a highly detailed scheme in which the International types and a number of subdivisions were grouped under four classes - stratiforms or sheet clouds; cumuliforms or woolpack clouds; flocciforms, including stratocumulus, alto-cumulus and cirro-cumulus; and cirriforms or hairy clouds. The International terms are embodied and the special varieties are distinguished by the use of prefixes such as tracto-cirrus or cirrus bands, grano-cirro-cumulus or granular cirrus, &c.
The following citation should be used for referencing this archive and/or
this documentation report:
Hahn, C.J., and S.G. Warren, 1999: Extended Edited Synoptic Cloud Reports from
Ships and Land Stations Over the Globe, 1952-1996. ORNL/CDIAC-123, NDP026C,
Carbon Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory,
U.S. Dept. of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tennessee.
(Also available from Data Support Section, National
Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO.)
I've done a survey of various articles about this subject, and so far my finding is that 'Common practice period' is used in some blogs, non-university books, and a few "educational" web sites that appear to have no declared authorship or university affiliation. However, 'Common practice era' turns up in the majority of scholerly articles by accredited university experts I was able to find in a relatively short period of time. Of the 5 accredited URL's provided below, only the first article from the University of Dayton uses the term 'Common practice period', and it doesn't appear to make reference to any shorter periods of time. The other 4 use the term 'era'. Of those, article 2 from the University of California clearly divides the era into baroque, classical, and romantic 'periods' in much the same way that eras are divided into periods in geology (albeit on a much different time scale, but I'm suggesting it's the hierarchy in relative time rather than absolute time that is important here). Article 3 from Johnson C. Smith University in North Carolina refers to the Classical period as a component time-span within the Common practice era, and additionally uses 'period' in quotation marks to denote even shorter periods of time withing the Classical period, in particular the periods of Beethoven's life. Articles 4 and 5 refer to the Common prectice era in very specific contexts that don't involve subdividing it into periods.
So the question now seems to be whether we go with the vernacular that seems to prefer 'Common practice period' while using 'era' to denote shorter periods of time? Or do we go with 'Common practice era' that appears to be majority preference among accredited scholers; with 'periods' denoting shorter time spans? Everything I understand about Wikipedia, particularly with the types of sources that are to be used for inline citations, tells me that scholerly opinion should take precedence over popular usage. I don't know if the samples I was able to find of popular and scholerly articles were large enough to be statistically significant, but I only had limited time to do the resarch. I can try to find more examples of both usages if that's needed to make any imformed decisions, but it may take awhile.
Artists without sufficient certifications to support published claimed figures may not be added to the list.
Editors should expect all artists' claimed figures to be supported by the following specified percentage of certified units.
To be on this list, artists who began charting:
before 1975 are required to have their available claimed figures supported by 20% in certified units.
between 1975–1990 are required to have their available claimed figures supported by 20-45% in certified units. (That is 1.66% for each additional year after 1975)
between 1990–2000 are required to have their available claimed figures supported by 45-75% in certified units. (That is 3% for each additional year after 1990)
between 2000–present are required to have their available claimed figures supported by 75-80% in certified units. (That is 0.35% for each additional year after 2000)
So how can the claimed sales be less than the global certified sales? ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31(talk) 15:43, 3 February 2015 (UTC)
We'll just have to wait until a bit higher claimed sales is released by news services. Currently there is one other claimed sales available for Swift, but it claims 175 million units. Per the rules of this list, she needs her claims supported by 77.1% certified units, which would be 134.9 million certified units needed for claims as high as 175 million. it could take weeks if not some months for Swift to get to 134.9 million certified units.--Harout72 (talk) 15:59, 3 February 2015 (UTC)
Thanks for clarifying this a little. This is just my opinion, but I think if the claimed sales fall behind the certified sales, then the claimed sales are clearly out of date and should be immediately removed from the list, even if it means leaving the appicable space blank or with the the notation "N/A Pending update". The current global certified sales for Taylor are at 17.7 million as stated in the applicable column, which means the total claimed global sales of only 10 million in the next column is badly out of date and needs to be removed immediately until a newer verifiable claim is found. Taylor's ranking should be based soley on the certified numbers for now, or it has no credibility if her ranking can be artificially pulled down by the outdated or deflated sales claim of a newspaper that does't cite its sources. If the ranking is done soley on certified sales, Taylor jumps up into the next higher group just behind Rihanna which is probably where she belongs. Taylor has been greatly outselling Rihanna since 2013. ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31(talk) 17:00, 3 February 2015 (UTC)
It is important that this list isn't viewed as a list of competition. We cannot remove claimed figures as the initial ranking is based on them, and only then on certified sales. Swift's certified sales may be ahead of the currently listed 110 million sales by 7 million, but that gap certainly isn't a major misrepresentation of her true records sales. However, listing her with 175 million sales would be as she hasn't sold more than 125-130 million records based on her available 117 million units of certified sales. The ranking cannot be based solely on certified sales, because the certified sales illustrate accurate sales for artists who've begun charting after mid or late 90s as some of the music markets do not offer their certifications going back earlier than that. And we have many artists on the list who've begun charting in the 70s, 80s and even 60s. But even for earlier artists, the certified sales always help us to determine whether or not the claimed figures are in the neighborhood of the true records sales.--Harout72 (talk) 17:40, 3 February 2015 (UTC)
I wonder if the rules or guidelines for ranking the artists could be modified to make the ranking based on published media-claimed sales OR certified sales, which ever total is higher for any given individual, group, or band? A published media claim of sales looks rather off-base if it is less than the certified sales, even if the discrepancy isn't all that great (although a difference of 6 million in the case of Taylor Swift isn't exactly small either). I believe a reliable published claim cannot be less than the certified sales, even by a small amount. To me, such a discrepancy renders the claim at least contentious, or even definitely inaccurate, which in my opinion, obliges editors remove the claim in accordance with Wikipedia's most basic rule governing all articles and lists. I reckon it's about accuracy, not making the list into a "competition" (although the music industry itself is pretty much that!). I admit I screwed up my first edit and I apologize for that. However, I saw my second edit as being in accordance with Wikipedia's requirement to remove any contentious or inaccurate material. There is a pattern in this list that the claimed sales are based on published media reports. However, the certified sales are also 'published claims', and I see nothing in the article's guidelines that expressly prohibits using certified sales in that way if the data are obviously more accurate than the closest media claim. Even if that prohibition exists, the rule change I'm proposing would allow the published media claim to be omitted anytime it falls short of the certified claim, as supposedly required by the overriding Wikipedia rule regarding the removal of contentious or obviously inaccurate material.
Taylor Swift update
Here are the URL's for the latest certified and claimed sales for Taylor swift. She's rising so quickly now that all our petty arguments about where and how she should be ranked will soon be irrelevant!
The problem of redefining Europe was finally resolved in 1730 when, instead of waterways, the Swedish geographer and cartographer von Strahlenberg proposed the Ural Mountains as the most significant eastern boundary, a suggestion that found favour in Russia and throughout Europe. This definition was eventually carried to the rest of the world by European colonial settlement which made the nations and empires of the West the chief arbitors of world geography. Eurasia's largest and westernmost peninular was upheld as a continent, while it's second largest peninsula (India, Pakistan, et al) was designated the only subcontinent expressly recognized in the English language. The separation of Eurasia into Europe and Asia was criticized as Eurocentric by Lewis and Wigen (1997):
"In physical, cultural and historical diversity, China and India are comparable to the entire European landmass, not to a single European country. A better (if still imperfect) analogy would compare France, not to India as a whole, but to a single Indian state, such as Uttar Pradesh."[198]
The boundary drawn between Europe and Asia in 1730 FOLLOWS NO INTERNATIONAL BOUNDARIES. As a result, attempts to organize Europe along political or economic lines have resulted in uses of the name in a geopolitically limiting way to refer only to the 28 member states of the European Union, whose territories end well short of the Urals that lie further east. Conversely, Europe has also been used in a very expansive way by the Council of Europe which has 47 member countries, some of which territorially over-reach the Ural and Bosphorus lines to include all of Siberia and Turkey.
Stratiform or Stratus Clouds
A cloud-type extending a long, low, gray layer with an almost uniform base with extensive coverage at different altitudes. There are three groups of stratiform clouds: high level (above 20,000 ft.), middle level (6,500-20,000 ft.), and low level (below 6,500 ft.). Both rime and glaze icing are observed in stratiform clouds depending upon temperature and liquid water content conditions. Stratiform clouds are characterized by moderate liquid water contents with a maximum value of 1.1g/m3 and as a result ice accumulation in these clouds is most frequently rime.
TO RETURN TO THE AERONAUTS PROGRAM,
CLOSE THIS WINDOW.
Please send any comments to:
Curator: Tom.Benson@grc.nasa.gov
Responsible Official: Kathy.Zona@grc.nasa.gov
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If the cloud droplets continue to grow past this size, they become too heavy to be held aloft as the gravitational force overcomes the atmospheric drag, and they fall from the cloud as rain.[201] When this process takes place just above the freezing level, the vapor tends to condense into supercooled water droplets, which with additional lifting and growth in size, can eventually turn into freezing rain. At temperatures well below freezing, the vapor desublimates into ice crystals that average about 0.25 mm in length.[202] Continuing lift and desublimation will tend to increase the number of ice crystals which may combine until they are too heavy to be supported by the vertical air currents and fall out as snow.
Curiosities: Green sky before tornado
Aug. 24, 2007
Scott Bachmeier, a research meteorologist at the Cooperative Institute for Meteorological Satellite Studies at UW-Madison, says that particles in the air scatter light. In the day, the particles scatter more violet and blue light, but our eyes are more sensitive to blue light — that’s why the sky appears blue.
Thunderstorms, which can be the home of tornadoes, usually happen later in the day, when the sun is approaching the horizon. That creates a reddish tinge in the sky, as any fan of sunsets knows. But light under a 12-mile high thundercloud is primarily blue, due to scattering by water droplets within the cloud. When blue objects are illuminated with red light, Bachmeier says, they appear green.
Green is significant, but not proof that a tornado is on the way. A green cloud “will only occur if the cloud is very deep, which generally only occurs in thunderstorm clouds,” Bachmeier says. “Those are the kind of storms that may produce hail and tornadoes.” Green does indicate that the cloud is extremely tall, and since thunderclouds are the tallest clouds, green is a warning sign that large hail or a tornado may be present.
A study of thunderstorm clouds in 1995 and 1996 using a device to accurately measure the colour of the clouds did indeed confirm that many thunderstorms produce clouds with a distinct green hue. However it also found that the perceived colour varied dramatically with the measured colour, and that the actual colour varied from greenish to blue and yellowish colours. This is easy to believe as the human perception of colour is greatly influenced by surrounding colours and the intensity of the light.
This study also proposed an explanation and used a simple model to compare the theory with measurements. A good agreement was found supporting the explanation. The idea is that water is blue because is absorbed red light. If a thunderstorm contains enough water and is illuminated by sunlight which is reddish because the blue component has been scattered, such as at sunset, then the absorption of red light by the water will result in a green colour.
Blue Cloud
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The troposphere is the lowest layer of Earth's atmosphere. Most of the mass (about 75-80%) of the atmosphere is in the troposphere. Most types of clouds are found in the troposphere, and almost all weather occurs within this layer.
The bottom of the troposphere is at Earth's surface. The troposphere extends upward to about 10 km (6.2 miles or about 33,000 feet) above sea level. The height of the top of the troposphere varies with latitude (it is lowest over the poles and highest at the equator) and by season (it is lower in winter and higher in summer). It can be as high as 20 km (12 miles or 65,000 feet) near the equator, and as low as 7 km (4 miles or 23,000 feet) over the poles in winter.
Air is warmest at the bottom of the troposphere near ground level. Air gets colder as one rises through the troposphere. That's why the peaks of tall mountains can be snow-covered even in the summertime.
Air pressure and the density of the air also decrease with altitude. That's why the cabins of high-flying jet aircraft are pressurized.
The layer immediately above the troposphere is called the stratosphere. The boundary between the troposphere and the stratosphere is called the "tropopause".
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If higher altitude divergence (horizontal outflow) of an equal amount occurs simultaneously above the same location, the surface atmospheric pressure is theoretically not affected. However, much of the surface convergence that occurs in the atmosphere is caused by the drawing in of air in the form of wind currents towards areas of low pressure that are the product of unequal heating of the Earth's surface.
An idealised view of three large circulation cells.
This is the result of atmospheric motion driven by the uneven horizontal distribution of net incoming radiation from the sun. These are zones of low pressure that as part of a system of large latitudinal cells that influence atmospheric circulation. In both hemispheres working away from the equator, they are the tropical Hadley cells, the mid-latitude Ferrel, and the polar cells. The 50th parallels coincide roughly with bands of low pressure situated just below the polar highs.
February position of the ITCZ and monsoon trough in the Pacific Ocean, depicted by area of convergent streamlines offshore Australia and in the equatorial eastern Pacific
or monsoon trough. Monsoon troughing in the western Pacific reaches its latitudinal zenith in each hemisphere above and below the equator during the late summer when the wintertime surface high-pressure ridge in the opposite hemisphere is strongest. This pattern of convergence can result in the formation of tropical storms and hurricanes composed mainly of towering thunderclouds.The resulting weather systems often produce heavy showers and thunderstorms[206]
ITCZ
The trough can reach as far as the 40th parallel north in East Asia during August and the 20th parallel south in Australia during February. Its poleward progression is accelerated by the onset of the summer monsoon which is characterized by the development of lower air pressure of greater instability over the warmest parts of the various continents.
Divergence
Meanwhile, upward currents of air along the polar fronts diverge at high tropospheric altitudes. Some diverging air moves to the poles where air mass subsidence inhibits cloud formation and leads to the creation of the polar areas of high pressure. Divergence occurs near surface level resulting in a return of the circulating air to the polar fronts where rising air currents can create extensive cloud cover and precipitation as already described with mid latitude extratropical cyclones.[207]
Terrestrial cloud formation is the result of air in Earth's atmosphere becoming saturated due to either or both of two processes: cooling of the air and adding water vapor. With sufficient saturation, precipitation will fall to the surface; an exception is virga, which evaporates before reaching the surface.
Clouds in the troposphere, the atmospheric layer closest to Earth's surface, have Latin names due to the universal adaptation of Luke Howard's nomenclature. It was introduced in December 1802 and became the basis of a modern international system that classifies these tropospheric aerosols into several physical forms, then cross-classifies them as low-, middle- and high-étage according to cloud-base altitude range above Earth's surface. Clouds with significant vertical extent occupying more than one étage are often considered a distinct group or sub-group.
One physical form shows free-convective upward growth into low or vertical cumuliform heaps. Other more layered types appear as non-convective stratiform sheets , and as limited-convective stratocumuliform rolls or ripples. Both these layered forms have low, middle, and high-étage variants with the latter two identified respectively by the prefixes alto- and cirro-. Thin cirriform wisps are found only at high altitudes of the troposphere. In the case of clouds with vertical extent, prefixes are used whenever necessary to express variations or complexities in their physical structures. These include cumulo- for complex highly convective cumulonimbiform storm clouds, and nimbo- for thick stratiform layers with sufficient vertical depth to produce moderate to heavy precipitation.
Genus classification by altitude of occurrence. Towering vertical cumulus congestus not shown. Far right: Actual nimbostratus is the dark grey layer extending downward to near surface from a lighter shaded partially stratified layer of altocumulus.
This process of cross-classification produces ten basic genus-types or genera, most of which can be subdivided into species and varieties. Synoptic surface weather observations use code numbers to record and report any type of tropospheric cloud visible at scheduled observation times based on its height and physical appearance.
While a majority of clouds form in Earth's troposphere, there are occasions when they can be observed at much higher altitudes in the stratosphere and mesosphere. Clouds that form above the troposphere have common names for their main types, but are sub-classified alpha-numerically rather than with the elaborate system of Latin names given to cloud types in the troposphere. These three main atmospheric layers that can produce clouds, along with the lowest part of the cloudless thermosphere, are collectively known as the homosphere. Above this lies the heterosphere (which includes the rest of the thermosphere and the exosphere) that marks the transition to outer space. Clouds have been observed on other planets and moons within the Solar System, but, due to their different temperature characteristics, they are often composed of other substances such as methane, ammonia, and sulfuric acid as well as water.
Howard based his organizational model of clouds on the system of classification introduced by Swedish botanist Carl von Linne. The Linnean system employs a binomial nomenclature designated by a pair of Latin names; one that defines the cloud genus and the second that indicates cloud species. The names Howard chose for his three major types of clouds conveyed a sense of the outward characteristics:
Cirrus
(from Latin for "fiber" or "hair")
In Howard's words: "parallel, flexuous, or diverging fibres, extensive in any or in all directions"
Cumulus
(from the Latin for "heap" or "pile")
"convex or conical heaps, increasing upwards from a horizontal base"
Stratus
(adapted from the Latin stratum for "layer" or "sheet")
"a widely extended continuous horizontal sheet, increasing from below upwards"
In 1879, Hugo H. Hildebrandsson became the first researcher to use photography for the study and classification of clouds. This eventually led to the production of the first internationally sanctioned cloud atlas by Teisserenc de Borte in 1896.
| header20 = Modern and contemporary
| label21=Modern |data21=c. 1890–1930
| label22=20th century |data22=1901–2000
| label23=Contemporary |data23=c. 1975–present
| label24=21st century |data24=2001–present
TIROS-1
Objectives: To test experimental television techniques designed to develop a worldwide meteorological satellite information system. To test Sun angle and horizon sensor systems for spacecraft orientation.
Description: The spacecraft was 42 inches in diameter, 19 inches high and weighed 270 pounds. The craft was made of aluminum alloy and stainless steel which was then covered by 9200 solar cells. The solar cells served to charge the on-board batteries. Three pairs of solid-propellant spin rockets were mounted on the base plate.
Two television cameras were housed in the craft, one low-resolution and one high-resolution. A magnetic tape recorder for each camera was supplied for storing photographs while the satellite was out of range of the ground station network.
The antennas consisted of four rods from the base plate to serve as transmitters and one vertical rod from the center of the top plate to serve as a receiver.
The craft was spin-stabilized and space-oriented (not Earth-oriented). Therefore, the cameras were only operated while they were pointing at the Earth when that portion of the Earth was in sunlight.
The video systems relayed thousands of pictures containing cloud-cover views of the Earth. Early photographs provided information concerning the structure of large-scale cloud regimes.
TIROS-I was operational for only 78 days, but proved that satellites could be a useful tools for surveying global weather conditions from space.
Participants: NASA, US ARMY Signal Research and Development Lab, RCA, US Weather Bureau, US Naval Photographic Interpretation Center.
TRIOS-1 Stats:
Launch Date: April 1, 1960
Operational Period: 78 days
Launch Vehicle: Standard Thor-Able
Launch Site: Cape Canaveral, FL
Type: Weather Satellite
On April 1, 1960, the first successful weather satellite, TIROS I (Television Infrared Observation Satellite), was launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida by NASA with the participation of The US Army Signal Research and Development Lab, RCA, the US Weather Bureau, and the US Naval Photographic Center. During its 78 day mission, it relayed thousands of pictures showing the structure of large-scale cloud regimes, and proved that satellites could provide useful surveillance of global weather conditions from space.[210]
Cloud Forms of the Jet Stream' By VINCENT J. SCHAEFER z, (Manuscript received October IS. 1952)
L A N D S T A T I O N S U R F A C E S Y N O P T I C C O D E F M 12 - I X S Y N O P I . L A N D S T A TI O N S U R F A C E S Y N O P TI C C O D E F O R M A T
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Species: This genus is divided into five species which are grouped to form the basis of reporting cirrus in the SYNOP code.[211][212] Cirrus fibratus (Ci fib) consists of thin fibrous streaks with no tufts or hooks. Cirrus uncinus (Ci unc) is similar except that the filaments are hooked at the ends. Both species are coded CH1. Cirrus spissatus (Ci spi) consists of patchy dense high cloud. The castellanus species (Ci cas) has convective buildups that give the cloud a partly or mainly turreted appearance, especially when viewed from the side. Cirrus with a tufted appearance is designated cirrus floccus (Ci flo).[211][212] All three of these dense cirrus species are coded CH2. Although classified as high, dense cirrus, especially castellanus, can achieve some vertical extent.
Varieties: Certain cirrus species can sometimes be divided into pattern-based varieties. The filaments of cirrus fibratus intortus are twisted into irregular patterns. Cirrus fibratus vertebratus sees the filaments arranged in a pattern that resembles the backbone of a fish. Another pattern-based variety can be found with fibratus and uncinus species. Cirrus radiatus consists of parallel bands that appear to converge at the horizon. This pattern is often seen when the high cloud is invading the sky or increasing in amount.[211][212] It is then reported on the SYNOP observation code as CH4, or as CH5 or 6 (depending on how much of the sky is covered) if accompanied by cirrostratus. Cirrus duplicatus is observable when the fibratus or uncinus filaments are arranged in closely spaced layers, one above the other. Pattern-based varieties are not commonly associated with the species spissatus, castellanus, or floccus.[212] Opacity-based varieties are not associated with cirrus of any types because the wispy or fibrous species are always translucent while the more dense species are inherently opaque.
Precipitation-based supplementary features: These are not associated with cirrus clouds because they do not produce any precipitation.
Accessory cloud: Mamma is cloud-based supplementary feature that can be seen with cirrus spissatus cumulonimbogenitus (CH3). It appears as bubble-like downward protuberances from the cloud base and is caused by localized downdrafts in the cloud.
Genitus mother clouds: Apart from the aforementioned cumulonimbus mother cloud, cirrus fibratus cirrocumulogenitus or altocumulogenitus can form when cirrocumulus or very high altocumulus mother clouds lose some of their stratocumuliform structure and take on a more wispy or fibrous appearance.
Mutatus mother cloud: Cirrus fibratus cirrostratomutatus forms from a cirrostratus mother cloud when mostly continuous sheets of high cloud break up into more detached wispy or fibrous streaks.[211][212]
Species: Stratocumulus has three species which it shares in common with the other stratocumuliform genus types. The stratiformis species (Sc str) consists of sheets or relatively flat patches of low cloud similar if thicker in structure to the higher altocumulus and cirrocumulus types. Stratocumulus lenticularis (Sc len) and castellanus (Sc cas) also have similar structures to their Ac and Cc counterparts.[211][212] As with the other stratocumuliform genus-types, castellanus species can show vertical development but are not usually grouped with the vertical or multi-étage clouds.
Opacity-based varieties: The translucidus, perlucidus, and opacus varieties are the same for stratocumulus stratiformis as for Ac stratiformis. Varieties based on opacity are not commonly associated with species lenticularis or castellanus.
Pattern-based varieties: Parallel bands of radiatus are occasionally seen with the stratiformis species. Duplicatus and undulatus varieties are sometimes associated with stratocumulus stratiformis and lenticularis. With increased airmass instability, lacunosus downdraft holes may appear in layers of stratocumulus stratiformis and castellanus.[212]
Precipitation-based supplementary features: Virga or praecipitatio features of weak intensity may be seen with stratocumulus.
Accessory cloud: Mamma in the form of downward facing bubble-like protuberances may form as a result of localized downdrafts in the cloud layer.[211][212]
Genitus mother clouds: Stratocumulus may form from the spreading of cumulus or cumulonimbus (CL4), or the partial transformation of altostratus or nimbostratus.
Mutatus mother clouds: This genus type may also result from the complete transformation of altocumulus, nimbostratus, or stratus.
Species: Cumulus species are mainly indicators of degrees of vertical development.[211][212] The smallest type is cumulus fractus (Cu fra) which consists of cumulus broken up into ragged and changing fragments. Fair weather Cu fractus is coded CL1. It can also form in precipitation as a pannus accessory cloud which is coded CL7. Cumulus humilis (Cu hum) is the smallest non-ragged cloud and usually shows a light-grey shading underneath. Fair weather Cu humilis is also coded CL1 in the SYNOP code. Cumulus fractus and humilis are two species that cannot be described as vertical in the true sense of the word. Being at or near the beginning of the convective cloud's daily life cycle, they lack the moderate vertical extent of cumulus mediocris. Consequently they are commonly classified as low clouds[143] despite the fact their bases can be in the middle étage when the moisture content of the air is very low. When cumulus fractus and cumulus humilis are classified as vertical,[213] it is on the basis of their potential for at least moderate upward growth during their daily cycle.
Opacity-based varieties: Cumulus fractus is inherently translucent and the humilis species is generally opaque, so these do not have opacity- based varieties.
Pattern-based varieties: Radiatus is occasionally seen with fair-weather cumulus when arranged in parallel rows.
Supplementary features: These are not commonly seen with small cumulus, but Cu fractus of bad weather may be seen as a pannus feature with precipitating clouds.
Genitus mother clouds: Cumulus fractus or humilis may form as the result of a partial transformation of altocumulus or stratocumulus.
Mutatus mother clouds: These cumulus species may also appear due to a complete transformation of stratocumulus or stratus.[211][212]
Species: Cumulonimbus calvus (Cb cal) has a very high clear-cut domed top similar to towering cumulus and is coded CL3. The capillatus species (Cb cap) has very high tops that have become fibrous due to the presence of ice crystals.[211][212] It is coded CL9 in the SYNOP report.
Varieties: Cumulonimbus is too large and opaque to show any opacity or pattern-based varieties.
Precipitation-based supplementary features: This is also a major precipitation cloud and can produce virga or praecipitatio features, of which the latter can reach heavy intensity.
Accessory clouds: The cloud-based supplementary features normally associated with cumulonimbus are pannus, incus (cirriform anvil top), mamma, pileus, velum, arcus, and tuba. As with precipitating cumulus, the CL7 coding for pannus is overridden by higher codes, in this case CL3 or 9 depending on the species of cumulonimbus. The tuba feature can develop into a funnel cloud, water spout, or tornado.[211][212]
Genitus mother clouds: Cumulonimbus can develop from altocumulus, altostratus, nimbostratus, stratocumulus, and cumulus.
Mutatus mother cloud: This genus type can also result from the complete transformation of cumulus undergoing rapid vertical growth.[211][212]
Etymology
The origin of the term cloud can be found in the old English clud or clod, meaning a hill or a mass of rock. Around the beginning of the 13th. century, it was extended metaphorically to include rainclouds as masses of evaporated water in the sky because of the similarity in appearance between a mass of rock and a cumulus heap cloud. Over time, the metaphoric term replaced the original old english weolcan to refer to clouds in general.[95][214]
Meteorology as a serious study began in India around 3000 B.C.E.[215] A serious discussion about the formation of clouds appeared in a writing called the Upanishads. By the 2nd century B.C.E., Gongyang Gao's commentary in the Spring and Autumn Annals outlined the Chinese conception of water evaporating and rising to form clouds.
In 1027 C.E. Avicenna published his findings regarding the role of mountains in the formation of what are now called orographic clouds.
c. 80 AD – In his Lunheng (論衡; Critical Essays), the Han DynastyChinese philosopherWang Chong (27–97 AD) dispels the Chinese myth of rain coming from the heavens, and states that rain is evaporated from water on the earth into the air and forms clouds, stating that clouds condense into rain and also form dew, and says when the clothes of people in high mountains are moistened, this is because of the air-suspended rain water.[117] However, Wang Chong supports his theory by quoting a similar one of , the Gongyang Zhuan, compiled in the 2nd century BC,[117]goes back much farther than Wang Chong. Wang Chong wrote:
As to this coming of rain from the mountains, some hold that the clouds carry the rain with them, dispersing as it is precipitated (and they are right). Clouds and rain are really the same thing. Water evaporating upwards becomes clouds, which condense into rain, or still further into dew.[117]
The Book of Healing, in which Part 2, Section 5, contains his essay on mineralogy and meteorology in six chapters: formation of mountains; the advantages of mountains in the formation of clouds; sources of water; origin of earthquakes; formation of minerals; and the diversity of earth's terrain.[216]
1802 - Luke Howard.
1959 – The first weather satellite, Vanguard 2, was launched on 17 February. It was designed to measure cloud cover, but a poor axis of rotation kept it from collecting a notable amount of useful data.
1960 – The first weather satellite to be considered a success was TIROS-1, launched by NASA on 1 April. TIROS operated for 78 days and proved to be much more successful than Vanguard 2. TIROS paved the way for the Nimbus program, whose technology and findings are the heritage of most of the Earth-observing satellites NASA and NOAA have launched since then.[129]
1975 – The first Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite, GOES, was launched into orbit. Their role and design is to aid in hurricane tracking. Also this year, Vern Dvorak develops a scheme to estimate tropical cyclone intensity from satellite imagery.[129]
cloud (n.) Look up cloud at Dictionary.com
Old English clud "mass of rock, hill," related to clod. Metaphoric extension to "raincloud, mass of evaporated water in the sky" is attested by c.1200 based on similarity of cumulus clouds and rock masses. The usual Old English word for "cloud" was weolcan. In Middle English, skie also originally meant "cloud."
Species cirrus floccus (Ci flo): Partly tufted cirrus (CH2).
Opacity-based varieties: None.
Opacity-based varieties: None.
−
Pattern-based varieties: Intortus, vertebratus, duplicatus, radiatus (latter CH4; CH5 or 6 if accompanied by cirrostratus).
+
Pattern-based varieties: Intortus, vertebratus, duplicatus, radiatus (latter CH4 except CH5 or 6 if accompanied by cirrostratus).
Genus cirrostratus (Cs): A thin non-convective ice crystal veil that typically gives rise to halos caused by refraction of the sun's rays. The sun and moon are visible in clear outline. Cirrostratus typically thickens into altostratus ahead of a warm front or low-pressure area.
Genus cirrostratus (Cs): A thin non-convective ice crystal veil that typically gives rise to halos caused by refraction of the sun's rays. The sun and moon are visible in clear outline. Cirrostratus typically thickens into altostratus ahead of a warm front or low-pressure area.
−
Species cirrostratus fibratus (Cs fib): Fibrous cirrostratus less detached than cirrus (CH8).
+
Species cirrostratus fibratus (Cs fib): Fibrous cirrostratus less detached than cirrus (CH8 except CH5 or 6 if increasing in amount) .
−
Species cirrostratus nebulosus (Cs neb): A featureless veil of cirrostratus (CH7).
+
Species cirrostratus nebulosus (Cs neb): A featureless veil of cirrostratus covering the entire sky (CH7).
Opacity-based varieties: None.
Opacity-based varieties: None.
Pattern-based varieties: Duplicatus, undulatus.
Pattern-based varieties: Duplicatus, undulatus
The four fundamental types of cloud classification (cirrus, cumulus, stratus, nimbus) were proposed by British amateur meteorologist Luke Howard (1772-1864) in 1802. Figuratively, as something that casts a shadow, from early 15c.; hence under a cloud (c.1500). In the clouds "removed from earthly things; obscure, fanciful, unreal" is from 1640s. Cloud-compeller translates (poetically) Greek nephelegereta, a Homeric epithet of Zeus.
cloud (v.) Look up cloud at Dictionary.com
early 15c., "overspread with clouds, cover, darken," from cloud (n.). From 1510s as "to render dim or obscure;" 1590s as "to overspread with gloom." Intransitive sense of "become cloudy" is from 1560s. Related: Clouded; clouding.
CLIP Methodology
Retrieval of icing conditions using CloudSat data:
1. Locate clouds using cloud geometric and reflectivity data (CloudSat)
2. Classify cloud types using cloud classification data (CloudSat)
3. Find vertical temperature distribution along CloudSat track (GFS)
4. Icing condition is defined according to cloud types:
Sc, St: area 0 — -10 degrees
As, Ac: area 0 — -20 degrees
Cu, Ns, Deep convection: area 0 — -25 degrees
High clouds, Ci, Cs, Cc: no icing
one millionth of a metre (or one thousandth of a millimetre, 0.001 mm, or about 0.000039 inch).[1] The symbol µm is sometimes rendered as um if the symbol µ cannot be used, or if the writer is not aware of the distinction.
There seems to be a basic problem with the Wikipedia article "Europe" that there's little that can be said about the basic nature of Europe that isn't POV; particlarly when it comes to the 6 continent versus the 7 continent models. A few years ago, this article took a bit broader perspective by suggesting Europe could be considered either a continent in its own right in cultural terms, or as a subcontinent of Eurasia in physiographic terms. When I tried to revive that concept earlier this month, and even provided a few references, another editor simply reverted everything (references and all!), then threw what I took to be a mini-tantrum when I showed a little persistence. But it seems to me if this article continues to take a totally one-sided view in favor of the 7 continent model, it ends up contradicting other related Wikipedia articles, especially "Eurasia" and "Subcontinent". It might also compromise the Wikipedian objective of a neutral and global point of view. So I'm wondering if you support any attempt to restore a broader perpective to this article, or whether you prefer to stick with the 7 continent model. Do you have any sense of what other contributing (as opposed to reverting) editors of this article think about this? Many thanks!User:ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31(talk) 23:15, 27 September 2014 (UTC)
Why is there opposition to the alternative idea of Europe as a subcontinent, as is implied by the 6 continent model that treats Eurasia as a single continent? If India is a subcontinent by virtue of being separated from the rest of the Eurasian landmass by a range of mountains, then surely Europe can be interpreted in the same way due to its separation by a range of mountains. If not, then why is Europe a full continent and India/Pakistan et al only a subcontinent? What is the physiographical, geographical, and geological logic of this double standard? I tried to introduce this to the article using a referenced source, but another editor, AbelM7, has reverted me several times insisting the Europe is a full continent and only a full continent, and that no other interpretation is acceptable, regardless of the physical evidence or any referenced source. So I need to know the view of other editors as to whether it's acceptable to present the alternative interpretation of Europe as a subcontinent with a referenced source by a published author. Please review the recent edit history of the past week or so before weighing in on this issue.
The factual accuracy of parts of this user page (those related to map) may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this user page to reflect recent events or newly available information. (November 2012)
This page is about the continent. For the political union, see EU. For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation).
This page is about the continent and is based on the 7 continennt model. For the political union, see EU. For other uses, see Europe (disambiguation).
Europe is a land area that is considered by geographers either as a continent in its own right or as the western extremity of the Eurasian continent , even as a sub- parts of the super continent of Afro - Eurasia. (French Wikipedia)
Europe ( ancient Greek Εὐρώπη , Europe) is a continent that extends from the western fifth of the Eurasian landmass. Although geographically it is a subcontinent , which together form the continent of Eurasia with Asia , it is historically and culturally based mostly regarded as an independent continent . (German wikipedia)
Las nubes se observan a simple vista y se clasifican según un sistema internacional creado a comienzos del siglo XIX por Luke Howard, químico y meteorólogo inglés que las dividió en cuatro grandes categorías: 1/ cirros, que son penachos elevados y en forma de escobilla, compuestos por cristales de hielo; 2/ estratos, extensas capas nubosas que traen, con frecuencia, lluvia continua; 3/ nimbos, nubes capaces de formar precipitaciones; 4/ cúmulos, nubes hinchadas de base plana que cruzan en cielo de verano. Nuestro sistema moderno de clasificación de nubes incluye muchas combinaciones y subdivisiones de estas cuatro categorías básicas. Cuando un meteorólogo habla de precipitación, se refiere a lluvia, nieve o cualquier forma de agua líquida o sólida que se precipita, o cae, del cielo. La forma más simple de pluviómetro es un recipiente de lados rectos con una escala, o regla, para medir la profundidad del agua que cae en él. La mayoría de estos aparatos la conducen por un embudo a un tubo más estrecho, para permitir mediciones más precisas de cantidades pequeñas de precipitación. Tal como otros instrumentos meteorológicos, los pluviómetros pueden hacerse de modo que registren sus mediciones en forma continua.
Tipos y clasificación de nubes
Nubes en la ciudad de Hermosillo, Sonora.
Al atardecer, estas nubes toman un color rojizo, debido al ángulo de los rayos del sol.
Cirros y altocúmulos.
Cúmulos.
Nubes troposféricas
La clasificación de nubes troposféricas de acuerdo con sus características visuales proviene de la Organización Meteorológica Mundial y viene recogida en el International Cloud Atlas/Atlas Internacional de Nubes.
Los nombres oficiales de los diferentes tipos de nubes se dan en latín. Existen cuatro categorías fundamentales:
Cúmulos (Cúmulus): nubes de desarrollo vertical (de días soleados)
Estratos (Stratus): nubes estratificadas (de días soleados)
Nimbos (Nimbus): nubes capaces de formar precipitaciones (Nube de tormenta)
Cirros (Cirrus): nubes de cristales de hielo (Nube de tormenta)
Los grupos anteriores se encuentran en nubes de familia bajo, medio, alto, de desarrollo vertical moderado, y de gran desarrollo vertical, dando lugar a una clasificación de 10 géneros (genera).
Diferenciadas entre las especies, variedades y nubes accesorias. Fuente Organización Meteorológica Mundial Internacional Atlas Cloud.
If-you-like, learn the syntax of the Wiki and do not use automatic translation from English to French. Your adding text was completely unreadable and in the wrong place.
Salut;
I know I made some mistakes in the way I tried to add new content to the French article, and I appreciate your response to me and the fact you found a way to make some of my edits acceptable. Unfortunately, I'm not fluent in French and automatic translation is the only way I can do text. I suppose I should not even try to add text without a fluent knowledge of the French language. However, I have read the French article and I believe it could have a lot more information than it has now. You might be able to understand what I am trying to say if you look at the English Wikipedia article "Cloud". It has had a lot of new content added over the last couple of years and is now one of the most popular science articles on Wikipedia.
If you have seen the English article, maybe you believe it is too long and detailed, and perhaps you do not think the French article should be made much longer than it is now. However, if it is good for the French article to be made more detailed like the English article, then who is going to do it? I have used automatic translation to add new text to articles in Spanish, Portuguese, and Italian. Their editors seem happy to accept my occasional contributions, and if the translation isn't perfect, or something isn't in the right place, they simply fix it for me, as you did with those edits I added that you found acceptable in principle. I think I understand where I went wrong with my last edits and can do better in the future. For example, I incorrectly thought the NASA cloud classification was an update of the International Cloud Atlas. However, I cannot avoid usung automatic translation for adding text. Therefore if you don't want me to make any more contributions in this way, I will not add or edit any more text in French. Maybe someone who is truly bilingual will someday want to expand the French article in the way I would like to do.
Just one more comment, I did an automatic translation of your message to me and it was perfectly readable in English. Maybe automatic translation works better from French to English than it does from English to French.
Salut, je sais que j'ai fait des erreurs quand j'ai essayé d'ajouter du nouveau contenu à l'article français , et je vous remercie de votre réponse pour moi et le fait que vous avez trouvé un moyen de faire un peu de mes modifications acceptable. Malheureusement, je ne parle pas couramment en traduction française et automatique est la seule manière que je peux modifier le texte. Je suppose que je ne devrais même pas essayer d'ajouter du texte sans une connaissance couramment de la langue française. Cependant, j'ai lu l'article en français et je crois que cela pourrait avoir beaucoup plus d'informations que ce qu'il a maintenant. Vous pourriez être en mesure de comprendre ce que je veux dire, si vous regardez l'article Wikipedia en anglais "Cloud". Il a eu beaucoup de nouveau contenu ajouté au cours des dernières années et est aujourd'hui l'un des articles les plus populaires de la science Wikipedia. Si vous avez vu l'article en anglais, peut-être vous pensez qu'il est trop longue et détaillée, et peut-être vous ne pensez pas que l'article en français devrait être beaucoup plus longue qu'elle ne l'est maintenant. Toutefois , si elle est bonne pour l'article français à être plus détaillées comme l'article anglais, alors qui va le faire ? J'ai utilisé traduction automatique pour ajouter du texte à des articles en espagnol, portugais, et italien . Leurs éditeurs semblent heureux d'accepter mes contributions occasionnelles, et si la traduction n'est pas parfaite, ou une phrase n'est pas au bon endroit, ils ont simplement le réparer pour moi, comme vous l'avez fait avec ces modifications j'ai ajouté que vous avez trouvé acceptable dans principe. Je crois que je comprends ce que j'ai fait de mal à mes dernières modifications et peux faire mieux à l'avenir. Par exemple, je pensais que la classification des nuages de la NASA était une mise à jour de l'Atlas international des nuages. Cependant, je ne peux pas éviter de traduction automatique usung pour ajouter du texte. Par conséquent, si vous ne voulez pas que je fasse tout plus de contributions de cette façon, je ne vais pas ajouter ou modifier n'importe quel texte plus en français. Peut-être quelqu'un qui est vraiment bilingue voudra élargir l'article français dans la façon dont je voudrais faire. Juste une remarque, je l'ai fait une traduction automatique de votre message pour moi et c'était parfaitement lisible en anglais. Peut-être que la traduction automatique fonctionne mieux du français à l' anglais.
User:ChrisCarss Former24.108.99.31(talk) 11:00, 3 June 2013 (UTC)
In the nineteenth century there was a method of classification of the more complex and that included the Latin names for the clouds and that is the basis of today's . This system has been prepared by the pharmacist and chemist Luke Howard thirty Quaker ( 1803 Askesiana Conference in London) .
This classification system takes advantage of some comments made earlier by Ferdinand II of Tuscany and Prince Karl Theodor .
In their almost infinite variety ( of shapes, transparency , height, etc. .
Based on the above basic types of visas, you should classify clouds according to the height of their base from the ground into four groups and ten types : high clouds ( cirrus - prefix ) , medium clouds ( high - prefix ) , low clouds (prefix layer -) and clouds with vertical development (prefixes cumulo-/nimbo- ) .
Categorie fisiche in famiglia A includono cirriforme, stratiforme, e stratocumuliforme.
Nubi in famiglia B includono stratiforme e stratocumuliform.
Nubi in famiglia C includono stratiforme, stratocumuliforme, e piccola cumuliform.
Categorie fisiche in famiglia D1 includono stratiforme, e moderato cumuliforme.
Nubi in famiglia D2 includono grande cumuliforme e cumulonimbiforme.
rolls et ondulations,
couches à plat,
nuages entassés,
nuages vaporeux
nuages en plaques globulaires
couche de nuages dans un voile uniforme
http://
convection limitée, convection, non convectif
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^Stephen F. Corfidi, Sarah J. Corfidi, David M Schultz (2008). "Weather and Forecasting". 23: 1282. Retrieved 26 September 2016. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
^Freud, E.; Rosenfeld, D. (2012). "Linear relation between convective cloud drop number concentration and depth for rain initiation". Journal of Geophysical Research. 117. doi:10.1029/2011JD016457.
^Lewis, Martin W.; Kären E. Wigen (1997). The Myth of Continents: a Critique of Metageography. Berkeley: University of California Press. pp. ?. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-520-20742-4, ISBN0-520-20743-2|0-520-20742-4, '"`UNIQ--templatestyles-0000025A-QINU`"'[[ISBN (identifier)|ISBN]] [[Special:BookSources/0-520-20743-2 |0-520-20743-2]]]]. {{cite book}}: Check |isbn= value: invalid character (help); templatestyles stripmarker in |ISBN= at position 16 (help)
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