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Genocide

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The genocide itself, the large scale killing of Tutsi on the grounds of ethnicity,[1] began within a few hours of Habyarimana's death.[2] Military leaders in Gisenyi province, the heartland of the akazu, were initially the most organised, convening a large gathering of interahamwe and civilian Hutu; the commanders announced the president's death, blaming the RPF, and then ordered the crowd to "begin your work" and to "spare no one", including babies.[3] The killing spread to Ruhengeri, Kibuye, Kigali, Kibungo, Gikongoro and Cyangugu provinces on 7 April;[4] in each case, local officials, responding to orders from Kigali, spread rumours that the RPF had killed the president, followed by a command to kill Tutsi.[5] The Hutu population, which had been prepared and armed during the preceding months, and maintained the Rwandan tradition of obedience to authority, carried out the orders without question.[6] There were few killings in the provinces of Gitarama and Butare during the early phase,[5] as the governors of those areas were moderates opposed to the violence; the genocide began in Gitarama on 9 April,[7] and in Butare on 19 April, following the arrest and murder of Tutsi governor Jean Baptiste Habyarimana.[8] The genocide did not affect areas already under RPF control, including parts of Byumba province and eastern Ruhengeri.[9]

During the remainder of April and early May, the Presidential Guard, gendarmerie and the youth militia, aided by local populations, continued killing at a very high rate.[9] Gerard Prunier estimates that during the first six weeks, up to 800,000 Rwandans may have been murdered,[9] representing a rate five times higher than during the Holocaust of Nazi Germany.[9] The goal was to kill every Tutsi living in Rwanda[10] and, with the exception of the advancing RPF army, there was no opposition force to prevent or slow the killings:[9] the domestic opposition had already been eliminated, while UNAMIR were expressly forbidden to use force except in self-defence.[11] In rural areas, where Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side and families knew each other, it was easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours.[9] In urban areas, where residents were more anonymous, identification was facilitated using road blocks manned by military and interahamwe; each person passing the road block was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were slaughtered immediately.[9] Many Hutu were also killed for a variety of reasons, including alleged sympathy for the moderate opposition parties, being a journalist or simply having a "Tutsi appearance."[9]

The RPF was making slow but steady gains in the north and east of the country, ending the killings in each area occupied.[9] The genocide was effectively ended during April in areas of Ruhengeri, Byumba, Kibungo and Kigali provinces.[9] The killings ceased during April in the akazu heartlands of western Ruhengeri and Gisenyi, as almost every Tutsi had been eliminated.[9] Large numbers of Hutu in the RPF conquered areas fled, fearing retribution for the genocide;[12] 500,000 Kibungo residents walked over the bridge at Rusumo Falls, into Tanzania, in a few days at the end of April,[13] and were accommodated in United Nations camps effectively controlled by ousted leaders of the Hutu regime,[14] with the former governor of Kibungo province in overall control.[15]

In the remaining provinces, killings continued throughout May and June, although they became increasingly low-key and sporadic;[9] most Tutsi were already eliminated, and the interim government wished to rein in the growing anarchy and engage the population in fighting the RPF.[16] On 23 June, around 2,500 soldiers entered southwestern Rwanda as part of the French-led United Nations Operation Turquoise.[17] This was intended as a humanitarian mission, but the soldiers were not able to save significant numbers of lives.[18] The genocidal authorities were overtly welcoming of the French, displaying the French flag on their own vehicles, but slaughtering Tutsi who came out of hiding seeking protection.[18] In July, the RPF completed their conquest of the country, with the exception of the zone occupied by Operation Turquoise. The RPF took Kigali on 4 July,[19] and Gisenyi and the rest of the northwest on 18 July.[20] The genocide was over, but as had occurred in Kibungo, the Hutu population fled en masse across the border, this time into Zaire, with Bagosora and the other leaders accompanying them.[21]

Planning and organization

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Over 5,000 people seeking refuge in Ntrama church were killed by grenade, machete, rifle, or burnt alive.

The crisis committee, headed by Theoneste Bagosora, took power in the country following Habyarimana's death,[22] and was the principal authority coordinating the genocide.[23] Bagosora immediately began issuing orders to kill Tutsi, addressing groups of interahamwe in person in Kigali,[24] and making telephone calls to leaders in the provinces.[25] Other leading organisers on a national level were defence minister Augustin Bizimana, commander of the paratroopers Aloys Ntabakuze; and the head of the Presidential Guard, Protais Mpiranya.[23] Businessman Felicien Kabuga funded the RTLM and the Interahamwe, while Pascal Musabe and Joseph Nzirorera were responsible for coordinating the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi militia activities nationally.[23]

In Kigali, the genocide was led by the Presidential Guard, the elite unit of the army.[26] They were assisted by the Interahamwe and Impuzamugambi,[27] who set up road blocks throughout the capital; each person passing the road block was required to show the national identity card, which included ethnicity, and any with Tutsi cards were slaughtered immediately.[9] The militias also initiated searches of houses in the city, slaughtering Tutsi and looting their property.[27] Kigali governor Tharcisse Renzaho played a leading role, touring the road blocks to ensure their effectiveness and using his position at the top of the Kigali provincial government to disseminate orders and dismiss officials who were not sufficiently active in the killings.[28]

In rural areas, the local government hierarchy was also in most cases the chain of command for the execution of the genocide.[29] The governor of each province, acting on orders from Kigali, disseminated instructions to the district leaders (bourgmestres), who in turn issued directions to the leaders of the sectors, cells and villages within their districts.[29] The majority of the actual killings in the countryside were carried out by ordinary civilians, under orders from the leaders.[30] Tutsi and Hutu lived side by side in their villages, and families all knew each other, making it easy for Hutu to identify and target their Tutsi neighbours.[9] Gerard Prunier ascribes this mass complicity of the population to a combination of the "democratic majority" ideology,[30] in which Hutu had been taught to regard Tutsi as dangerous enemies,[30] the culture of unbending obedience to authority,[31] and the duress factor – villagers who refused to carry out orders to kill were often branded as Tutsi sympathisers and killed themselves.[30]

The crisis committee appointed an interim government on 8 April; using the terms of the 1991 constitution instead of the Arusha Accords, the committee designated Theodore Sindikubwabo as interim president of Rwanda, while Jean Kambanda was the new prime minister.[32] All political parties were represented in the government, but most members were from the "Hutu Power" wings of their respective parties.[33] The interim government was sworn in on 9 April, but immediately relocated from Kigali to Gitarama to avoid fighting between the RPF and the Rwandan army in the capital.[34] The crisis committee was officially dissolved, but Bagosora and the senior officers remained the de facto rulers of the country.[35] The government played its part in mobilising the population, giving the regime an air of legitimacy, but was effectively a puppet regime with no ability to halt the army or the Interahamwe's activities.[36][35] When Romeo Dallaire visited the government's headquarters a week after its formation, he found most officials at leisure, describing their activities as "sorting out the seating plan for a meeting that was not about to convene any time soon."[37]

Means of killing

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Skulls in Murambi Technical School

On April 9, UN observers witnessed the massacre of children at a Polish church in Gikondo. The same day, 1,000 heavily armed and trained European troops arrived to escort European civilian personnel out of the country. The troops did not stay to assist UNAMIR. Media coverage picked up on the 9th, as the Washington Post reported the execution of Rwandan employees of relief agencies in front of their expatriate colleagues.

Butare Province was an exception to the local violence. Jean-Baptiste Habyarimana was the only Tutsi prefect, and the province was the only one dominated by an opposition party.[38] Opposing the genocide, Habyarimana was able to keep relative calm in the province, until he was deposed by the extremist Sylvain Ndikumana.[38] Finding the population of Butare resistant to murdering their fellow citizens, the government flew in militia from Kigali by helicopter, and they readily killed the Tutsi.[38]

Most of the victims were killed in their own villages or in towns, often by their neighbors and fellow villagers. The militia typically murdered victims with machetes, although some army units used rifles. The Hutu gangs searched out victims hiding in churches and school buildings, and massacred them. Local officials and government-sponsored radio incited ordinary citizens to kill their neighbors, and those who refused to kill were often murdered on the spot. "Either you took part in the massacres or you were massacred yourself."[39][page needed]

One such massacre occurred at Nyarubuye. On April 12, more than 1,500 Tutsis sought refuge in a Catholic church in Nyange, then in Kivumu commune. Local Interahamwe, acting in concert with the authorities, used bulldozers to knock down the church building.[40] The militia used machetes and rifles to kill every person who tried to escape. Local priest Athanase Seromba was later found guilty and sentenced to life in prison by the ICTR for his role in the demolition of his church; he was convicted of the crime of genocide and crimes against humanity.[40][41][42] In another case, thousands sought refuge in the Official Technical School (École Technique Officielle) in Kigali where Belgian UNAMIR soldiers were stationed. On April 11, the Belgian soldiers withdrew, and Rwandan armed forces and militia killed all the Tutsi.[43]

Several individuals attempted to halt the Rwandan genocide, or to shelter vulnerable Tutsi. Among them were Romeo Dallaire (Canadian Lieutenant-General of UNAMIR), Pierantonio Costa (Italian diplomat who rescued many lives), Antonia Locatelli (Italian volunteer who tried to save 300 or 400 Tutsis by calling officials in the international community and was later murdered by the Interahamwe), Jacqueline Mukansonera (Hutu woman who saved a Tutsi during the genocide), Paul Rusesabagina (the Academy Award nominated film Hotel Rwanda is based on his story), Carl Wilkens (the only American who chose to remain in Rwanda during the genocide), André Sibomana (Hutu priest and journalist who saved many lives) and Captain Mbaye Diagne (Senegalese army officer of UNAMIR who saved many lives before he was killed).

Gender-targeted crimes

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Main article: Rape during the Rwandan Genocide
Photographs of genocide victims displayed at the Genocide Memorial Center in Kigali

Rape was used as a tool by the Interahamwe, the chief perpetrators, to separate the consciously heterogeneous population and to drastically exhaust the opposing group.[44] The use of propaganda played an important role in both the genocide and the gender specific violence. The Hutu propaganda depicted Tutsi women as "a sexually seductive ‘fifth column’ in league with the Hutus’ enemies". The exceptional brutality of the sexual violence, as well as the complicity of Hutu women in the attacks, suggests that the use of propaganda had been effective in the exploitation of gendered needs which had mobilized both females and males to participate.[45] Soldiers of the Army for the Liberation of Rwanda and the Rwandan Defence Forces, including the Presidential Guard, and civilians also committed rape against mostly Tutsi women.[46] Although Tutsi women were the main targets, moderate Hutu women were also raped.[46]

Along with the Hutu moderates, Hutu women who were married to or who hid Tutsis were also targeted.[47] In his 1996 report on Rwanda, the UN Special Rapporteur Rene Degni-Segui stated, "Rape was the rule and its absence the exception."[48] He also noted, "Rape was systematic and was used as a weapon." With this thought and using methods of force and threat, the genocidaires forced others to stand by during rapes. A testimonial by a woman of the name Maria Louise Niyobuhungiro recalled seeing local peoples, other generals and Hutu men watching her get raped about 5 times a day. Even when she was kept under watch of a woman, she would give no sympathy or help and furthermore, forced her to farm land in between rapes.[48]

Many of the survivors became infected with the HIV virus from the HIV-infected men recruited by the genocidaires.[49] During the conflict, Hutu extremists released hundreds of patients suffering from AIDS from hospitals, and formed them into "rape squads." The intent was to infect and cause a "slow, inexorable death".[50] Tutsi women were also targeted with the intent of destroying their reproductive capabilities. Sexual mutilation sometimes occurred after the rape and included mutilation of the vagina with machetes, knives, sharpened sticks, boiling water, and acid.[47] Men were seldom the victims of war rape,[46] but sexual violence against men included mutilation of the genitals, then displayed as trophies in public.[46]

Death toll

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Given the chaotic situation, there is no consensus on the number of people killed during the genocide. Unlike the genocides carried out by Nazi Germany and the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia, authorities made no attempts to record deaths. The succeeding RPF government has stated that 1,071,000 were killed, 10% of whom were Hutu. The journalist Philip Gourevitch agrees with an estimate of one million, while the UN estimates the death toll as 800,000. Alex de Waal and Rakiya Omar of African Rights estimate the number as "around 750,000," while Alison Des Forges of Human Rights Watch stated that it was "at least 500,000." James Smith of Aegis Trust notes, "What's important to remember is that there was a genocide. There was an attempt to eliminate Tutsis – men, women, and children – and to erase any memory of their existence."[51]

Out of a population of 7.3 million people–84% of whom were Hutu, 15% Tutsi and 1% Twa–the official figures published by the Rwandan government estimated the number of victims of the genocide to be 1,174,000 in 100 days (10,000 murdered every day, 400 every hour, 7 every minute). It is estimated that about 300,000 Tutsi survived the genocide. Thousands of widows, many of whom were subjected to rape, are now HIV-positive. There were about 400,000 orphans and nearly 85,000 of them were forced to become heads of families.[52]

  1. ^ James, Paul (2015). "Despite the Terrors of Typologies: The Importance of Understanding Categories of Difference and Identity". Interventions: International Journal of Postcolonial Studies. 17 (2): 174–195.
  2. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 165.
  3. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 164.
  4. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 236.
  5. ^ a b Melvern 2004, p. 169.
  6. ^ Prunier 1999, pp. 244 245.
  7. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 195.
  8. ^ Melvern 2004, pp. 209 210.
  9. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Prunier 1999, p. 261.
  10. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 248.
  11. ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 233.
  12. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 312.
  13. ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 336.
  14. ^ Prunier 1999, pp. 313–314.
  15. ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 337.
  16. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 236.
  17. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 291.
  18. ^ a b Prunier 1999, p. 292.
  19. ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 459.
  20. ^ Prunier 1999, pp. 298–299.
  21. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 316.
  22. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 172.
  23. ^ a b c Prunier 1999, p. 240.
  24. ^ Melvern 2004, pp. 146 147.
  25. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 163.
  26. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 242 243.
  27. ^ a b Prunier 1999, p. 243.
  28. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 204.
  29. ^ a b Prunier 1999, p. 244.
  30. ^ a b c d Prunier 1999, p. 247.
  31. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 245.
  32. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 171.
  33. ^ Prunier 1999, p. 233.
  34. ^ Melvern 2004, p. 193.
  35. ^ a b Melvern 2004, pp. 213 214.
  36. ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 278.
  37. ^ Dallaire 2005, p. 329.
  38. ^ a b c Prunier 1998, p. 244
  39. ^ Prunier 1998.
  40. ^ a b "Appeals Chamber Decisions". International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
  41. ^ "Catholic Priest Athanase Seromba Sentenced to Fifteen Years" (Press release). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. December 13, 2006. Retrieved August 13, 2014.
  42. ^ "Prosecutor to Appeal Against Seromba's Sentence" (Press release). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. December 22, 2006. Retrieved January 7, 2007.
  43. ^ ICTR YEARBOOK 1994–1996 (PDF). International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. pp. 77–78. Retrieved January 7, 2007.
  44. ^ Hayden 2000.
  45. ^ Jones 2010, pp. 138–141.
  46. ^ a b c d de Brouwer 2005, p. 13.
  47. ^ a b Nowrojee 1996.
  48. ^ a b Ka Hon Chu, Sandra, and Anne-Marie de Brouwer. "the MEN who KILLED me." Herizons 22, no. 4 (Spring2009 2009): 16. EBSCOhost, MasterFILE Premier p16
  49. ^ Elbe 2002.
  50. ^ Drumbl 2012.
  51. ^ "RWANDA: No consensus on genocide death toll", Agence France-Presse', iAfrica.com, April 6, 2004
  52. ^ Maximo, Dady De (2012). "A Genocide that could have been avoided." New times.
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