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Croatian language

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Sociopolitical standpoints

Croatian, although linguistically not considered to be a language, is sometimes considered as such. In the linguistic sense, two speech systems are considered dialects of the same language if they are mostly mutually intelligible. However, purely linguistic considerations of languages (abstand language) can clash with sociopolitical definitions of language (ausbau language), so that speech systems which are mutually intelligible have been designated as separate languages. Although Croatian is mutually intelligible with Serbian and the differences between the two are often exaggerated for political reasons, many Croatian linguists and people in Croatia regard Croatian as a separate language, which consists of the standard Shtokavian dialect as well as the Chakavian, Kajkavian, and Torlakian dialects. This is often based upon the argument that the official language in Yugoslavia, a standardized form of Serbo-Croatian, was artificial and a political tool used to combine two distinct languages and people. Croatian was used historically as the name of a language, for example the Croatian–Hungarian Agreement designated "Croatian" as one of its official languages, and it is claimed that Croatian will become an EU language. The EU however, has rejected this due to translation costs.

There are some differences between Croatian and the other ausbau languages now present in the former Yugoslavia. Since the dissolution of Yugoslavia, the separate Croatian standard developed independently, although still based on the Shtokavian dialect. Some words from the Chakavian and Kajkavian dialects have entered standard Croatian, and Croatian is written in the Latin alphabet, while Serbian is written in Cyrillic. The term Serbo-Croatian has now mostly been replaced by the terms Serbian, Croatian, and Bosnian, and its literal translation is almost never used in former Yugoslav states due to political connotations. The ISO regards Croatian as a language that is part of a Serbo-Croatian "macrolanguage".

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Orang Asal

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Indigenous people from Peninsular Malaysia

The Orang Asal are the indigenous people of Malaysia. The term is Malay for "Original People", and the Orang Asal along with Malays are granted Bumiputra status in Malaysia.

The Orang Asal in Peninsular Malaysia are collectively known as the Orang Asli, and form small minorities there. However, the Orang Asal of East Malaysia form a majority of the population.

Etymology

The term "Orang Asal" means "Original People". It was originally used by Communist insurgents in the Malayan Emergency in order to gain the support of these tribal groups.

Status

Orang Asal are officially bumiputra, which grants them special privileges in Malaysian society. However, their societies remain marginalized, and they have been said to be "Second class Bumiputra's." A current issue is in regards to land, which is often taken for developmental purposes. This has caused many issues, including court cases and divisions between federal and state governments. In addition, illegal logging often occurs on what is considered their traditional land. Issues have occured in relation to immigration, where immigrants are often given identity cards ahead of the Orang Asal. In addition, many have been pressed to be assimilated into mainstream culture and convert to Islam.

Divisions

Iban Longhouse constructed using modern materials

Orang Asal are located throughout Malaysia, making up 11% of the population, about 2.1million people. Orang Asal is an overarching term, encompassing all indigenous people on both Peninsula and East Malaysia.

Those on the Peninsula are known more specifically as the Orang Asli, numbering around 149,500, make up only 0.7% of the total Malaysian population. They are officially 19 ethnic subgroups, classed as either Negrito, Senoi, or Proto-Malay.

Some numbers differ, but East Malaysia contains a total of about 64 indigenous groups, around 39 in Sabah and 25 in Sarawak. Orang Asal make up 60% of Sabah's population, and 50% of Sarawak's population. Sabah's population is hugely diversified, with over 50 languages and 80 dialects spoken. The largest group on Sarawak is the Iban.

Culture

An Orang asli starting a fire

The Orang Asal have their own religions and customs, as well as unique languages. Languages spoken are generally from the Austronesian and Austro-Asiatic language families. The languages of the peninsular can be divided between Negrito, Senoi, and Malayic, together divided into about 18 subgroups. However, all languages are in danger of being lost as the children in the tribes learn Malay and English. The primary languages in East Malaysia are Kadazan-Dusun and Iban, both used by multiple indigenous groups. Unlike in the peninsular, these languages are commonly used in everyday life.

In the peninsular each subgroup is culturally distinct from the others, with lifestyles varying from fishermen to farmers to hunter-gatherers. Although many are now settled due to the intrusion of modern life, some remain semi-nomadic.

The population of Sabah are traditionally subsistence farmers, although nowadays they are becoming more involved in local government. Many Orang Asal in Sarawak subsist of rice, supplementing the meal with hunting. Some also remain semi-nomadic. The Orang Asal of East Malaysia are known for artwork such as their wooden masks.

See also

• Demographics of Malaysia

References

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Wildlife of Malaysia

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The Wildlife of Malaysia are some of the most diverse on earth, and Malaysia is a Megadiverse country.

Terrestrial fauna

Malaysia is estimated to contain 20% of the world's animal species, and includes some of the most biodiverse areas on the planet.

There are about 210 mammal species in Malaysia. The peninsular hold two big cats, the Indochinese Tiger and the clouded leopard. Another major predator is the sunbear. Large prey exists, such as the Sumatran Rhinoceros, the Malayan Tapir, Mouse deer, Barking Deer, Sambar Deer, Wild Boar, and Bearded pigs. Guars and Asian Elephants can also be found. Lowland animals such as these also can be found at higher altitudes, along with animals specialized for mountain living, such as Siamang Gibbons, Red Squirrels, and Lesser Moon Rats. East Malaysia lacks the tigers of the peninsular, leaving snow leopards, sunbears, and Sunda Otter Civets as the primary predators. Rhinoceroses and Elephants are also found there, along with Bornean Orangutans, Mueller's Gibbons, Macaques, Proboscis Monkeys, Silvered leaf monkey, Langurs, and Slow Loris. High levels of endemism are found on the diverse forests of Borneo's mountains, as species are isolated from each other by lowland forest. Kinabalu Ferret-badgers, Kinabalu Black Shrews, Hose's Palm Civets, and Brooke's Tree Squirrels are all endemic to the mountains. Other small mammals include Mongoose and Giant Rat. 11,300 orangutan's are found in East Malaysia. Other ape species include the White-handed Gibbon and the Siamang. Malaysia has 10 monkey species, divided between langurs and macaques. Proboscis Monkeys, the world's largest monkey, area a langur species endemic to Borneo. Macaque species include the Crab-eating Macaque and the Pig-tailed Macaque. The Malayan Tiger, a subspecies of the Indochinese tiger, is endemic to the Malay peninsula with a remaining population of about 500. Small cats such as the Bay Cat and various civet cats are also found. 1200 Asian Elephants exist on the Peninsular, with another population existing in East Malaysia. The world's largest cattle species, the Seladang, is found in Malaysia. Fruit bats are also found throughout the country, with a high concentration in the Mulu Caves.

Over 620 species of birds have been recorded just on the Peninsular. Many are endemic to the mountains of the peninsular, such as the Crested Argus. Bornean forests show high levels of endemism among bird species, with 38 species found nowhere else. Black-browed Babblers and White-crowned Shamas found only in these forests. Large numbers of Hornbills, Woodpeckers, and Pittas such as the Mangrove Pitta are also present. Other species are found isolated on mountains, such as Golden-naped Barbets, Spot-necked Bulbuls, and Mountain Serpent-eagles. Bulbuls, starlings, and house swifts can be found in urban areas. Crested Serpent-eagles and Kingfishers can be found. There are nine species of Hornbill in Malaysia, the most common of which is the Pied hornbill. At 1.5 metres (5 ft) from head to tail is the largest hornbill, the Great hornbill, followed closely in size by the Rhinoceros Hornbill of Borneo. The Fish eagle and Brahminy kite are the most common birds of prey. Storm's Stork and the Oriental darter can be found in wetlands.

Hemidactylus frenatus

250 reptile species have been recorded, with about 150 species of snakes and 80 species of lizards. Only 16 of the land snakes are venomous. Notable among these are the Malayan pit viper, King Cobras, Dumeril's monitors, Malay Water Monitors, and Estuarine Crocodiles. The King Cobra is the deadliest snake found, but it is rarely encountered. The reticulated python is said to grow up to 10 metres (33 ft) in length. Monitor lizards, almost 2 metres (7 ft) in length, are found in both halves of the country. Other snake species include the Paradise tree snake and Wagler's pit viper. Estuarine Crocodiles can grow up to 2.5 metres (8.2 ft) in length. Its smaller relative, the Malayan false gharial, can also be found. Flying lizards can also be found. There are about 150 species of frog in Malaysia. Freshwater fish include the rare Asian arawana, along with marbled gobys, harlequins, and tiger barbs.

Malaysia has thousands of insect species, with more being discovered every year. Butterfly species include the Rajah Brooke Birdwing, while moth species include the Atlas moth. The largest beetle found is the Rhinoceros beetle. Other large insects include the Giant stick insect, which can grow as long as a human forearm, the Empress cicada, with a wingspan of 30 centimetres (12 in), and the 4 centimetres (2 in) long Giant ant. Other insects include Banded hornets, Fire ants, Giant honey bees, and Weaver ants. Many scorpions can also be found.

Terrestrial Flora

Dawn in the Bornean Rainforests

About two thirds of Malaysia is covered in forest which is believed to be 130million years old. It is composed of a variety of types, although they are mainly dipterocarp forests. Dipterocarps can grow to about 50 metres (164 ft) tall. Lowland forest occurs below 760 metres (2,493 ft), and formerly East Malaysia was covered in such rainforest, which is supported by its hot wet climate. There are around 14,500 species of flowering plants and trees. Besides rainforests, there are over 1,425 square kilometres (550 sq mi) of mangroves in Malaysia, and a large amount of peat forest. Coastal land of the peninsular is fringed by Mangroves, which cause sediment buildup resulting in peat bogs. These provide a base for plants that can tolerate the conditions. The peat forests of coastal Malaysia provide an important habitat for waterbirds and fish. The dipterocarps that occur in the peat forest obscure the ground, limiting ground vegetation. At higher altitudes, oaks, chestnuts, and rhododendrons replace dipterocarps.

There are an estimated 8,500 species of vascular plants in Peninsular Malaysia, with another 15,000 in the East. The forests of East Malaysia are estimated to be the habitat of around 2,000 tree species, and are one of the most biodiverse areas in the world, with 240 different species of trees every hectare. Further inland, Heath forests are present. These forests host many members of the Rafflesia genus, the largest flowers in the world, with a maximum diameter of 1 metre (3 ft). They also contain large numbers of carnivorous plants, such as pitcher plants, bladderworts, sundews, and ant-house plants.

Some parts of the forest have shown promise for use in medicine. In 1990 a stand of trees showed promise to be able to be used to stop the spread of a strain of Human Immunodeficiency Virus, but was cut down before more samples could be taken. Promise has been shown in fighting Malaria.

Marine life

Hypselodoris bullocki off Sipadan

Malaysia's Exclusive economic zone is 1.5 times larger than its land area, and some of its waters are in the Coral Triangle, a biodiversity hotspot. The waters around Sipadan island are the most biodiverse in the world. Bordering East Malaysia, the Sulu Sea is a biodiversity hotspot, with around 600 coral species and 1200 fish species. Five species of sea turtles inhabit the area, along with 20 species of Sea snake. The Dugong is found around Sabah and in the Strait of Johor.

Sharks present include whale sharks, hammerhead sharks, and reef sharks. Game fish such as the Blue marlin and tuna are often found, along with reef fish such as barracuda, bigeye trevally, bump-head parrotfish, garupas, and scorpion fish. Manta rays can be found.

Issues and response

The government of Malaysia aims to balance economic growth with environmental protection, but has been accused of favouring big business over the environment. Smoke haze from Indonesia occasionally causes problems further north, and fires caused from forest burning in 1997 obscured large parts of Southeast Asia and Australasia in smog.

At current rates of forest lost the rainforests will disappear within a generation. Over 80% of Sarawak has been cleared, and these clearing has caused animals traditionally in lowland forest to retreat into the upland rain forests inland. Logging, along with cultivation practices has devastated tree cover, causing severe environmental degradation in the country. Floods in East Malaysia have been worsened by the loss of trees, and over 60% of the Peninsular's forest have been cleared. With current rates of deforestation, the forests are predicted to be extinct by 2020. Deforestation is a major problem for fauna such as tigers, as the forest are cut to make room for plantations, mostly for Palm oil and other cash crops. The Orangutan population has dropped 40% in the last 20 years. Hunting has also been an issue. Animals such as the Asian Elephant have been forced out of their habitat due to its loss, often forcing them to starve. Once so common that complaints existed of them trampling peoples gardens, Sumatran Rhinoceroses are likely to go extinct in Malaysia. Hornbills are steadily declining in numbers. Most remaining forest is found inside national parks.

Habitat destruction has proved a threat for marine life. Illegal fishing is another major threat, In Sabah alone, almost 3000 turtles are killed as by-catch per year. Illegal fishing methods such as dynamite fishing and poisoning have also depleted marine ecosystems. Leatherback Turtle number have dropped 98% since the 1950's. Overconsumption and the use of animal parts for profit has also endangered marine life, as well as Tigers, whose meat can be found in restaurants in Kuala Lumpur. Tigers received official protection in 1976, when they numbered a mere 300. Marine life is also detrimentally affected by uncontrolled tourism. Shoreline erosion in places has reached 10 metres (33 ft) a year.

Some state governments are now trying to counter the environmental impact and pollution created by deforestation; Sabah has developed sustainable forest reserves, and the government is trying to cut logging by 10% per year. 28 national parks have been created, the first in 1938 by the British. There are 23 on East Malaysia and 7 on the Peninsular. The Malaysian government is also trying to preserve marine life, creating a joint project with Indonesia and the Philippines to look after the Sulu Sea, as well as limiting tourism in areas such as Sipadan Island. Marine parks have banned fishing and motorised sports. To counter coastal erosion, the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation have installed artificial reefs around the country's shores. These reefs are also meant to revive marine ecosystems. Animal trafficking is a large issue, and the Malaysian government is holding talks with the governments of Brunei and Indonesia to standardize anti-trafficking laws. The government is aiming to double the wild tiger population by 2020.

See also

• Environment of Malaysia

References

External links

Database of Malaysian Marine Life

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Wildlife of Antarctica

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Emperor Penguins (Aptenodytes forsteri) are the only animals to breed on mainland Antarctica during the winter.

The wildlife of Antarctica are extremophiles, having to adapt to the dryness, low temperatures, and high exposure common in Antartica. The extreme weather of the interior contrasts to the relatively mild conditions on the Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands, which have warmer temperatures and more liquid water. Much of the ocean around the mainland is covered by sea ice. The oceans themselves are a more stable environment for life, both in the water column and on the seabed.

There is relatively little diversity in Antarctica compared to much of the rest of the world. Flying birds nest on the milder shores of the Peninsula and the subantarctic islands. Eight species of penguins inhabit Antartica and its offshore islands. They share these areas with seven pinniped species. The Southern Ocean around Antarctica is home to 10 cetaceans, many of them migratory. There are very few terrestrial invertebrates on the mainland, although the species that do live there have high population densities. High densities of invertebrates also live in the ocean, with Antarctic krill forming dense and widespread swarms during the summer. Benthic animal communities also exist around the continent.

Over 1000 fungi species have been found on and around Antartica. Larger species are restricted to the subantarctic islands, and the majority of species discovered have been terrestrial. Plants are similarly restricted mostly to the subantarctic islands, and the western edge of the Peninsula. Some mosses and lichens however can be found even in the dry interior. Many algae are found around Antarctica, especially phytoplankton, which form the basis of many of Antarctica's food webs.

Human activity has caused the introduced species to gain a foothold in the area, threatening the native wildlife. A history of overfishing and hunting has left many species with greatly reduced numbers. Pollution, habitat destruction, and climate change pose great risks to the environment. The Antarctic Treaty System is a global treaty designed to preserve Antarctica as a place of research, and measures from this system are used to regulate human activity in Antarctica.

Environmental conditions

See also: Antarctic ecozone

Around 98% of continental Antartica is covered in ice up to 4.7 kilometres (2.9 mi) thick. Antarctica's icy deserts have extremely low temperatures, high solar radiation, and extreme dryness. Any precipitation that does fall usually falls as snow, and is restricted to a band around 300 kilometres (186 mi) from the coast. Some areas receive as little as 50mm of precipitation annually. The coldest temperature recorded on earth was −89.4 °C (−128.9 °F) at Vostok Station on the Antarctic Plateau. Organisms that survive in Antarctica are often extremophiles.

The dry interior of the continent is climatically different from the western Antarctic Peninsula and the subantarctic islands. The Peninsula and the islands are far more habitable, some areas of the peninsula can receive 900mm of precipitation a year, including rain, and the northern Peninsula is the only area on the mainland where temperatures expected to go above 0 °C (32 °F) in summer. The subantarctic islands have a milder temperature and more water, and so are more favourable for life.

The surface temperature of the Southern Ocean varies very little, ranging from 1 °C (33.8 °F) to 1.8 °C (35.2 °F). During the summer sea ice covers 4,000,000 square kilometres (1,500,000 sq mi) of ocean. The continental shelf surrounding the mainland is 60 kilometres (37 mi) - 240 kilometres (149 mi) wide. The depth of the seafloor in this area ranges from 50 metres (164 ft) - 800 metres (2,625 ft), with an average of 500 metres (1,640 ft). After the shelf the continental slope descends to abyssal plains at 3,500 metres (11,483 ft) - 5,000 metres (16,404 ft) deep. In all these areas 90% of the seafloor is made up of soft sediments, such as sand, mud, and gravel.

Animals

Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) are a keystone species, forming an important part of the Antarctic food web.

At least 235 marine species are found in both Antarctica and the Arctic, ranging in size from whales and birds to small marine snails, sea cucumbers, and mud-dwelling worms. The large animals often migrate between the two, and smaller animals are expected to be able to spread via underwater currents. Antarctic animals have adapted to reduce heat loss, often developing warm windproof coats and layers of blubber.

The soils in Antarctica's cold deserts have some of the least diverse fauna in the world. Terrestrial vertebrates are limited to sub-antarctic islands, and even then they are limited in number. Antarctica, including the subantarctic islands, has no natural fully terrestrial mammals, reptiles, or amphibians. Human activity has however led to the introduction in some areas of foreign species, such as rats, mice, chickens, rabbits, cats, pigs, sheep, cattle, reindeer, and various fish. Invertebrates, such as beetle species, have also been introduced.

The benthic communities of the seafloor are diverse and dense, with up to 155,000 animals found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). As the environment is very similar for seafloor all the way around Antarctic, hundreds of species can be found all the way around the mainland, which is a uniquely wide distribution for such a large community. Deep-sea gigantism is common among these animals.

Birds

See also: List of birds of Antarctica

A Wandering Albatross (Diomedea exulans) on South Georgia

The rocky shores of mainland Antarctica and its offshore islands provides nesting space for over 100 million birds every spring. These nesters include species of albatrosses, petrels, skuas, gulls and terns. The insectivorous South Georgia Pipit is endemic to South Georgia and some smaller surrounding islands. Freshwater ducks inhabit South Georgia and Kerguelen.

The flightless penguins are all located in the Southern Hemisphere, with the greatest concentration located on and around Antartica. Four of the 18 penguin species live and breed on the mainland and its close offshore islands. Another four species live on the subantarctic islands. Emperor penguins have four overlapping layers of feathers, keeping them warm. They are the only Antarctic animal to breed during the winter.

Fish

Fish of the Notothenioidei suborder, such as this young icefish, are mostly endemic to Antarctica.

There are very few species of fish in the Southern Ocean. The Channichthyidae family, also known as white-blooded fish, are only found in the Southern Ocean. They lack haemoglobin in their blood, resulting in their blood being colourless. One Channichthyidae species, the mackerel icefish (Champsocephalus gunnari), was once the most common fish in coastal waters less than 400 metres (1,312 ft) deep, but was overfished in the 1970s and 1980s. Schools of icefish spend the day at the seafloor and the night higher in the water column eating plankton and smaller fish.

There are two species from the Dissostichus genus, the Antarctic toothfish (Dissostichus mawsoni) and the Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides). These two species live on the seafloor 100 metres (328 ft) - 3,000 metres (9,843 ft) deep, and can grow to around 2 metres (7 ft) long weighing up to 100 kilograms (220 lb), living up to 45 years. The Antarctic toothfish lives close to the Antarctic mainland, whereas the Patagonian toothfish lives in the relatively warmer subantarctic waters. Due to the low water temperatures around the mainland, the Antarctic toothfish has antifreeze proteins in its blood and tissues. Toothfish are commercially fished, and illegal overfishing has reduced toothfish populations.

Another abundant fish group is the Notothenia genus, which like the Antarctic toothfish have antifreeze in their bodies.

Mammals

See also: List of mammals of Antarctica

Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) are the most southerly of Antarctic mammals.

Seven pinniped species inhabitat Antartica. The largest, the elephant seal (Mirounga leonina), can reach up to 4,000 kilograms (8,818 lb), while females of the smallest, the Antarctic fur seal (Arctocephalus gazella), reach only 150 kilograms (331 lb). These two species live north of the sea ice, and breed in harems on beaches. The other four species can live on the sea ice. Crabeater seals (Lobodon carcinophagus) and Weddell seals (Leptonychotes weddellii) form breeding colonies, whereas leopard seals (Hydrurga leptonyx) and Ross seals (Ommatophoca rossii) live solitary lives. Although these species hunt underwater, they breed on land or ice and spend a great deal of time there, as they have no terrestrial predators.

The four species that inhabit sea ice are thought to make up 50% of the total biomass of the world's seals. Crabeater seals have a population of around 15 million, making them one of the most numerous large animals on the planet. The New Zealand sea lion (Phocarctos hookeri), one of the rarest and most localised pinnipeds, breeds almost exclusively on the subantarctic Auckland Islands, although historically it had a wider range. Out of all permanent mammalian residents, the Weddell seals live the furthest south.

There are 10 cetacean species found in the Southern Ocean, six baleen whales, and four toothed whales. The largest of these, the blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus), grows to 24 metres (79 ft) long weighing 84 tonnes. Many of these are migratory, and travel to tropical waters during the Antarctic winter.

Invertebrates

Most terrestrial invertebrates are restricted to the sub-Antarctic islands. Although there are very few species, those that do inhabit Antarctica have high population densities. In the more extreme areas of the mainland, such as the cold deserts, food webs are sometimes restricted to three nematode species, only one of which is a predator. Many invertebrates on the subantarctic islands can live in subzero temperatures without freezing, whereas those on the mainland can survive being frozen.

Arthropods

A pair of Belgica antarctica, the only insect on mainland Antarctica.

Mites and springtails make up most terrestrial arthropod species, although various spiders, bees, and flies can be found. Several thousand individuals from various mite and springtail species can be found in 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft). Beetles and flies are the most species rich insect groups on the islands. Insects play an important role in recycling dead plant material.

The mainland of Antarctica has no macro-arthropods. Micro-arthropods are restricted to areas with vegetation and nutrients provided by the presence of vertebrates, and where liquid water can be found. Belgica antarctica, a wingless midge, is the only true insect found on the mainland. With sizes ranging from 2-6mm, it is the mainland's largest terrestrial animal.

Five species of krill, small free-swimming crustaceans, are found in the Southern Ocean. The Antarctic krill (Euphausia superba) is one of the most abundant animal species on earth, with a biomass of around 500 million tonnes. Each individual is 6 centimetres (2.4 in) long and weighs over 1 gram (0.035 oz). The swarms that form can stretch for kilometres, with up to 30,000 individuals per 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft), turning the water red. Swarms usually remain in deep water during the day, ascending during the night to feed on plankton. Many larger animals depend on krill for their own survival. During the winter when food is scarce, adult Antarctic krill can revert back to a smaller juvenile stage, using their own body as nutrition.

Many benthic crustaceans have a non-seasonal breeding cycle, and some raise their young in a brood pouch. Glyptonotus antarcticus is an unusually large benthic isopod, reaching 20 centimetres (8 in) in length weighing 70 grams (2.47 oz). Amphipods are abundant in soft sediments, eating a range of items, from algae to other animals.

Slow moving sea spiders are common, sometimes growing as large as a human hand. They feed on the corals, sponges, and bryozoans that litter the seabed.

Other invertebrates

A female warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens)

Many terrestrial earthworms and molluscs, along with micro-invertebrates, such as nematodes, tardigrades, and rotifers, are also found. Earthworms, along with insects, are important decomposers.

Many aquatic molluscs are present in Antarctica. Bivalves such as Adamussium colbecki move around on the seafloor, while others such as Laternula elliptica live in burrows filtering the water above. There are around 70 cephalopod species in the Southern Ocean, the largest of which is the giant squid (Architeuthis sp.), which at 15 metres (49 ft) is the largest invertebrate in the world. Squid makes up the entire diet of some animals, such as grey-headed albatrosses and sperm whales, and the warty squid (Moroteuthis ingens) is one of the subantarctic's most preyed upon species by vertebrates.

The sea urchin genus Abatus burrow through the sediment eating the nutrients they find in it. Two species of salps are common in Antarctic waters, Salpa thompsoni and Ihlea racovitzai. Salpa thompsoni is found in ice-free areas, whereas Ihlea racovitzai is found in the high latitude areas near ice. Due to their low nutritional value, they are only eaten by fish, with larger animals such as birds and marine mammals only eating them when other food is scarce.

Antarctic sponges are long lived, and sensitive to environmental changes due to the specificity of the symbiotic microbial communities within them. Due to this they function as indicators of environmental health.

Fungi

Fungal diversity in Antarctica is lower than the rest of the world. Individual niches, determined by environmental factors, are filled by very few species. Roughly 1150 fungi species have been identified. Lichens account for 400 of these, while 750 are non-lichenised. Only around 20 species of fungi are macroscopic.

The non-lichenised species come from 416 different genera, representing all major fungi phyla. The first fungi identified from the sub-antarctic islands was Peziza kerguelensis, which was described in 1847. In 1898 the first species from the mainland, Sclerotium antarcticum, was sampled. Far more terrestrial species have been identified than marine species. Larger species are restricted to the sub-antarctic islands and the Antarctic Peninsula. Parasitic species have been found in ecological situations different to the one they are associated with elsewhere, such as infecting a different type of host. Less than 2-3% of species are thought to be endemic. Many species are shared with areas of the Arctic. Most fungi are thought to have arrived in Antarctica via airborne currents or birds. The Thelebolus genus for example, arrived on birds some times ago, but have since evolved local strains. Of the non-lichenised species of fungi and closer relatives of fungi discovered, 63% are ascomycota, 23% are basidiomycota, 5% are zygomycota, and 3% are chytridiomycota. The myxomycota and oomycota make up 1% each, although they are not true fungi.

The desert surface is hostile to microscopic fungi due to large fluctuations in temperature on the surface of rocks, which range from 2°C below the air temperature in the winter to 20°C above air temperature in the summer. However, the more stable nanoenvironments inside the rocks allow microbial populations to develop. Most communities consist of only a few species. The most studied community occurs in sandstone, and different species arrange themselves in bands at different depths from the rock surface. Microscopic fungi, especially yeasts, have been found in all antarctic environments.

Antarctica has around 400 lichen species, plants and fungi living symbiotically. They are highly adapted, and can be divided into three main types; crustose lichens, forming thin crusts on the surface, foliose lichens, forming leaf-like lobes, and fructicose lichens, which grow like shrubs. Species are generally divided between those found on the subantarctic islands, those found on the Peninsula, those found elsewhere on the mainland, and those with disjointed distribution. The furthest south a lichen has been identified is 86°30'. Growth rates range from 1 centimetre (0.4 in) every 100 years in the more favourable areas to 1 centimetre (0.4 in) every 1000 years in the more inhospitable areas, and usually occurs when the lichen are protected from the elements with a thin layer of snow, which they can often absorb water vapour from.

Plants

The widespread Ceratodon purpureus is a mossinhabits areas around th eglobe, and reaches as far south as 84°30'.

The greatest plant diversity is found on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula. Well-adapted moss and lichen can be found in rocks throughout the continent. The subantarctic islands are a more favourable environment for plant growth than the mainland. Human activities, especially whaling and sealing, have caused many introduced species to gain a foothold on the islands, some quite successfully.

Some plant communities exist around fumaroles, vents emitting steam and gas that can reach 60 °C (140 °F) at around 10 centimetres (3.9 in) below the surface. This produces a warmer environment with liquid water due to melting snow and ice. The active volcano Mount Erebus and the dormant Mount Melbourne, both in the continent's interior, each host a fumarole. Two fumaroles also exist on the subantarctic islands, one caused by a dormant volcano on Deception Island in the South Shetland Islands and one on the South Sandwich Islands. The fumarole on deception island also supports moss species found nowhere else in Antarctica.

The Antarctic Pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis), one of two flowering plant species in Antarctica.

The bryophytes of Antarctica consist of 100 species of mosses, and about 25 species of liverworts. While not being as widespread as lichens, they remain ubiquitous wherever plants can grow, with Ceratodon purpureus being found as far south as 84°30' on Mount Kyffin. Unlike most bryophytes, a majority of Antarctic bryophytes do not enter a diploid sporophyte stage, instead they reproduce asexually or have sex organs on their gametophyte stage. Only 30% of bryophytes on the Peninsular and subantarctic islands have a sporophyte stage, and only 25% of those on the rest of the mainland produce sporophytes. The Mount Melbourne fumarole supports the only Antarctic population of Campylopus pyriformis, which is otherwise found in Europe and South Africa.

Subantarctic flora is dominated by the coastal tussock grass, that can grow up to 2 metres (7 ft). Only two flowering plants inhabit continental Antartica, the Antarctic hair grass (Deschampsia antarctica) and the Antarctic pearlwort (Colobanthus quitensis). Both are found only on the western edge of the Antarctic Peninsula and on two nearby island groups, the South Orkney Islands and the South Shetland Islands.

Others

See also: Antarctic microorganism

Bacteria have been revived from Antarctic snow hundreds of years old. They have also been found deep under the ice, in Lake Whillans, part of a network of subglacial lakes that sunlight does not reach.

A wide variety of algae are found in Antarctica, often forming the base of food webs. About 400 species of single-celled phytoplankton that float in the water column of the Southern Ocean have been identified. These plankton bloom annually in the spring and summer as day length increases and sea ice retreats, before lowering in number during the winter.

Other algae live in or on the sea ice, often on its underside, or on the seabed in shallow areas. Over 700 seaweed species have been identified, of which 35% are endemic. Outside of the ocean many algae are found in freshwater both on the continent and on the subantarctic islands. Terrestrial algae, such as snow algae, have been found living in soil as far south as 86° 29'. Most are single-celled. In summer algal blooms can cause snow and ice to appear red, green, orange, or grey. These blooms can reach about 10⁶ cells per mL. The dominant group of snow algae is chlamydomonads, a type of green algae.

The largest marine algae are kelp species, which include bull kelp (Durvillaea antarctica), which can reach over 20 metres (66 ft) long and is thought to be the strongest kelp in the world. As many as 47 individual plants can live on 1 square metre (10.8 sq ft), and they can grow at 60 centimetres (24 in) a day. Kelp that is broken off its anchor provides a valuable food source for many animals, as well as providing a method of oceanic dispersal for animals such as invertebrates to travel across the Southern Ocean by riding floating kelp.

Conservation

An individual with velvet-covered antlers from the southern herd of the introduced reindeer in South Georgia.

Human activity poses significant risk for Antarctic wildlife, causing risks such as pollution, habitat destruction, and wildlife disturbance. These problems are especially acute around research stations. Climate change and its associated effects pose significant risk to the future of Antarctica's natural environment.

Due to the historical isolation of Antarctic wildlife, they are easily outcompeted and threatened by introduced species, also brought by human activity. Many introduced species have already established themselves, with rats a particular threat, especially to nesting seabirds whose eggs they eat. Illegal fishing remains an issue, as overfishing poses a great threat to krill and toothfish populations. Toothfish, as slow growing long lived fish that have previously suffered from overfishing, are particularly at risk. Illegal fishing also brings further risks through the use of techniques banned in regulated fishing, such as gillnetting, and longline fishing. These methods increase the bycatch of animals such as albatrosses.

Subantarctic islands fall under the jurisdiction of national governments, with environmental regulation following the laws of those countries. Some islands are in addition protected through obtaining the status of a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The Antarctic Treaty System regulates all activity in latitudes south of 60°S, and designates Antarctica as a natural reserve for science. Under this system all activity must be assessed for its environmental impact. Part of this system, the Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources, regulates fishing and protects marine areas.

References

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