Timeline of events leading to the American Civil War
This timeline of events leading to the American Civil War is a chronologically ordered list of events and issues that historians recognize as origins and causes of the American Civil War. These events are roughly divided into two periods: the first encompasses the gradual build-up over many decades of the numerous social, economic, and political issues that ultimately contributed to the war's outbreak, and the second encompasses the five-month span following the election of Abraham Lincoln as President of the United States in 1860 and culminating in the capture of Fort Sumter in April 1861.
Scholars have identified many different causes for the war. Among the most polarizing of the underlying issues from which the proximate causes developed was whether the institution of slavery should be retained and even expanded to other territories or whether it should be contained, which would lead to its ultimate extinction. Since the early colonial period, slavery had played a major role in the socioeconomic system of British America and was widespread in the Thirteen Colonies at the time of the American Declaration of Independence in 1776. During and after the American Revolution, events and statements by politicians and others brought forth differences, tensions and divisions between citizens of the slave states of the Southern United States and citizens of the free states of the Northern United States (including several newly admitted Western states) over the topics of slavery. In the many decades between the Revolutionary War and the Civil War, such divisions became increasingly irreconcilable and contentious.[1]
Events in the 1850s culminated with the election of the anti-slavery Republican Abraham Lincoln as president on November 6, 1860. This provoked the first round of state secession as leaders of the cotton states of the Deep South were unwilling to remain in what they perceived as a second-class political status, with their way of life now threatened by the President himself. Initially, seven states seceded: Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Texas. After the Confederates attacked and captured Fort Sumter, President Lincoln called for volunteers to march south and suppress the rebellion. This pushed four other states in the Upper South (Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Arkansas) also to secede, completing the incorporation of the Confederate States of America by July 1861. Their contributions of territory and soldiers to the Confederacy ensured, in retrospect, that the war would be prolonged and bloody.
Colonial period, 1607–1775
[edit]1619 |
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1640 |
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1652 |
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1654 |
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1671 |
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1712 |
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1719 |
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1739 |
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1741 |
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1774 |
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American Revolution and Confederation period, 1776–1787
[edit]1776 |
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1777 |
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1778 |
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1779 |
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1780 |
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1782 |
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1783 |
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1784 |
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1786 |
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1787 |
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Early Constitutional period, 1787–1811
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1790 | |
1791 |
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1792 |
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1793 |
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1794 |
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1796 | |
1798 |
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1799 |
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1800 |
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1803 |
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1804 |
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1805 |
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1806 |
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1807 |
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1810 |
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1811 |
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1812–1849
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1814 |
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1816 |
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1817 |
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1818 |
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1819 |
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1820 |
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1821 |
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1822 |
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1824 |
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1826 |
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1827 |
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1828 |
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1829 |
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1830 |
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1831 |
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1832 |
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1833 |
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1834 |
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1835 |
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1836 |
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1837 |
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1838 |
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1839 |
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1840 |
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1841 |
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1842 |
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1843 |
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1844 |
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1845 |
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1846 |
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1847 |
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1848 |
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1849 |
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Compromise of 1850 to the Election of 1860
[edit]1850 |
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1851 |
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1852 |
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1853 |
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1854 |
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1855 |
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1856 |
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1857 |
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1858 |
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1859 |
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1860 |
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Election of 1860 to the Battle of Fort Sumter
[edit]1860 |
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1861 |
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Further secessions and divisions
[edit]- Additional events related to secession and initiation of the war follow; most other events after April 15 are not listed.
Several small skirmishes and battles as well as bloody riots in St. Louis and Baltimore took place in the early months of the war. The Battle of First Bull Run or Battle of First Manassas, the first major battle of the war, occurred on July 21, 1861. After that, it became clear that there could be no compromise between the Union and the seceding states and that a long and bloody war could not be avoided. All hope of a settlement short of a catastrophic war was lost.
1861 |
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See also
[edit]- Issues of the American Civil War
- Battles of the American Civil War
- Origins of the American Civil War
- Slavery in the United States
- Timeline of the civil rights movement
- Bibliography of the American Civil War
- Bibliography of Abraham Lincoln
- Bibliography of Ulysses S. Grant
References
[edit]- ^ James M. McPherson, Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil War Era (1988), ch. 1–8.
- ^ a b c Bowman, John S., ed. The Civil War Almanac. New York: Facts on File, Bison Book Corp., 1982. ISBN 0-87196-640-9. Chronology: The Approach to War (pp. 12–50) and Chronology: The War Years (pp. 50–269), p. 12.
- ^ Rubin, Louis, D. Virginia, a History. New York, W. W. Norton & Company, Inc, 1977. ISBN 978-0-393-05630-3. p. 9
- ^ Wilson, Henry. History of the Rise and Fall of the Slave Power in America. 3 volumes. Volume 1. Boston: James R. Osgood and Company, 1872. OCLC 445241. Retrieved April 13, 2011. pp. 2–3
- ^ Higginbotham, A. Leon (1975). In the Matter of Color: Race and the American Legal Process: The Colonial Period. Greenwood Press. ISBN 9780195027457.
- ^ McCartney, Martha W. A Study of Africans and African Americans on Jamestown Island and at Green Spring, 1619–1803 (Colonial Williamsburg Foundation, 2003), p. 47.
- ^ Wilson, 1872, p. 6.
- ^ William McLoughlin, Rhode Island, a history (1986), p. 106 online.
- ^ Warren Billings,The Old Dominion in the Seventeenth Century: A Documentary History of Virginia, 1606–1700 (2007), pp. 237–338.
- ^ Russell, John Henderson. The free Negro in Virginia, 1619–1865 (1913).
- ^ William O. Blake, History of Slavery and the Slave Trade, Ancient and Modern (1861), p. 372.
- ^ Ferenc M. Szasz, "The New York Slave Revolt of 1741: A Re-Examination." New York History (1967): 215–230 in JSTOR.
- ^ Dowdey, 1969, p. 274.
- ^ Kars, Marjoleine (2008). "1739 – Stono Rebellion". In Campbell, Ballard C. (ed.). Disasters, Accidents, and Crises in American History: A Reference Guide to the Nation's Most Catastrophic Events. New York: Facts on File. pp. 22–23. ISBN 978-0-8160-6603-2.
- ^ Aptheker, Herbert (1983) [1943]. American Negro Slave Revolts (Fifth ed.). New York: International Publishers. pp. 187–189. ISBN 978-0-7178-0605-8.
- ^ Thomas J. Davis, "The New York Slave Conspiracy of 1741 as Black Protest". In Journal of Negro History, Vol. 56, No. 1 (January 1971), pp. 17–30 in JSTOR.
- ^ Blake, 1861, p. 178.
- ^ James M. McPherson, Ordeal By Fire: The Civil War and Reconstruction (1982), p. 38 gives the year as 1775.
- ^ Kelley, Peter. "Documents that Changed the World: The Declaration of Independence's deleted passage on slavery, 1776". University of Washington.
- ^ J. Kevin Graffagnino, "Vermont Attitudes Toward Slavery: The Need for a Closer Look," Vermont History, January 1977, Vol. 45 Issue 1, pp. 31–34.
- ^ a b c d Blake, 1861, pp. 421–422.
- ^ Historians report "in all likelihood Jefferson composed [the law] although the evidence is not conclusive"; John E. Selby and Don Higginbotham, The Revolution in Virginia, 1775–1783 (2007), p. 158.
- ^ a b c Blake, 1861, p. 389.
- ^ a b c d e Wagner, Margaret E., Gary W. Gallagher, and Paul Finkelman. The Library of Congress Civil War Desk Reference. New York: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks, Inc., 2009 edition. ISBN 978-1-4391-4884-6. First published 2002, p. 57.
- ^ a b Bowman, 1982, p. 12, states that in 1780–1804, the Northern states passed laws and their courts issued decisions that in effect prohibited slavery in those states.
- ^ Blake, 1861, p. 406.
- ^ Wilson, 1872, p. 20.
- ^ Howard T. Oedel, "Slavery In Colonial Portsmouth," Historical New Hampshire, Autumn 1966, Vol. 21 Issue 3, pp 3–11.
- ^ Nicholas Santoro, Atlas of Slavery and Civil Rights (2006), pp. 19–21.
- ^ Peter S. Onuf, Congress and the Confederation (1991), p. 345.
- ^ Frank E. Grizzard Jr., George! a Guide to All Things Washington (2005), p. 285.
- ^ Junius P. Rodriguez, ed. The Historical Encyclopedia of World Slavery (1997), 2:473–4.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 2.
- ^ Hansen, Harry. The Civil War: A History. New York: Bonanza Books, 1961. OCLC 500488542, pp. 13–14.
- ^ Wilson, 1872, p. 33.
- ^ a b Long, E. B. The Civil War Day by Day: An Almanac, 1861–1865. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1971. OCLC 68283123, p. 700.
- ^ "First Census of the United States" (PDF). p. 6. Retrieved May 2, 2010.
- ^ The census data number of slaves in the U.S. in 1790 of 698,000 apparently has been rounded.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, pp. 701–702.
- ^ a b c d Wagner, 2009, p. 71.
- ^ a b Wagner's figure is rounded to 3,954,000.
- ^ Levy, Andrew. The First Emancipator: The Forgotten Story of Robert Carter, the Founding Father who freed his slaves. New York: Random House, 2005. ISBN 0-375-50865-1.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 13.
- ^ Junius P. Rodriguez (2007). Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 516. ISBN 9781851095445.
- ^ Paul Finkelman, "Regulating the African Slave Trade", Civil War History (December 2008), vol. 54#4, pp. 379–404, esp. pp. 397–9, doi:10.1353/cwh.0.0034.
- ^ Jed H. Shugerman, "The Louisiana Purchase and South Carolina's Reopening of the Slave Trade in 1803", Journal of the Early Republic 22 (2002): 263.
- ^ Kevin R. Gutzman, "The Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions Reconsidered: 'An Appeal to the Real Laws of Our Country'", Journal of Southern History, August 2000, Vol. 66 Issue 3, pp. 473–96.
- ^ Frank Maloy Anderson, "Contemporary Opinion of the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions", American Historical Review Vol. 5, No. 1 (October 1899), pp. 45–63 in JSTOR part 2, Vol. 5, No. 2 (December 1899), pp. 225–252, in JSTOR.
- ^ Watkins Jr., William J. Reclaiming the American Revolution: the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions and Their Legacy. New York: Palgrave MacMillan, 2004. ISBN 1-4039-6303-7. Retrieved May 29, 2011, pp. xi–xii.
- ^ Wagner, 2009, p. 78
- ^ Dennis J. Pogue, George Washington and the Politics of Slavery Archived July 18, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, Historic Alexandria Quarterly (Spring/Summer 2003), pp. 1, 7.
- ^ Elizabeth R. Varon, Disunion!: the coming of the American Civil War, 1789–1859 (2008) p. 21
- ^ Foner, Philip Sheldon and Robert J. Branham. Lift every voice: African American oratory, 1787–1900. Tuscaloosa, AL: University of Alabama Press, 1998, pp. 57–58.
- ^ "1800 Census Questions". Archived from the original on April 27, 2010. Retrieved May 3, 2010.
- ^ "Enumeration of Persons in the several districts of The United States" (PDF). 1800. p. 3. Retrieved May 10, 2010.
- ^ Douglas R. Egerton, "Gabriel's Conspiracy and the Election of 1800", Journal of Southern History Vol. 56, No. 2 (May 1990), pp. 191–214, in JSTOR.
- ^ John Craig Hammond, "'They Are Very Much Interested in Obtaining an Unlimited Slavery': Rethinking the Expansion of Slavery in the Louisiana Purchase Territories, 1803–1805", Journal of the Early Republic, Vol. 23, No. 3 (Autumn 2003), pp. 353–380, in JSTOR.
- ^ Stephen Middleton, The Black laws: race and the legal process in early Ohio (2005), p. 245.
- ^ Arthur Zilversmit, "Liberty and Property: New Jersey and the Abolition of Slavery", New Jersey History, December 1970, Vol. 88, Issue 4, pp. 215–226.
- ^ Wilson, 1872, p. 24.
- ^ Copied from "Chatham Manor", National Park Service. Retrieved April 11, 2009.
- ^ Dumas Malone, Jefferson and His Time: Volume Six, The Sage of Monticello (1981), p. 319.
- ^ a b Paul Finkelman, "Regulating the African Slave Trade", Civil War History Volume: 54#4 (2008), pp. 379+.
- ^ Dumas Malone, Jefferson and the President: Second Term, 1805–1809 (1974), pp. 545–6.
- ^ "1810 Census of Population and Housing". Archived from the original on February 9, 2013. Retrieved February 14, 2018.
- ^ Kiefer, Joseph Warren. Slavery and Four Years of War: A Political History of Slavery in the United States Together with a Narrative of the Campaigns and Battles of the Civil War in Which the Author Took Part: 1861–1865, vol. 1. New York: G. Putnam's Sons, 1900. OCLC 5026746, p. 15.
- ^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877 (1994), pp. 78, 81.
- ^ Raz, Guy (February 11, 2011). "A Clever Hero: Slave Revolt Leader Charles Deslondes". npr. Retrieved July 22, 2022.
- ^ Junius P. Rodriguez, ed. The Louisiana Purchase: a historical and geographical encyclopedia (2002), p. 328.
- ^ James M. Banner Jr., "A Shadow of Session? The Hartford Convention, 1814," History Today, (1988) 38#9, pp. 24–30.
- ^ Frankie Hutton, "Economic Considerations in the American Colonization Society's Early Effort to Emigrate Free Blacks to Liberia, 1816–36," Journal of Negro History (1983) 68#4 pp. 376–389. in JSTOR
- ^ Gary B. Nash, "New Light on Richard Allen: The Early Years of Freedom," William & Mary Quarterly, April 1989, Vol. 46 Issue 2, pp. 332–340.
- ^ Paul Finkelman (1996). Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson. M.E. Sharpe. p. 73. ISBN 9780765628381.
- ^ David J. Libby (2004). Slavery and Frontier Mississippi, 1720–1835. University Press of Mississippi. p. 61. ISBN 9781604732009.
- ^ Finkelman (1996). Slavery and the Founders: Race and Liberty in the Age of Jefferson. pp. 73–82. ISBN 9780765628381.
- ^ Daniel Walker Howe, "Missouri, Slave Or Free?" American Heritage, Summer 2010, Vol. 60, Issue 2, pp. 21–23 [online].
- ^ Herbert James Lewis (2013). Clearing the Thickets: A History of Antebellum Alabama. Quid Pro Books. p. 152. ISBN 9781610271660.
- ^ Wagner, 2009, p. 58.
- ^ a b c d Hansen, 1961, p. 20.
- ^ Maury Klein, Days of Defiance: Sumter, Secession, and the Coming of the Civil War (1997). ISBN 0-679-44747-4, p. 38.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 19.
- ^ a b c d Division, US Census Bureau Systems Support. "Selected Historical Decennial Census Population and Housing Counts". www.census.gov. Retrieved April 5, 2018.
- ^ David S. Heidler; Jeanne T. Heidler (2010). Henry Clay: The Essential American. Random House. p. 147. ISBN 9781588369956.
- ^ a b c d Bowman, 1982, p. 14.
- ^ a b Klein, 1997, p. 40.
- ^ Wagner, 2009, p. 84.
- ^ Robert L. Paquette, "From Rebellion to Revisionism: The Continuing Debate about the Denmark Vesey Affair," Journal of the Historical Society, September 2004, Vol. 4, Issue 3, pp. 291–334, rejects revisionist argument that no plot actually existed.
- ^ "Narrative of the Life of Edward Coles". Poemsforfree.com. 2010-08-22. Retrieved 2015-06-11.
- ^ James David Essig, "The Lord's Free Man: Charles G. Finney and his Abolitionism," Civil War History, March 1978, Vol. 24, Issue 1, pp. 25–45.
- ^ Ress, David (2006). Gov. Edward Coles and the Vote to Forbid Slavery in Illinois, 1823–1824. McFarland Publishers. Jefferson, N.C. p. 162. ISBN 9780786426393.
- ^ a b c d e f Wagner, 2009, p. 59.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 15.
- ^ Trevor Burnard and Gad Heuman, The Routledge History of Slavery (2010), p. 318.
- ^ Rodriguez (2007). Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia. p. 406. ISBN 9781851095445.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Clement Eaton, "A Dangerous Pamphlet in the Old South", Journal of Southern History (1936) 2#3 pp. 323–334 in JSTOR
- ^ Maurice Glen Baxter (1984). One and Inseparable: Daniel Webster and the Union. Harvard UP. p. 187. ISBN 9780674638211.
- ^ Crowther, Edward R. Abolitionists. pp. 6–7 in Heidler, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War.
- ^ Henry Mayer, All on Fire: William Lloyd Garrison and the Abolition of Slavery (2008), p. xiii.
- ^ Stephen B. Oates, The Fires of Jubilee: Nat Turner's Fierce Rebellion (1990).
- ^ Rubin, 1977, p. 114.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 45–46.
- ^ a b c d Bowman, 1982, p. 15.
- ^ a b Hansen, 1961, p. 17.
- ^ a b Larry E. Tise, Proslavery. In The Confederacy edited by Richard N. Current. New York: Simon and Schuster Macmillan, 1993. ISBN 0-02-864920-6, p. 866.
- ^ a b Hansen, 1961, p. 18.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 41.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, pp. 15–16.
- ^ Gretchen A. Adams, Weld, Theodore Dwight. p. 2086, in Heidler, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War.
- ^ a b Klein, 1997, p. 39.
- ^ William Lee Miller. Arguing About Slavery: John Quincy Adams and the Great Battle in the United States Congress. New York: A.A. Knopf, 1995. ISBN 0-394-56922-9, pp. 144–146.
- ^ a b Bowman, 1982, p. 16.
- ^ a b McPherson, 1982, p. 51.
- ^ a b c Wagner, 2009, p. 60.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 53.
- ^ Wagner, 2009, p. 133.
- ^ Wright, John A. (2002). Discovering African American St. Louis: a Guide to Historic Sites (2nd ed.). St. Louis, Missouri: Missouri Historical Society Press. p. 17. ISBN 1-883982-45-6.
- ^ Frederick J. Blue, No Taint of Compromise: Crusaders in Antislavery Politics (2006), p. 93.
- ^ Robert V. Remini, The House: The History of the House of Representatives (2007), p. 126.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 40.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, p. 33.
- ^ Ronald F. Briley, The Study Guide Amistad: A Lasting Legacy. In History Teacher, Vol. 31, No. 3 (May 1998), pp. 390–394, in JSTOR
- ^ Theodore Dwight Weld, ed., American Slavery as it is (Cambridge University Press, 2015) online Archived April 25, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Immanuel Ness and James Ciment, eds. Encyclopedia of Third Parties in America (2001), p. 344.
- ^ "United States presidential election of 1840 | United States government". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
- ^ Del Lago, Enrico. Abolitionist Movement, p. 5, in Heidler, ed. Encyclopedia of the American Civil War.
- ^ Selma Berrol, The Empire City: New York and its People, 1624–1996 (1997) p.
- ^ "William Harrison: Death of the President | Miller Center". millercenter.org. 2016-10-04. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
- ^ Maggie Sale, The Slumbering Volcano: American slave ship revolts and the production of rebellious masculinity (1997), p. 120.
- ^ Joseph Nogee, "The Prigg Case and Fugitive Slavery, 1842–1850," Journal of Negro History Vol. 39, No. 3 (July 1954), pp. 185–205, in JSTOR
- ^ Joseph C. Burke. "What Did the Prigg Decision Really Decide?" Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography, Vol. 93, No. 1 (January 1969), pp. 73–85, in JSTOR.
- ^ Thomas D. Morris, Free Men All: The Personal Liberty Laws of the North, 1780–1861 (1974).
- ^ a b Clarence C. Goen, "Broken churches, broken nation: Regional religion and North-south alienation in Antebellum America." Church History 52.01 (1983): 21–35. in JSTOR
- ^ Jacqueline Bacon, "'Do you understand your own language?' Revolutionary topoi in the rhetoric of African‐American abolitionists." Rhetoric Society Quarterly 28.2 (1998): 55–75.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 31.
- ^ Frederick Douglass, Narrative of the life of Frederick Douglass, an American slave (2000), online.
- ^ Lyon Rathbun, "The debate over annexing Texas and the emergence of Manifest Destiny." Rhetoric & Public Affairs 4.3 (2001): 459–493, online.
- ^ "Texas enters the Union". HISTORY. Retrieved 2021-02-03.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 59.
- ^ Faust, Patricia L. DeBow's Review, in Historical Times Illustrated History of the Civil War, edited by Patricia L. Faust (1986), pp. 212–213.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 56.
- ^ a b McPherson, 1982, p. 57.
- ^ Eric Foner, "The Wilmot Proviso Revisited." Journal of American History 56.2 (1969): 262–279, online
- ^ a b Wagner, 2009, p. 62.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 60.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, pp. 34–35.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 61.
- ^ a b Bowman, 1982, p. 35.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 58.
- ^ Richard J. Ellis and Alexis Walker, "Policy Speech in the Nineteenth Century Rhetorical Presidency: The Case of Zachary Taylor's 1849 Tour." Presidential Studies Quarterly 37.2 (2007): 248–269.
- ^ R. Lawrence Hachey, "Jacksonian Democracy and the Wisconsin Constitution." Marquette Law Review 62 (1978): 485. online
- ^ a b c d McPherson, 1982, p. 72.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 72–73.
- ^ Cardinal Goodwin, The establishment of state government in California 1846–1850 (1916), online.
- ^ Ann Petry (2015). Harriet Tubman: Conductor on the Underground Railroad. ISBN 9781504019866.
- ^ Long states the number of slaves in the fifteen slave states were 3,204,051. The difference relates to the residence of a few hundred slaves in the Northern states or in the territories.
- ^ Robert Chadwell Williams (2006). Horace Greeley: Champion of American Freedom. NYU Press. p. 154. ISBN 9780814794029.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 65.
- ^ a b Bruce Tap, "Compromise of 1850", in William B. Barney, ed., The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Civil War (2011), pp. 80+.
- ^ George L. Sioussat, "Tennessee, the Compromise of 1850, and the Nashville Convention." Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1915), 2#3 pp: 313–347, in JSTOR.
- ^ a b c McPherson, 1982, p. 68.
- ^ Reséndez, Andrés (2016-04-12). The Other Slavery: The Uncovered Story of Indian Enslavement in America. HarperCollins. ISBN 978-0-544-60267-0.
- ^ a b c d McPherson, 1982, p. 78.
- ^ Nash, Roderick W. (1961). "William Parker and the Christiana Riot". The Journal of Negro History. 46 (1): 24–31. doi:10.2307/2716076. ISSN 0022-2992. JSTOR 2716076. S2CID 150356935. Retrieved 2022-06-08.
- ^ a b c d e f Wagner, 2009, p. 63.
- ^ van Frank, Megan (2010). "Slavery of African-Americans in Early Utah". Utah Stories from the Beehive Archive.
- ^ David S. Reynolds, Mightier than the sword: Uncle Tom's cabin and the battle for America (2011)
- ^ Frank J. Klingberg, "Harriet Beecher Stowe and Social Reform in England," American Historical Review (1938), 43#3, pp. 542–552, in JSTOR.
- ^ On the Southern response see Severn Duvall, "Uncle Tom's Cabin: The Sinister Side of the Patriarchy," The New England Quarterly (1963), 36#1 pp. 3–22, in JSTOR.
- ^ Cluskey, ed., 1857, p. 503.
- ^ William E. Gienapp, "The Whig Party, the Compromise of 1850, and the Nomination of Winfield Scott." Presidential Studies Quarterly (1984): 399–415 in JSTOR.
- ^ Michael J. Connolly, "'History has rendered its verdict upon him': The Franklin Pierce Statue Controversy." Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (2013), 12#2, pp. 234–259.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 70.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 46.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 74.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 44.
- ^ a b c Klein, 1997, p. 47.
- ^ a b c d Bowman, 1982, p. 37.
- ^ a b c Hansen, 1861, p. 23.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 79.
- ^ Potter, David M. completed and edited by Don E. Fehrenbacher The Impending Crisis: America Before the Civil War, 1848–1861 (1976), p. 294.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 73.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 111.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 92.
- ^ a b Bowman, 1982, p. 38.
- ^ Jenkins, Jeffery A.; Nokken, Timothy P. (February 2000). "The Institutional Origins of the Republican Party: Spatial Voting and the House Speakership Election of 1855–56" (PDF). Legislative Studies Quarterly. 25 (1): 114, 128–130. doi:10.2307/440395. JSTOR 440395. Retrieved August 3, 2022.
- ^ Nicole Etcheson, Bleeding Kansas: Contested Liberty in the Civil War Era (2004).
- ^ Paul Finkelman, "John Brown America's First Terrorist?" Prologue, Spring 2011, Vol. 43, Issue 1, pp. 16-27.
- ^ Williamjames Hoffer, The Caning of Charles Sumner: Honor, Idealism, and the Origins of the Civil War (2010).
- ^ Steven E. Woodworth; Kenneth J. Winkle (2004). Atlas of the Civil War. Oxford UP. p. 35. ISBN 9780195221312.
- ^ Nevins, 1947, pp. 470–471.
- ^ Spencer Tucker (2012). Almanac of American Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 773. ISBN 9781598845303.
- ^ a b c d e f g Bowman, 1982, p. 48.
- ^ Wagner, 2009, pp. 64–65.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 57.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Wagner, 2009, p. 66.
- ^ Don E. Fehrenbacher, Slavery, Law, and Politics: The Dred Scott Case in Historical Perspective (1981).
- ^ Wagner, 2009, p. 64.
- ^ a b Klein, 1997, p. 53.
- ^ a b c d Wagner, 2009, p. 65.
- ^ a b McPherson, 1982, p. 108.
- ^ Taussig, Frank. Tariff History of the United States (1912).
- ^ a b c McPherson, 1982, p. 104.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 54.
- ^ Kansas Historical Society. Marais des Cygnes Massacre site, June 2011. Retrieved December 28, 2012.
- ^ Don E. Fehrenbacher, "The Origins and Purpose of Lincoln's" House-Divided" Speech." Mississippi Valley Historical Review (1960): 615–643 online Archived April 25, 2012, at the Wayback Machine
- ^ Ramsey Coutta, Divine Institutions (2006), p. 153.
- ^ Allen C. Guelzo, Lincoln and Douglas: The debates that defined America (2008).
- ^ Rodriguez (2007). Slavery in the United States: A Social, Political, and Historical Encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 300. ISBN 9781851095445.
- ^ Drew Gilpin Faust, James Henry Hammond and the old South: A design for mastery (1985).
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 110.
- ^ Eric Foner (1970). Free Soil, Free Labor, Free Men: The Ideology of the Republican Party Before the Civil War: With a New Introductory Essay. Oxford UP. p. 70. ISBN 9780195094978.
- ^ a b McPherson, 1982, p. 123.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 80.
- ^ Potter, (1976), p. 295.
- ^ a b McPherson, 1982, p. 109.
- ^ a b c d Bowman, 1982, p. 39
- ^ a b c Eicher, 2001, p. 45.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, pp. 39–40.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 58.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, pp. 25–27.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 115–117.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 60.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 112–113.
- ^ Wagner, 2009, p. 74.
- ^ a b c d e f Bowman, 1982, p. 40
- ^ a b c Hansen, 1961, p. 31.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 117–118.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 32.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 119–120.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 120.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 75.
- ^ Reynolds, Donald E. (November 1, 1995). "Texas Troubles". Texas State Historical Association.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, pp. 40–41.
- ^ a b c Wagner, 2009, p. 3.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 2–3.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 125.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 38
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 3–4
- ^ Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 490.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 4–5.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Eicher, 2001, p. 46.
- ^ Wagner incorrectly shows the date as December 10.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 5.
- ^ a b c d e Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 491.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 5–6.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 114.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 6.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 7
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 8
- ^ Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 492.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bowman, 1982, p. 41
- ^ a b Bowman, 1982, pp. 41–42.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 9, 16–17, 23.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 9.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 10.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 11.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 12–13
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hansen, 1961, p. 34.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 10.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, pp. 34–35.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 12.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 27.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 135.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bowman, 1982, p. 43.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 13.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 18.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 14–15.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 15–16.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Eicher, 2001, p. 35.
- ^ a b c d e f Wagner, 2009, p. 4
- ^ a b Hansen, 1961, p. 39
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 140–141.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 107.
- ^ a b c Long, 1971, p. 17.
- ^ Klein, 1997, p. 169
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 16.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 45.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 47
- ^ a b c d Bowman, 1982, p. 47.
- ^ a b c d e f Long, 1971, p. 51.
- ^ Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 493.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 21.
- ^ Potter, 2011 (1976), pp. 493–494.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i j Wagner, 2009, p. 67
- ^ a b c d e f g h Bowman, 1982, p. 44.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 21, 29.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Bowman, 1982, p. 42
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 21, 22, 30.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 22.
- ^ a b c d e f g Wagner, 2009, p. 5.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 22, 23, 24, 25.
- ^ Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 497.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 23.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 23–24.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 24.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, pp. 42–43.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 24, 25, 27, 30, 39.
- ^ a b c Bowman, 1982, p. 46.
- ^ William H. Brantley, "Alabama Secedes," Alabama Review 7 (July 1954): 1 65-85.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 25.
- ^ E. Merton Coulter, Georgia: a short history (1960), ch. 23.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 28.
- ^ Willie Malvin Caskey, Secession and restoration of Louisiana (1970) ch 2
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 30.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 31.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 36.
- ^ Potter, 2011 (1976), pp. 507–508.
- ^ a b c Long, 1971, p. 32
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 30–31.
- ^ a b c d e f Bowman, 1982, p. 45.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 33.
- ^ a b Hansen, 1961, p. 35.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 33–34
- ^ a b c Long, 1971, p. 34.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 137.
- ^ Robert Gunderson, Old Gentlemen's Convention: The Washington Peace Conference of 1861 (Univ. of Wisconsin Press, 1961).
- ^ Bowman, 1982, pp. 44–45.
- ^ Swanberg, W. A., First Blood: The story of Fort Sumter, p. 127. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1957. 475770
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 33, 36.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 36–37.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 38
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 39
- ^ a b c d Long, 1971, p. 43.
- ^ a b Potter, 2011 (1976), p. 509.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 48.
- ^ a b c d e f Bowman, 1982, p. 49
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 38, 40, 42, 44, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 59.
- ^ a b c Long, 1971, p. 42.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 94.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 48.
- ^ a b c d e f Wagner, 2009, p. 68.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 154.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 133.
- ^ Bowman's figures actually show the difference as only 194 votes.
- ^ a b c Long, 1971, p. 44.
- ^ David Donald, Lincoln (1995), pp. 282–84.
- ^ "https://web.archive.org/web/20161021171757/http://www.history.army.mil/books/AMH/AMH-09.htm The Civil War, 1861". American Military History. U.S. Army Center of Military History. Archived from the original on 21 October 2016. Retrieved 3 July 2023.
- ^ Allan Nevins, The War for the Union (1959), 1:50, 59, 72.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 49.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 51.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 52–53.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 52.
- ^ a b c d Long, 1971, p. 50
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 50
- ^ a b Hansen, 1961, p. 41.
- ^ Thomas E. Schott, "Cornerstone Speech," in The Confederacy edited by Richard N. Current (1993), pp. 298–299.
- ^ a b c d e Wagner, 2009, p. 6.
- ^ a b c d Long, 1971, p. 53.
- ^ a b c d e Long, 1971, p. 54.
- ^ a b c d e f g Bowman, 1982, p. 50.
- ^ a b c d e Long, 1971, p. 55.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 42.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 55–56.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 37.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 57.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 58.
- ^ a b Hansen, 1961, p. 46.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 38.
- ^ a b c d e f Bowman, 1982, p. 51.
- ^ a b c Eicher, 2001, p. 41.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 56–59.
- ^ McPherson, 1982, p. 145.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 48.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 59.
- ^ a b c d Eicher, 2001, p. 53.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 60.
- ^ Newell, Clayton R. (1996). Lee vs. McClellan : the first campaign. Internet Archive. Washington, D.C. : Regnery Pub. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-89526-452-7.
- ^ a b McPherson, 1982, p. 150.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 68.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 62.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 52.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 70.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 69.
- ^ a b c d Bowman, 1982, p. 55.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 77.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 61.
- ^ a b Bowman, 1982, p. 52.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, p. 54.
- ^ a b c Bowman, 1982, p. 53.
- ^ Eicher, 2001, pp. 54–55.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 67.
- ^ Hansen, 1961, p. 34 gives date as April 27.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 68.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, p. 54.
- ^ a b Long, 1971, p. 75.
- ^ a b Wagner, 2009, p. 8.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 75, 76.
- ^ Stephen C. Neff, Justice in blue and gray: a legal history of the Civil War (2010), p. 29.
- ^ Clayton E. Jewett and John O. Allen, Slavery in the South: a state-by-state history (2004), p. 23.
- ^ Long, 1971, pp. 70–71.
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 76.
- ^ Bowman, 1982, p. 64
- ^ Long, 1971, p. 117
- ^ McPherson, 1982, pp. 154, 158.
- ^ James B. Jones Jr., Tennessee in the Civil War: Selected Contemporary Accounts of Military and Other Events, Month by Month (2011), p. 22.
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