Jump to content

Space tourism

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Space Tourism)

Soyuz MS-20 crew on the International Space Station, from left to right: Yusaku Maezawa (Spaceflight Participant), Alexander Misurkin (cosmonaut), and Yozo Hirano (Spaceflight Participant).

Space tourism is human space travel for recreational purposes.[1] There are several different types of space tourism, including orbital, suborbital and lunar space tourism. Tourists are motivated by the possibility of viewing Earth from space, feeling weightlessness, experiencing extremely high speed and something unusual, and contributing to science.[2]

Space tourism started in April 2001, when American businessman and engineer Dennis Tito became the first ever space tourist to travel to space aboard a Soyuz-TM32 spacecraft. During the period from 2001 to 2009, seven space tourists made eight space flights aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft to the International Space Station, brokered by American company Space Adventures in conjunction with Roscosmos and RSC Energia. Iranian-American businesswoman Anousheh Ansari became the first ever female space tourist in September 2006. The publicized price was in the range of US$20–25 million per trip. Some space tourists have signed contracts with third parties to conduct certain research activities while in orbit. By 2007, space tourism was thought to be one of the earliest markets that would emerge for commercial spaceflight.[3]: 11 

Space tourists need to be in good physical form before going to space. In particular, they have to train for fast acceleration or g-forces in a centrifuge and weightlessness by flying in a high-altitude jet plane doing parabolic arcs. They may have to learn how to operate and even fix parts of the spaceship using simulators.

Russia halted orbital space tourism in 2010 due to the increase in the International Space Station crew size, using the seats for expedition crews that would previously have been sold to paying spaceflight participants.[4][5] Orbital tourist flights were set to resume in 2015 but the planned flight was postponed indefinitely.[6] Russian orbital tourism eventually resumed with the launch of Soyuz MS-20 in 2021.[7]

On June 7, 2019, NASA announced that starting in 2020, the organization aims to start allowing private astronauts to go on the International Space Station, with the use of the SpaceX Crew Dragon spacecraft and the Boeing Starliner spacecraft for public astronauts, which is planned to be priced at 35,000 USD per day for one astronaut,[8] and an estimated 50 million USD for the ride there and back.[9]

Work also continues towards developing suborbital space tourism vehicles. This is being done by aerospace companies like Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic. SpaceX announced in 2018 that they are planning on sending space tourists, including Yusaku Maezawa, on a free-return trajectory around the Moon on the Starship, however the project was cancelled on June 1st 2024.[10][11]

Precursors

[edit]

The Soviet space program was successful in broadening the pool of cosmonauts. The Soviet Intercosmos program included cosmonauts selected from Warsaw Pact member countries (Czechoslovakia, Poland, East Germany, Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania) and later from allies of the USSR (Cuba, Mongolia, Vietnam) and non-aligned countries (India, Syria, Afghanistan). Most of these cosmonauts received full training for their missions and were treated as equals, but were generally given shorter flights than Soviet cosmonauts. The European Space Agency (ESA) also took advantage of the program.[citation needed][12]

The US Space Shuttle program included payload specialist positions which were usually filled by representatives of companies or institutions managing a specific payload on that mission. These payload specialists did not receive the same training as professional NASA astronauts and were not employed by NASA. In 1983, Ulf Merbold from the ESA and Byron Lichtenberg from MIT (engineer and Air Force fighter pilot) were the first payload specialists to fly on the Space Shuttle, on mission STS-9.[13][14]

In 1984, Charles D. Walker became the first non-government astronaut to fly, with his employer McDonnell Douglas paying US$40,000 (equivalent to $117,309 in 2023) for his flight.[15]: 74–75  During the 1970s, Shuttle prime contractor Rockwell International studied a $200–300 million removable cabin that could fit into the Shuttle's cargo bay. The cabin could carry up to 74 passengers into orbit for up to three days. Space Habitation Design Associates proposed, in 1983, a cabin for 72 passengers in the bay. Passengers were located in six sections, each with windows and its own loading ramp, and with seats in different configurations for launch and landing. Another proposal was based on the Spacelab habitation modules, which provided 32 seats in the payload bay in addition to those in the cockpit area. A 1985 presentation to the National Space Society stated that, although flying tourists in the cabin would cost $1 million to $1.5 million per passenger without government subsidy, within 15 years, 30,000 people a year would pay US$25,000 (equivalent to $70,823 in 2023) each to fly in space on new spacecraft. The presentation also forecast flights to lunar orbit within 30 years and visits to the lunar surface within 50 years.[16]

As the shuttle program expanded in the early 1980s, NASA began a Space Flight Participant program to allow citizens without scientific or governmental roles to fly. Christa McAuliffe was chosen as the first Teacher in Space in July 1985 from 11,400 applicants. 1,700 applied for the Journalist in Space program. An Artist in Space program was considered, and NASA expected that after McAuliffe's flight two to three civilians a year would fly on the shuttle. After McAuliffe was killed in the Challenger disaster in January 1986, the programs were canceled. McAuliffe's backup, Barbara Morgan, eventually got hired in 1998 as a professional astronaut and flew on STS-118 as a mission specialist.[15]: 84–85  A second journalist-in-space program, in which NASA green-lighted Miles O'Brien to fly on the Space Shuttle, was scheduled to be announced in 2003. That program was canceled in the wake of the Columbia disaster on STS-107 and subsequent emphasis on finishing the International Space Station before retiring the Space Shuttle.[citation needed]

Initially, senior figures at NASA strongly opposed space tourism on principle; from the beginning of the ISS expeditions, NASA stated it was not interested in accommodating paying guests.[17] The Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics Committee on Science of the House of Representatives held in June 2001 revealed the shifting attitude of NASA towards paying space tourists wanting to travel to the ISS in its statement on the hearing's purpose:

"Review the issues and opportunities for flying nonprofessional astronauts in space, the appropriate government role for supporting the nascent space tourism industry, use of the Shuttle and Space Station for Tourism, safety and training criteria for space tourists, and the potential commercial market for space tourism."

The subcommittee report was interested in evaluating Dennis Tito's extensive training and his experience in space as a nonprofessional astronaut.[citation needed]

With the realities of the post-Perestroika economy in Russia, its space industry was especially starved for cash. The Tokyo Broadcasting System (TBS) offered to pay for one of its reporters to fly on a mission. Toyohiro Akiyama was flown in 1990 to Mir with the eighth crew and returned a week later with the seventh crew. Cost estimates vary from $10 million up to $37 million.[18][19] Akiyama gave a daily TV broadcast from orbit and also performed scientific experiments for Russian and Japanese companies.

In 1991, British chemist Helen Sharman was selected from a pool of 13,000 applicants to be the first Briton in space.[20] The program was known as Project Juno and was a cooperative arrangement between the Soviet Union and a group of British companies. The Project Juno consortium failed to raise the funds required, and the program was almost canceled. Reportedly Mikhail Gorbachev ordered it to proceed under Soviet expense in the interests of international relations, but in the absence of Western underwriting, less expensive experiments were substituted for those in the original plans. Sharman flew aboard Soyuz TM-12 to Mir and returned aboard Soyuz TM-11.[21]

In April 1999, the Russian space agency announced that 51-year-old British billionaire Peter Llewellyn would be sent to the aging Mir space station in return for a payment of $100 million by Llewellyn.[22] Llewellyn, however, denied agreeing to pay that sum, his refusal to pay which prompted his flight's cancellation a month later.[23]

Sub-orbital space tourism

[edit]

Successful projects

[edit]
  • Scaled Composites won the $10 million X Prize in October 2004 with SpaceShipOne, as the first private company to reach and surpass an altitude of 100 km (62 mi) twice within two weeks. The altitude is beyond the Kármán Line, the arbitrarily-defined boundary of space.[24] The first flight was flown by Michael Melvill in June 2004, to a height of 100 km (62 mi), making him the first commercial astronaut.[25] The prize-winning flight was flown by Brian Binnie, which reached a height of 112.0 km (69.6 mi), breaking the X-15 record.[26] There were no space tourists on the flights even though the vehicle has seats for three passengers. Instead there was additional weight to make up for the weight of passengers.[27]
  • In 2005, Virgin Galactic was founded as a joint venture between Scaled Composites and Richard Branson's Virgin Group.[28] Eventually Virgin Group owned the entire project.[29] Virgin Galactic began building SpaceShipTwo-class spaceplanes. The first of these spaceplanes, VSS Enterprise, was intended to commence its first commercial flights in 2015, and tickets were on sale at a price of $200,000 (later raised to $250,000). However, the company suffered a considerable setback when the Enterprise broke up over the Mojave Desert during a test flight in October 2014. Over 700 tickets had been sold prior to the accident.[30] A second spaceplane, VSS Unity, completed a successful test flight with four passengers on July 11, 2021 to an altitude of nearly 90 km (56 mi).[31] Galactic 01 became the company's first commercial spaceflight on June 29, 2023.[32]
  • Blue Origin developed the New Shepard reusable suborbital launch system specifically to enable short-duration space tourism. Blue Origin plans to ferry a maximum of six persons on a brief journey to space on board the New Shepard. The capsule is attached to the top portion of an 18-meter (59-foot) rocket. The rocket successfully launched with four passengers on July 20, 2021, and reached an altitude of 107 km (66 mi).[33]

Canceled projects

[edit]
  • Armadillo Aerospace was developing a two-seat vertical takeoff and landing (VTOL) rocket called Hyperion, which will be marketed by Space Adventures.[34] Hyperion uses a capsule similar in shape to the Gemini capsule. The vehicle will use a parachute for descent but will probably use retrorockets for final touchdown, according to remarks made by Armadillo Aerospace at the Next Generation Suborbital Researchers Conference in February 2012. The assets of Armadillo Aerospace were sold to Exos Aerospace and while SARGE is continuing to be developed, it is unclear whether Hyperion is still being developed.
  • XCOR Aerospace was developing a suborbital vehicle called Lynx until development was halted in May 2016.[35] The Lynx would take off from a runway under rocket power. Unlike SpaceShipOne and SpaceShipTwo, Lynx would not require a mothership. Lynx was designed for rapid turnaround, which would enable it to fly up to four times per day. Because of this rapid flight rate, Lynx had fewer seats than SpaceShipTwo, carrying only one pilot and one spaceflight participant on each flight. XCOR expected to roll out the first Lynx prototype and begin flight tests in 2015, but as of late 2017, XCOR was unable to complete their prototype development and filed for bankruptcy.[36]
    • Citizens in Space, formerly the Teacher in Space Project, is a project of the United States Rocket Academy. Citizens in Space combines citizen science with citizen space exploration. The goal is to fly citizen-science experiments and citizen explorers (who travel free) who will act as payload operators on suborbital space missions. By 2012, Citizens in Space had acquired a contract for 10 suborbital flights with XCOR Aerospace and expected to acquire additional flights from XCOR and other suborbital spaceflight providers in the future. In 2012, Citizens in Space reported they had begun training three citizen astronaut candidates and would select seven additional candidates over the next 12 to 14 months.[37][needs update]
    • Space Expedition Corporation was preparing to use the Lynx for "Space Expedition Curaçao", a commercial flight from Hato Airport on Curaçao, and planned to start commercial flights in 2014. The costs were $95,000 each.[38][39]
    • Axe Apollo Space Academy promotion by Unilever which planned to provide 23 people suborbital spaceflights on board the Lynx.
  • EADS Astrium, a subsidiary of European aerospace giant EADS, announced its space tourism project in June 2007.[40]

Orbital space tourism

[edit]

As of 2021, Space Adventures and SpaceX are the only companies to have coordinated tourism flights to Earth's orbit. Virginia-based Space Adventures has worked with Russia to use its Soyuz spacecraft to fly ultra-wealthy individuals to the International Space Station. The tourists included entrepreneur and space investor Anousheh Ansari and Cirque du Soleil co-founder Guy Laliberté. Those missions were priced at around $20 million each. The space industry could soon be headed for a tourism revolution if SpaceX and Boeing make good on their plans to take tourists to orbit.[41]

Successful projects

[edit]
The first space tourist, Dennis Tito (left) aboard the ISS
Space tourist Mark Shuttleworth

At the end of the 1990s, MirCorp, a private venture that was by then in charge of the space station, began seeking potential space tourists to visit Mir in order to offset some of its maintenance costs. Dennis Tito, an American businessman and former JPL scientist, became their first candidate. When the decision was made to de-orbit Mir, Tito managed to switch his trip to the International Space Station (ISS) aboard a Russian Soyuz spacecraft through a deal between MirCorp and US-based Space Adventures, Ltd. Dennis Tito visited the ISS for seven days in April–May 2001, becoming the world's first "fee-paying" space tourist. Tito paid a reported $20 million for his trip.[42]

Tito was followed in April 2002 by South African Mark Shuttleworth (Soyuz TM-34). In February 2003, the Space Shuttle Columbia disintegrated on re-entry into the Earth's atmosphere, killing all seven astronauts aboard. After this disaster, space tourism on the Russian Soyuz program was temporarily put on hold, because Soyuz vehicles became the only available transport to the ISS. After the Shuttle's return to service in July 2005, space tourism was resumed. The third was Gregory Olsen in October 2005 (Soyuz TMA-7). In September 2006, an Iranian American businesswoman named Anousheh Ansari became the fourth space tourist (Soyuz TMA-9).[43]) In April 2007, Charles Simonyi, an American businessman of Hungarian descent, joined their ranks (Soyuz TMA-10). Simonyi became the first repeat space tourist, paying again to fly on Soyuz TMA-14 in March 2009. British-American Richard Garriott became the next space tourist in October 2008 aboard Soyuz TMA-13.[44] Canadian Guy Laliberté visited the ISS in September 2009 aboard Soyuz TMA-16, becoming the last visiting tourist until Japanese nationals Yusaku Maezawa and Yozo Hirano aboard Soyuz MS-20 in December 2021. Originally the third member aboard Soyuz TMA-18M would have been the British singer Sarah Brightman as a space tourist, but on May 13, 2015, she announced she had withdrawn from training.[45]

Since the Space Shuttle was retired in 2011, Soyuz once again became the only means of accessing the ISS, and so tourism was once again put on hold. On June 7, 2019, NASA announced a plan to open the ISS to space tourism again.[46]

On September 16, 2021, the Inspiration4 mission launched from the Kennedy Space Center on a SpaceX Falcon 9 and spent almost three days in orbit aboard the Crew Dragon Resilience, becoming the first all-civilian crew to fly an orbital space mission.[47][48]

On September 12, 2024, Jared Isaacman and Sarah Gillis performed the first commercial spacewalk during the Polaris Dawn spaceflight operated by SpaceX.[49]

Ongoing projects

[edit]
  • Axiom Space uses Crew Dragon flights contracted with SpaceX to send crews to the International Space Station.[50][51] Mission 1 flew in April 2022, Mission 2 flew in May 2023 and Mission 3 flew in January 2024. A fourth mission is planned for October 2024. Through these missions, NASA hopes to create a non-NASA market for human spaceflight to enable cost-sharing on future commercial space stations.
  • The Boeing Starliner capsule is being developed as part of the NASA's Commercial Crew Program. Part of the agreement with NASA allows Boeing to sell seats for space tourists. Boeing proposed including one seat per flight for a spaceflight participant at a price that would be competitive with what Roscosmos charges tourists.[52][53]
  • The Polaris Program: The commander and financier of the Inspiration4 mission, Jared Isaacman, announced plans for a three-mission program called Polaris in February 2022. The first mission, Polaris Dawn, launched four private astronauts in a Crew Dragon spacecraft to earth orbit. Polaris Dawn was a free-flyer mission in which the spacecraft did not perform any rendezvous maneuvers, instead setting the all-time earth orbit altitude record at 1,400 km, surpassing the 1,373 km record set by Gemini XI. Polaris Dawn also included the first private extravehicular activity (EVA). The last Polaris program mission is planned to be the first crewed flight of the in-development Starship launch system.

Canceled projects

[edit]
  • In 2004, Bigelow Aerospace established a competition called America's Space Prize, which offered a $50 million prize to the first US company to create a reusable spacecraft capable of carrying passengers to a Nautilus space station. The prize expired in January 2010 without anyone making a serious effort to win it.[54]
  • The Space Island Group proposed having 20,000 people on their "space island" by 2020.[55]
  • A United States startup firm, Orion Span announced during the early part of 2018 that it planned to launch and position a luxury space hotel in orbit within several years.[56] Aurora Space Station, the name of the hotel, would have offered guests (at most six individuals) 12 days of staying in a pill-shaped space hotel for $9.5 million. The hotel's cabins would have measured approximately 12.9 metres (43 feet) by 4.8 metres (14 feet) in width.[57]
  • Space Adventures Crew Dragon mission: Space Adventures and SpaceX planned to send up to four tourists to low Earth orbit for a few days in late 2021 or early 2022. In October 2021, Space Adventures stated that the mission contract had expired, though the possibility of a future partnership with SpaceX was left open.[58]
  • Galactic Suite Design
  • Orbital Technologies Commercial Space Station
  • Space Industries Incorporated
  • Space Islands

Tourism beyond Earth orbit

[edit]
Artist conception of a Mars tourism poster, made by SpaceX

Ongoing projects

[edit]
  • A mission with a similar flight profile is planned to have the same flight profile as the now cancelled Dearmoon project, with Dennis Tito and his wife Akiko Tito as two of the passengers.[59]
  • Space Adventures Ltd. have announced that they are working on DSE-Alpha, a circumlunar mission to the Moon, with the price per passenger being $100,000,000.[60]

Cancelled projects

[edit]
  • Excalibur Almaz proposed to take three tourists in a flyby around the Moon, using modified Almaz space station modules, in a low-energy trajectory flyby around the Moon. The trip would last around 6 months.[61] However, their equipment was never launched and is to be converted into an educational exhibit.[62]
  • The Golden Spike Company was an American space transport startup active from 2010 to 2013. The company held the objective to offer private commercial space transportation services to the surface of the Moon. The company's website was quietly taken offline in September 2015.
  • The Inspiration Mars Foundation is an American nonprofit organization founded by Dennis Tito that proposed to launch a crewed mission to flyby Mars in January 2018,[63][64][65] or 2021 if they missed the first deadline.[66] Their website became defunct by late 2015 but it is archived by the Internet Archive.[67] The Foundation's future plans are unclear.
  • Bigelow Aerospace planned to extend their successes with the Genesis modules by launching the B330, an expandable habitation module with 330 cubic meters of internal space, aboard a Vulcan rocket. The Vulcan was contracted to boost BA 330 to low lunar orbit by the end of 2022.[68]
  • In February 2017, Elon Musk announced that substantial deposits from two individuals had been received by SpaceX for a Moon loop flight using a free return trajectory and that this could happen as soon as late 2018.[69] Musk said that the cost of the mission would be "comparable" to that of sending an astronaut to the International Space Station, about US$70 million in 2017.[70] In February 2018, Musk announced that the Falcon Heavy rocket would not be used for crewed missions.[71][72] The proposal changed in 2018 to use the Starship launch system instead.[11][71][72] In September 2018, Musk revealed the passenger for the trip, Yusaku Maezawa during a livestream. Yusaku Maezawa described the plan for his trip in further detail, dubbed the #dearMoon project, intended to take 6–8 artists with him on the journey to inspire the artists to create new art.

Legality

[edit]

Under the Outer Space Treaty signed in 1967, the launch operator's nationality and the launch site's location determine which country is responsible for any damages occurred from a launch.[73]

After valuable resources were detected on the Moon, private companies began to formulate methods to extract the resources. Article II of the Outer Space Treaty dictates that "outer space, including the Moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty, by means of use or occupation, or by any other means".[74] However, countries have the right to freely explore the Moon and any resources collected are property of that country when they return.

United States

[edit]

In December 2005, the US government released a set of proposed rules for space tourism.[75] These included screening procedures and training for emergency situations, but not health requirements.[citation needed]

In 1984, the U.S. Congress passed the Commercial Space Launch Act, which, among other things, encourages space commercialization (51 U.S.C. § 20102(c)).

Under current US law, any company proposing to launch paying passengers from American soil on a suborbital rocket must receive a license from the Federal Aviation Administration's Office of Commercial Space Transportation (FAA/AST). The licensing process focuses on public safety and safety of property, and the details can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations, Title 14, Chapter III.[76] This is in accordance with the Commercial Space Launch Amendments Act passed by Congress in 2004,[77] which required that NASA and the Federal Aviation Administration to allow paying passengers fly on suborbital launch vehicles at their own risk.[78]

In March 2010, the New Mexico legislature passed the Spaceflight Informed Consent Act. The SICA gives legal protection to companies who provide private space flights in the case of accidental harm or death to individuals. Participants sign an Informed Consent waiver, dictating that spaceflight operators cannot be held liable in the "death of a participant resulting from the inherent risks of space flight activities". Operators are however not covered in the case of gross negligence or willful misconduct.[79]

In December 2021, the FAA announced that starting in 2022, it would recognize on its official website those who travel to space.[80] "Any individual who is on an FAA-licensed or permitted launch and reaches 50 statute miles above the surface of the Earth will be listed on the site."[80] The announcement ended the Commercial Space Astronaut Wings program, under which the FAA had offered commercial astronaut wings to individuals on private spacecraft who made it above 50 miles (80 kilometers) in altitude above Earth since 2004.[81]

[edit]

With the increasing advent of sub-orbital flights, there are growing concerns that the present international framework is insufficient to address the significant issues raised by space tourism. The concerns relate to commercial Liability, insurance, consumer protection, passenger safety, environmental impact, and emergency response.[82][83]

List of space tourism trips

[edit]

The following list notes each trip taken by an individual for whom a fee was paid (by themselves or another party) to go above the Kármán Line, the internationally recognized boundary of space at 100 km, or above the US definition of the boundary of space at 50 miles (80 km). It also includes future trips which are paid for and scheduled.

Criticism of the term space tourist

[edit]

Many private space travelers have objected to the term space tourist, often pointing out that their role went beyond that of an observer, since they also carried out scientific experiments in the course of their journey. Richard Garriott additionally emphasized that his training was identical to the requirements of non-Russian Soyuz crew members, and that teachers and other non-professional astronauts chosen to fly with NASA are called astronauts. He has said that if the distinction has to be made, he would rather be called "private astronaut" than "tourist".[101] Mark Shuttleworth described himself as a "pioneer of commercial space travel".[102] Gregory Olsen prefers "private researcher",[103] and Anousheh Ansari prefers the term "private space explorer". Other advocates of private spaceflight object to the term on similar grounds. Rick Tumlinson of the Space Frontier Foundation, for example, has said: "I hate the word tourist, and I always will ... 'Tourist' is somebody in a flowered shirt with three cameras around his neck."[104] Russian cosmonaut Maksim Surayev told the press in 2009 not to describe Guy Laliberté as a tourist: "It's become fashionable to speak of space tourists. He is not a tourist but a participant in the mission."[105]

"Spaceflight participant" is the official term used by NASA and the Russian Federal Space Agency to distinguish between private space travelers and career astronauts. Tito, Shuttleworth, Olsen, Ansari, and Simonyi were designated as such during their respective space flights. NASA also lists Christa McAuliffe as a spaceflight participant (although she did not pay a fee), apparently due to her non-technical duties aboard the STS-51-L flight.

The US Federal Aviation Administration awards the title of "commercial astronaut" to trained crew members of privately funded spacecraft.

Attitudes towards space tourism

[edit]

A 2018 survey from the PEW Research Center identifies the top three motivations for a customer to purchase a flight into space as:[106]

  • To experience something unique ( e.g. pioneering, one of a kind)
  • To see the view of Earth from space
  • To learn more about the world

The PEW study also found that only 43% of Americans would be definitely or probably interested in going into space. NASA astronaut Megan McArthur has a message to space tourists: spaceflight is uncomfortable and risky, and takes grit.[107]

A web-based survey suggested that over 70% of those surveyed wanted less than or equal to 2 weeks in space; in addition, 88% wanted to spacewalk, of whom 14% would pay a 50% premium for the experience, and 21% wanted a hotel or space station.[108]

The concept has met with some criticism; Günter Verheugen, vice-president of the European Commission, said of the EADS Astrium Space Tourism Project: "It's only for the super-rich, which is against my social convictions".[109]

On October 14, 2021, Prince William suggested that entrepreneurs should focus on saving Earth rather than engaging in space tourism and also warned about a rise in "climate anxiety" among younger generations.[110]

Environmental effects

[edit]
Influence of a decade of contemporary rocket launch and re-entry heating emissions on stratospheric chemical composition[111]

A 2010 study published in Geophysical Research Letters raised concerns that the growing commercial spaceflight industry could accelerate global warming. The study, funded by NASA and The Aerospace Corporation, simulated the impact of 1,000 suborbital launches of hybrid rockets from a single location, calculating that this would release a total of 600 tonnes of black carbon into the stratosphere. They found that the resultant layer of soot particles remained relatively localized, with only 20% of the carbon straying into the southern hemisphere, thus creating a strong hemispherical asymmetry.[112] This unbalance would cause the temperature to decrease by about 0.4 °C (0.72 °F) in the tropics and subtropics, whereas the temperature at the poles would increase by between 0.2 and 1 °C (0.36 and 1.80 °F). The ozone layer would also be affected, with the tropics losing up to 1.7% of ozone cover, and the polar regions gaining 5–6%.[113] The researchers stressed that these results should not be taken as "a precise forecast of the climate response to a specific launch rate of a specific rocket type", but as a demonstration of the sensitivity of the atmosphere to the large-scale disruption that commercial space tourism could bring.[112]

A 2022 study estimated the air pollution impacts on climate change and the ozone layer from rocket launches and re-entry of reusable components and debris in 2019 and from a theoretical future space industry extrapolated from the "billionaire space race". It concludes that substantial effects from routine space tourism should "motivate regulation".[114][111]

Education and advocacy

[edit]

Several organizations have been formed to promote the space tourism industry, including the Space Tourism Society, Space Future, and HobbySpace. UniGalactic Space Travel Magazine is a bi-monthly educational publication covering space tourism and space exploration developments in companies like SpaceX, Orbital Sciences, Virgin Galactic and organizations like NASA.

Classes in space tourism are currently taught at the Rochester Institute of Technology in New York,[115] and Keio University in Japan.[116] Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University in Florida launched a worldwide space tourism course in 2017.[117]

Economic potential

[edit]

A 2010 report from the Federal Aviation Administration, titled "The Economic Impact of Commercial Space Transportation on the U.S. Economy in 2009", cites studies done by Futron, an aerospace and technology-consulting firm, which predict that space tourism could become a billion-dollar market within 20 years.[118] Eight tourists reached orbit between 2001 and 2009. In 2011 Space Adventures suggested that this number could reach 140 by 2020,[119] but with commercial crewed rockets only just beginning to enter service, such numbers have yet to be achieved.

According to a 2022 report by Research and Markets, titled "Global Space Tourism Market," the global space tourism industry is projected to reach 8.67 billion USD by 2030, with an estimated compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 37.1% between 2022 and 2030.[120]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Von der Dunk, F. G. (2011). "Space tourism, private spaceflight and the law: Key aspects". Space Policy. 27 (3): 146–152. Bibcode:2011SpPol..27..146V. doi:10.1016/j.spacepol.2011.04.015. ISSN 0265-9646. Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved June 25, 2019.
  2. ^ Maharaj Vijay Reddy; Mirela Nica; Keith Wilkes (October 2012), "Space tourism: Research recommendations for the future of the industry and perspectives of potential participants", Tourism Management, 33 (5): 1093–1102, doi:10.1016/j.tourman.2011.11.026
  3. ^ Belfiore, Michael (2007). Rocketeers: how a visionary band of business leaders, engineers, and pilots is boldly privatizing space. New York: Smithsonian Books. p. [1]. ISBN 978-0-06-114903-0.
  4. ^ "Russia halts space tours as U.S. retires Shuttle". Reuters. March 3, 2010. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013.
  5. ^ "Russia will restore space tourism since 2012" (in Russian). Interfax. March 18, 2010. Archived from the original on July 28, 2011. Retrieved March 18, 2010.
  6. ^ "Citizen Exploration". Citizens in Space. February 1, 2012. Archived from the original on March 8, 2012. Retrieved March 14, 2012.
  7. ^ "Soyuz MS-20 space tourism flight docks with ISS". NASASpaceflight.com. December 7, 2021. Archived from the original on December 8, 2021. Retrieved December 10, 2021.
  8. ^ "NASA to open International Space Station to tourists". BBC. June 7, 2019. Archived from the original on June 8, 2019. Retrieved June 8, 2019.
  9. ^ "Yes, NASA would be happy to have you aboard the space station. But it'll cost some $50 million". The Washington Post. June 22, 2020. Archived from the original on December 1, 2020. Retrieved December 23, 2020.
  10. ^ Eric Ralph (September 14, 2018). "SpaceX has signed a private passenger for the first BFR launch around the Moon". Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved September 14, 2018.
  11. ^ a b Grush, Loren (September 14, 2018). "SpaceX says it will send someone around the Moon on its future monster rocket". The Verge. Archived from the original on September 14, 2018. Retrieved September 15, 2018.
  12. ^ Bonini, Gherardo. "Relations between ESA and Russia (ESA.B-04.02.02)". archives.eui.eu. European Union (Historical Archives). Archived from the original on April 12, 2023. Retrieved May 21, 2022.
  13. ^ "Biographical Data: Byron K. Lichtenberg, SC. D." NASA. Archived from the original on September 19, 2007. Retrieved September 10, 2012.
  14. ^ "Astronauts: Ulf Merbold". European Space Agency. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013.
  15. ^ a b Dubbs, Chris; Paat-Dahlstrom, Emeline; Walker, Charles D. (2011). Realizing Tomorrow: The Path to Private Spaceflight. University of Nebraska Press. ISBN 978-0-8032-1610-5.
  16. ^ Citron, Robert (April 1985). "Space Tourism Could Drive Space Development". The Space Tourist. Fourth Annual L5 Space Development Conference, National Space Society. Washington DC: American Astronautical Society. pp. 85–771 to 85–774. Archived from the original on February 9, 2012. Retrieved February 17, 2012.
  17. ^ Bridges, Andrew (November 1, 2000). "NASA: No Room at the ISS Inn for Mir Cast-offs". Space.com. Archived from the original on November 9, 2000.
  18. ^ Otake, Tomoko (August 3, 2013). "Toyohiro Akiyama: Cautionary tales from one not afraid to risk all". Japan Times. Archived from the original on August 1, 2018. Retrieved July 31, 2018.
  19. ^ "World Aviation in 1990". Archived from the original on November 19, 2011. Retrieved August 1, 2018.
  20. ^ "1991: Sharman becomes first Briton in space". BBC News. May 18, 1991. Archived from the original on September 5, 2007. Retrieved January 6, 2007.
  21. ^ "Manned Spaceflights". SPACEFACTS. Archived from the original on October 24, 2019. Retrieved October 14, 2019.
  22. ^ "British billionaire pays for Mir ride". UPI. April 27, 1999. Archived from the original on March 5, 2024.
  23. ^ "No Mir flight for British businessman". BBC. May 27, 1999. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023.
  24. ^ "SpaceShipOne Flies Again Within 14 Days – Wins $10M X PRIZE". Scaled Composites (Press release). Archived from the original on January 13, 2011. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  25. ^ "Michael W. Melvill". Scaled Composites. Archived from the original on April 24, 2016. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  26. ^ "SpaceShipOne Captures X-Prize!". Scaled Composites. Archived from the original on November 5, 2008. Retrieved November 9, 2008.
  27. ^ "SpaceShipOne". Britannica. Archived from the original on April 30, 2021. Retrieved July 11, 2021.
  28. ^ Weitering, Hanneke (July 26, 2018). "Virgin Galactic's VSS Unity Space Plane Aces Test Flight, Reaching Mesosphere for the 1st Time". Space.com. Archived from the original on September 1, 2021. Retrieved July 20, 2021.
  29. ^ "Virgin Galactic Acquires Full Ownership of The Spaceship Company". Business Wire. October 5, 2012. Archived from the original on April 28, 2021. Retrieved July 20, 2021.
  30. ^ Chang, Kenneth; Schwartz, John (October 31, 2014). "Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo Crashes in New Setback for Commercial Spaceflight". The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 1, 2019. Retrieved March 1, 2017.
  31. ^ Malik, Tariq (July 11, 2021). "Virgin Galactic's SpaceShipTwo Unity 22 launch with Richard Branson. See video and photos of the flight". Space.com. Archived from the original on July 12, 2021. Retrieved July 12, 2021.
  32. ^ Sheetz, Michael (June 29, 2023). "Virgin Galactic completes first commercial flight in major step for space tourism company". CNBC. Archived from the original on January 19, 2024.
  33. ^ Berger, Eric (July 20, 2021). "Blue Origin successfully completes its first human launch [Updated]". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on July 20, 2021. Retrieved July 20, 2021.
  34. ^ "The U.S. Commercial Suborbital Industry: A Space Renaissance in the Making" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration. pp. 6–7. Archived (PDF) from the original on September 21, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
  35. ^ "About Lynx". XCOR Aerospace. Archived from the original on April 30, 2010. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  36. ^ Foust, Jeff (November 9, 2017). "XCOR Aerospace files for bankruptcy". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on December 16, 2019.
  37. ^ "The Next Frontier For Citizen Science". Citizens in Space. May 5, 2012. Archived from the original on March 13, 2013.
  38. ^ "Fliegen wir die Strecke New York-Tokio bald mit Umweg übers All?". Bild (in German). October 26, 2012. Archived from the original on November 4, 2012. Retrieved November 4, 2012.
  39. ^ "XCOR Aerospace Announces Space Expedition Corporation (SXC) As General Sales Agent For Space Tourism Flights". XCOR Aerospace. June 7, 2012. Archived from the original on April 1, 2013.
  40. ^ "Europe joins space tourism race". The Times. June 10, 2007. Archived from the original on May 11, 2008.
  41. ^ Wattles, Jackie (February 19, 2020). "SpaceX teams up with space tourism agency to sell rides aboard its spacecraft". CNN. Archived from the original on February 19, 2020. Retrieved February 19, 2020.
  42. ^ a b "Profile: Tito the spaceman". BBC News. April 28, 2001. Archived from the original on December 17, 2007. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
  43. ^ "About Anousheh Ansari". Anousheh Ansari. Archived from the original on July 27, 2013. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  44. ^ Bergin, Chris (October 11, 2008). "Soyuz TMA-13 launches trio on journey to the ISS". NASASpaceFlight.com. Archived from the original on February 7, 2021.
  45. ^ Klotz, Irene (May 13, 2015). "Singer Sarah Brightman calls off flight to space station". Reuters. Archived from the original on October 22, 2020.
  46. ^ Northon, Karen (June 7, 2019). "NASA Opens International Space Station to New Commercial Opportunities". NASA. Archived from the original on October 1, 2021. Retrieved June 24, 2019.
  47. ^ Atkinson, Ian (September 15, 2021). "SpaceX launches Inspiration4, first all-private orbital mission". nasaspaceflight.com. Archived from the original on September 16, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021.
  48. ^ .Davenport, Justin (September 18, 2021). "Inspiration4 and all-civilian crew return to Earth with splashdown off Florida coast". nasapaceflight.com. Archived from the original on October 7, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021.
  49. ^ "First Private Spacewalk in SpaceX Capsule Achieves New Milestone". The New York Times. September 12, 2024. Retrieved September 12, 2024.
  50. ^ Sheetz, Michael (June 2, 2021). "Axiom Space expands SpaceX private crew launch deal, with four total missions to the space station". CNBC. Archived from the original on May 29, 2023. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
  51. ^ "Axiom-2 Official Overview". Axiom Space. Archived from the original on January 24, 2018. Retrieved June 18, 2023.
  52. ^ Klotz, Irene (September 17, 2014). "Boeing's 'space taxi' includes seat for a tourist". Reuters. Archived from the original on March 16, 2016. Retrieved August 6, 2015.
  53. ^ "Boeing space taxi has tourist seat". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Thomson Reuters. September 18, 2014. Archived from the original on January 8, 2017. Retrieved January 7, 2017.
  54. ^ Foust, Jeff (November 1, 2010). "Bigelow still thinks big". The Space Review. Archived from the original on July 7, 2012. Retrieved July 29, 2012.
  55. ^ "The Space Island Group's Mission". Space Island Group. Archived from the original on April 27, 2013. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  56. ^ "A Space Hotel in Images: Orion Span's Luxury Aurora Station". Space.com. Archived from the original on October 17, 2018. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
  57. ^ "Orion Span claims its 'luxury space hotel' will open to its first guests in 2022 – Quartz". Quartz. April 9, 2018. Archived from the original on October 17, 2018. Retrieved October 16, 2018.
  58. ^ Clark, Anastasia (October 18, 2021). "U.S. firm sees 'exciting' moment as space tourism booms". Japan Today. Archived from the original on October 18, 2021. Retrieved October 18, 2021.
  59. ^ Foust, Jeff (October 12, 2022). "Dennis Tito and wife to be on second Starship flight around the moon". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved January 29, 2023.
  60. ^ Gilman, Victoria (August 10, 2005). "$100 Million Moon Trip: Space Tourism's Hot Ticket?". National Geographic News. Archived from the original on December 10, 2006. Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  61. ^ "Fly me to the moon". The Economist. June 30, 2012. Archived from the original on August 23, 2018. Retrieved August 21, 2015.
  62. ^ Owen, Jonathan (March 11, 2015). "Shooting for the Moon: time called on Isle of Man space race". The Independent. Archived from the original on September 14, 2017. Retrieved April 19, 2017.
  63. ^ Borenstein, Seth (February 27, 2013). "Tycoon wants to send married couple on Mars flyby". Excite. Associated Press. Archived from the original on March 3, 2016. Retrieved March 3, 2013.
  64. ^ Boucher, Marc (February 20, 2013). "The First Human Mission to Mars in 2018 (Updated)". SpaceRef. Archived from the original on April 11, 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  65. ^ Sonnenberg, Max (February 23, 2013). "Millionaire space tourist planning 'historic journey' to Mars in 2018". The Space Reporter. Archived from the original on February 26, 2013. Retrieved February 28, 2013.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  66. ^ "Dennis Tito's Prepared Remarks Before Congress on Human Mars Mission at Parabolic Arc". Parabolicarc.com. November 20, 2013. Archived from the original on September 10, 2018. Retrieved December 7, 2013.
  67. ^ "The Foundation". Archived from the original on October 13, 2015.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  68. ^ "Bigelow Aerospace and United Launch Alliance Announce Agreement to Place a B330 Habitat in Low Lunar Orbit". October 17, 2017. Archived from the original on January 15, 2018. Retrieved January 9, 2018.
  69. ^ "SpaceX to fly tourists around Moon". BBC News. February 27, 2017. Archived from the original on May 20, 2018. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
  70. ^ Yuhas, Alan (February 28, 2017). "SpaceX to send two people around the moon who paid for a 2018 private mission". The Guardian. Archived from the original on March 1, 2017. Retrieved March 2, 2017.
  71. ^ a b Foust, Jeff (February 6, 2018). "SpaceX no longer planning crewed missions on Falcon Heavy". SpaceNews. Retrieved February 6, 2018.
  72. ^ a b Pasztor, Andy. "Elon Musk Says SpaceX's New Falcon Heavy Rocket Unlikely to Carry Astronauts". The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on February 6, 2018. Retrieved February 6, 2018.
  73. ^ "Outer Space Treaty". U.S. Department of State. Archived from the original on June 9, 2019. Retrieved May 23, 2019.
  74. ^ robert.wickramatunga. "The Outer Space Treaty". unoosa.org. Archived from the original on April 27, 2011. Retrieved October 27, 2017.
  75. ^ "US draws up space tourism rules". BBC News. January 8, 2006. Archived from the original on March 25, 2010. Retrieved May 24, 2012.
  76. ^ "Code of Federal Regulations: Title 14, Chapter III". U.S. Government Printing Office. Archived from the original on July 16, 2012.
  77. ^ Boyle, Alan (December 23, 2004). "Private-spaceflight bill signed into law". NBC News. Archived from the original on October 28, 2017. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
  78. ^ "Private-spaceflight bill signed into law". NBC News. December 9, 2004. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  79. ^ "Committee Substitute for SB0009JUS" (PDF). New Mexico Legislature. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 19, 2015. Retrieved April 28, 2015.
  80. ^ a b "FAA Ends Commercial Space Astronaut Wings Program, Will Recognize Individuals Reaching Space on Website". Federal Aviation Administration. Archived from the original on August 19, 2023. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  81. ^ Elizabeth Howell (December 10, 2021). "FAA ending commercial astronaut wings program as more people reach space". Space.com. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  82. ^ Padhy, Ankit Kumar; Padhy, Amit Kumar (July 1, 2021). "Legal conundrums of space tourism". Acta Astronautica. 184: 269–273. Bibcode:2021AcAau.184..269P. doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2021.04.024. ISSN 0094-5765. Archived from the original on May 30, 2024. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
  83. ^ Mehta, Apoorva (September 13, 2023). "Legal Considerations in Space Tourism: Navigating the Final Frontier". Legal Desire Media and Insights. Archived from the original on October 6, 2023. Retrieved October 1, 2023.
  84. ^ Carreau, Mark (2008). "$30 million buys Austin resident a ride on Soyuz mission". The Houston Chronicle. Archived from the original on June 29, 2011. Retrieved October 12, 2008.
  85. ^ "Circus tycoon Guy Laliberté becomes first clown in space". The Guardian. London. Associated Press. October 1, 2009. Archived from the original on September 7, 2013. Retrieved October 1, 2009.
  86. ^ "Oliver Daemen, Youngest Astronaut Candidate To Fly With Jeff Bezos". VOI. July 19, 2021. Archived from the original on July 23, 2021. Retrieved July 21, 2021.
  87. ^ "Blue Origin's first astronaut spaceflight breaks four Guinness World Records titles". blueorigin.com. Archived from the original on October 23, 2021. Retrieved October 23, 2021.
  88. ^ a b Berger, Eric (February 1, 2021). "SpaceX announces first "free flyer" human spaceflight". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on February 1, 2021. Retrieved February 1, 2021.
  89. ^ Weitering, Hanneke (October 13, 2021). "Blue Origin launches William Shatner and crew of 3 to the final frontier and back". Space.com. Archived from the original on October 29, 2021. Retrieved October 13, 2021.
  90. ^ Foust, Jeff (May 13, 2021). "Japanese billionaire, Russian actress to fly to ISS". SpaceNews. Archived from the original on June 3, 2021. Retrieved May 14, 2021.
  91. ^ "Soyuz MS-20 lands following 12-day ISS mission". NASASpaceflight.com. December 19, 2021. Archived from the original on January 10, 2022. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  92. ^ "Blue Origin launches NS-19 with full passenger complement". NASASpaceflight.com. December 11, 2021. Archived from the original on June 15, 2022. Retrieved December 29, 2021.
  93. ^ Sheetz, Michael (March 31, 2022). "Jeff Bezos' Blue Origin launches first New Shepard space crew of 2022". CNBC. Archived from the original on May 11, 2022. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
  94. ^ Lueders, Kathy [@KathyLueders] (September 24, 2021). "Great news! We are targeting Feb. 21 for the launch of the Axiom 1 mission to the @Space_Station – the first private astronaut mission to the microgravity laboratory with @Axiom_Space. Our work continues to open space to more people than ever" (Tweet). Retrieved September 24, 2021 – via Twitter.
  95. ^ Berger, Eric (September 22, 2021). "Boeing still studying Starliner valve issues, with no launch date in sight". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on September 22, 2021. Retrieved September 22, 2021. Axiom's private mission to the space station on a Crew Dragon has been delayed until late February[.]
  96. ^ "Axiom Space names first private crew to launch to space station". collectSPACE. January 26, 2021. Archived from the original on March 10, 2021. Retrieved January 26, 2021.
  97. ^ Margetta, Robert (February 2, 2022). "NASA, Space Station Partners Approve First Axiom Mission Astronauts". NASA. Archived from the original on April 2, 2022. Retrieved February 2, 2022.
  98. ^ "Blue Origin Successfully Completes 21st Mission". Blue Origin. Archived from the original on June 5, 2022. Retrieved June 8, 2022.
  99. ^ "Blue Origin Successfully Completes 22nd Mission to Space". Blue Origin. Archived from the original on August 8, 2022. Retrieved August 7, 2022.
  100. ^ "Axiom Space to Hold All-Crew Press Conference Following Ax-2 Mission to Space Station". Axiom Space. May 31, 2023. Archived from the original on May 31, 2023. Retrieved May 31, 2023.
  101. ^ "Do Not Call Me A Space Tourist!". Richard Garriot's Space Mission. January 31, 2008. Archived from the original on June 27, 2009.
  102. ^ Knight, Will (April 20, 2002). "'Space tourist' insists on pioneering role". New Scientist. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013.
  103. ^ Boyle, Alan (March 29, 2004). "Space millionaire to mix science with pleasure". NBC News. Archived from the original on January 24, 2018. Retrieved April 16, 2020.
  104. ^ Foust, Jeff (November 29, 2004). "Is it time to dump the t-word?". The Space Review. Archived from the original on May 16, 2008. Retrieved June 3, 2008.
  105. ^ "Circus man ready to make 'fairy tale' come true in space". Space Travel. September 10, 2009. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013.
  106. ^ "Space Tourism? Majority of Americans say they wouldn't be interested". PEW Research Center. June 7, 2018. Archived from the original on January 18, 2022. Retrieved January 18, 2022.
  107. ^ McFall-Johnsen, Morgan. "NASA astronaut Megan McArthur's warning to space tourists: Spaceflight is uncomfortable and risky. It takes grit". Business Insider. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  108. ^ David, Leonard (October 3, 2006). "Space Tourism Survey Shows Cost, Access Key Selling Points". Space.com. Archived from the original on September 29, 2009. Retrieved December 10, 2006.
  109. ^ "EU official balks at space tourism". The Peninsula. June 15, 2007. Archived from the original on January 16, 2009.
  110. ^ "Prince William: Saving Earth should come before space tourism". BBC. October 14, 2021. Archived from the original on October 14, 2021. Retrieved October 14, 2021.
  111. ^ a b Ryan, Robert G.; Marais, Eloise A.; Balhatchet, Chloe J.; Eastham, Sebastian D. (June 2022). "Impact of Rocket Launch and Space Debris Air Pollutant Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone and Global Climate". Earth's Future. 10 (6): e2021EF002612. Bibcode:2022EaFut..1002612R. doi:10.1029/2021EF002612. ISSN 2328-4277. PMC 9287058. PMID 35865359.
  112. ^ a b Ross, Martin; Mills, Michael; Toohey, Darin (2010). "Potential climate impact of black carbon emitted by rockets". Geophysical Research Letters. 37 (24): n/a. Bibcode:2010GeoRL..3724810R. doi:10.1029/2010GL044548. Archived from the original on October 1, 2021. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  113. ^ Mann, Adam (October 22, 2010). "Space tourism to accelerate climate change". Nature. doi:10.1038/news.2010.558. Archived from the original on July 21, 2012. Retrieved July 27, 2012.
  114. ^ "Space tourism from companies like SpaceX, Virgin Galactic and Blue Origin could undo work to repair ozone layer, study finds". Sky News. Archived from the original on July 19, 2022. Retrieved July 19, 2022.
  115. ^ Carter, Travis. "Vacation: The Final Frontier". NYU Livewire. Archived from the original on April 30, 2013.
  116. ^ "Space Tourism 1 Lecture". Robert A. Goehlich. Archived from the original on March 25, 2013. Retrieved April 30, 2013.
  117. ^ "Worldwide Course Prepares Students for Space Tourism Business". Embry-Riddle Newsroom. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved September 30, 2023.
  118. ^ "The Economic Impact of Commercial Space Transportation on the U.S. Economy in 2009" (PDF). Federal Aviation Administration. September 2010. p. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 26, 2012. Retrieved May 6, 2012.
  119. ^ Spotts, Pete (May 6, 2011). "A space tourism trip to the moon? It could happen by 2015". The Christian Science Monitor. Archived from the original on August 2, 2012. Retrieved May 6, 2012.
  120. ^ "Global Space Tourism Market". researchandmarkets.com. July 2022. Archived from the original on October 2, 2023. Retrieved September 30, 2023.

Further reading

[edit]
[edit]