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Solar power in the United Kingdom

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Top-left: solar panels on the BedZED development in the London Borough of Sutton. Bottom: residential rooftop solar PV in Wetherby, Leeds. Top-right: the CIS Tower was clad in building-integrated PV and connected to the grid in 2005.

Solar power has a small but growing role in electricity production in the United Kingdom.

There were few installations until 2010, when the UK government mandated subsidies in the form of a feed-in tariff (FIT), paid for by all electricity consumers. In the following years the cost of photovoltaic (PV) panels fell,[1] and the FIT rates for new installations were reduced in stages until the scheme closed to new applications in 2019.[2]

As of 2023, over 14.4 gigawatt (GW) had been installed, a third of which was rooftop solar.[3] Annual generation was 14 TWh in 2022 (4.3% of UK electricity consumption) and peak generation was more than 11 GW.[3] PV panels have a capacity factor of around 10% in the UK climate. Home rooftop solar panels installed in 2022 were estimated to pay back their cost in ten to twenty years.[4]

Solar potential

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Solar potential in the UK and on the European continent (different colour scale)

The UK's annual insolation is in the range of 750–1,100 kilowatt-hours per square metre (kWh/m2). London receives 0.52 and 4.74 kWh/m2 per day in December and July, respectively.[5] While the sunniest parts of the UK receive much less solar radiation than the sunniest parts of Europe, the country's insolation in the south is comparable with that of central European countries, including Germany, which generates about 10.7% of its electricity from solar power.[6] Additionally, the UK's higher wind speeds cool PV modules, leading to higher efficiencies than could be expected at these levels of insolation.[7] Capacity factors of solar PV reached values between 9.8% and 11.4% in the UK in the 2013-2022 period.[8]

Derry Newman, chief executive of Solarcentury, argues that the UK's "famously overcast weather does not make it an unsuitable place for solar power, as solar panels work on daylight, not necessarily direct sunlight."[9] Some solar cells work better in direct sunlight, others can use more diffuse light. While insolation rates are lower in England than France and Spain, they are still usable.[10]

Solar PV installed capacity and generation

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See also: Growth of photovoltaics
Year end 2008[11] 2009[11] 2010[11][12] 2011[13] 2012[14][15] 2013[15][13] 2014[13] 2015[13] 2016[13] 2017[16][13] 2018[16][13] 2019[16][13] 2020[3] 2021[3] 2022[3] 2023
Capacity[16][3]
(MW) 		22 27 95 965 1,736 2,822 5,378 9,118 11,562 12,690 12,992 13,265 13,579 13,965 14,660 15,993
Generation
(GW·h) 		17 20 33 244 1,354 2,010 4,054 7,533 10,395 11,457 12,736 12,418 12,903 12,138 13,921 13,826
Effective Capacity factor [a] 0.087 0.084 0.039 0.028 0.088 0.081 0.086 0.094 0.102 0.103 0.111 0.111 0.108 0.099 0.108 0.103
% of total
electricity consumption 		<0.01 <0.01 0.01 0.07 0.37 0.64 1.2 2.2 3.1 3.4 3.8 3.8 4.1 3.9 4.3 4.8
Solar PV deployment in the UK. Capacity in megawatt (MWp)
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
Source: DECC – Department of Energy & Climate Change, Statistics – Solar photovoltaics deployment (period from 2010 onward)[16]

The table above shows electricity production from solar panels as a percentage of the final consumption of electricity in the UK and not gross supply to the grid. These numbers may be updated as the UK government has an average time lag of around 6 months in completing the backlog of officially processing the large number of solar installations.

  1. ^ 0.108 here means 10.8% for example. For more information on calculations see Capacity Factor

History

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PV capacity in watts per capita by region in 2013[14]
  0–1 watt
  1–10 watts
  10–50 watts
  50–100 watts
  100–200 watts
  200–350 watts

In 2006, the United Kingdom had installed about 12 MW of photovoltaic capacity,[17] which represented only 0.3% of total European solar PV of 3,400 MW.[18] In August 2006, there was widespread news coverage in the United Kingdom of the major high street electrical retailers Currys' decision to stock PV modules, manufactured by Sharp, at a cost of £1,000 per module. The retailer also provided an installation service.

Solar power installations increased rapidly in subsequent years, as a result of reductions in the cost of PV panels, and the introduction of a feed-in-tariff (FiT) subsidy in April 2010.[1]

FiT payments for new installations were cut a review announced by DECC on 9 June 2011.[19] As a result, large arrays of solar panels became a less attractive investment opportunity for developers, especially for projects greater than 250 kW, so large field arrays such as these were less likely to be built beyond the 1 August 2011 cut-off date.[20] At the end of 2011, there were 230,000 solar power projects in the UK,[1] with a total installed generating capacity of 750 MW.[21]

In 2012, the government announced that 4 million homes across the UK would be powered by the sun within eight years,[22] representing 22 gigawatts (GW) of installed solar power capacity by 2020.[1] At the end of September 2013, retailer IKEA announced that solar panel packages for houses would be sold at 17 UK stores by July 2014. The decision followed a successful pilot project at their Thurrock store, during which one system was sold almost every day. The panels were manufactured by the Chinese company Hanergy.[23] This partnership did not last and in October 2015 Ikea ended its relationship with Hanergy.[24]

Colliery behind a solar farm in North Yorkshire in 2017

By 2016 the total installed capacity was over 10,000 MW. In the summer half-year from April to September 2016, UK solar panels produced more electricity (6,964 GWh) than did coal power (6,342 GWh); each meeting about 5% of demand.[25]

UK solar PV installed capacity at the end of 2017 was 12.8 GW, representing a 3.4% share of total electricity generation.[16] Provisionally, as of the end of January 2019 there was 13,123 MW installed UK solar capacity across 979,983 installations. This is an increase of 323 MW in slightly more than a year.[26] A new record peak generation from photovoltaics was set at 11.2 GW on 02 June 2024.[27]

New solar PV installations slowed in 2020, though to a lesser extent, with 217 MW being added in 2020 compared with 273 MW in 2019. COVID-19 restrictions may have caused delays in some projects.[16]

2022 saw a big increase in domestic installations with over 130,000 installations added in the 10kW or less range, to take the total number of these small-scale installations to 1,179,495.[28] Total capacity as of February 2023 stood at 14,432MW, with an average of 72MW added each month over the previous six months.[28]

Solar PV by size of installations

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Cumulative installed capacity[29]
Size July 2018 (MW) Dec 2021 (MW)[28] Dec 2022 (MW)[28]
0 to < 4 kW 2,567.9 2,862.2 3,145.9
4 to < 10 kW 224.7 331.1 489.9
10 to < 50 kW 786.8 965.4 1,048.5
50 kW to < 5 MW 3,468.5 3,633.5 3,665.1
5 to < 25 MW 4,310.9 4,260.4 4,314.0
> 25 MW 1,512.4 1,586.7 1,626.7
Total 12,871.2 13,639.3 14,289.3
Pre 2009 estimate
(for comparison) 		14.6

Residential solar PV

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According to a report on behalf of the European Commission, in 2015 the United Kingdom had 2,499 MW of residential solar PV capacity, with 775,000 residential solar PV producers, representing 2.7% of households.[30] The average size of residential solar PV systems was estimated to be 3.25 kW, and the technical potential for residential solar PV in the United Kingdom was estimated at 41,636 MW.[30]

MCS (Microgeneration Certification Scheme) claim 61,320 UK properties had solar panels installed in 2021, an increase of 71% on the previous year.[31] The average payback time for residential solar PV in the UK was 11.4 years as of 2015,[30] but subsequent increases in the price of domestic energy have significantly decreased this. The April 2022 rise in the price cap saw payback times reduced on average by 2.5 years.[32]

Some of the advantages of small scale residential solar include eliminating the need for extra land, keeping cost saving advantages in local communities and empowering households to become producer/consumers of renewable electricity, raising awareness of wasteful consumption habits and environmental issues through direct experience. It will take anything from 4 to 20 years to recoup the money spent on solar panels, this depends on a number of factors for example how many modules you have, how big they are, if they are south facing and where you live. Some studies have found that feed in tariff schemes have disproportionately benefited wealthier households with little or no assistance to help poorer household access financial loans or affordable schemes, whilst the costs of schemes are distributed evenly across utility bills.

In his Spring Statement of March 2022, Chancellor Rishi Sunak announced a reduction of VAT on the installation of energy-saving materials (including solar PV systems) to 0% (previously 5%) for a period of five years from 1 April 2022, stating "the measure is intended to incentivise the take-up of ESMs in line with the government's net zero objectives".[33]

Large scale solar power parks

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Name MW County Location Status
Botley West Solar Farm 840 Oxfordshire Proposed[34]
Cottam Solar Project 600 Lincolnshire Approved[35]
Amlwch / Llyn Alaw 350 Anglesey Proposed[36]
Cleve Hill Solar Park 350 Kent Under construction [37]
Gate Burton - Solar & Energy Storage Park 531 Lincolnshire Approved[38]
Sunnica Energy Farm (East and West) 500 Cambridgeshire Approved[39]
Longfield Solar Energy Farm 500 Essex Proposed[40]
Heckington Fen Solar Park 500 Lincolnshire Proposed[40]
West Burton Solar Project 480 Lincolnshire Proposed[40]
Mallard Pass Solar Farm 350 Lincolnshire Approved[41]
Little Crow Solar Park 150 Lincolnshire Approved, awaiting construction[40]
Wentlooge Renewable Energy Hub 125 Gwent Proposed[40]
Llanwern Solar farm 75 Newport Operational since 2021
Shotwick solar farm 72 Flintshire Operational since 2016[42]

The first solar park in Wales became operational in 2011 at Rhosygilwen, north Pembrokeshire.[43]

On 13 July 2011, construction of the largest solar park in the United Kingdom was completed in Newark-on-Trent in Nottinghamshire. The 4.9 MW free-field system was built in just seven weeks after being granted planning permission. The system generates an estimated 4,860 MWh of electricity (an average power of 560 kW) into the national grid each year.[44] There are several other examples of 4–5 MW field arrays of photovoltaics in the UK, including the 5 MW Language Solar Park, the 5 MW Westmill Solar Farm, the 4.51 MW Marsten Solar Farm and Toyota's 4.6 MW plant in Burnaston, Derbyshire.[45]

The first large solar farm in the United Kingdom, a 32 MW solar farm, began construction in November 2012 in Leicestershire, between the runways of the former military airfield, Wymeswold.[46]

As of June 2014 there were 18 schemes generating more than 5 MW and 34 in planning or construction in Wales.[47]

In 2023, the queue for grid connection was a problem.[48]

Planning considerations

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Adding solar panels to the external elevations and roofs of a dwelling will change the appearance of both the property and the local street view. This in some cases will require planning permission from the local authority. For a Listed Building or in a Conservation Area, planning permission is mandatory. Otherwise, the owner of a domestic dwelling where solar panels are being installed can in most cases proceed under their Permitted Development rights, as long as certain height limitations are adhered to.

Government programmes

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The Energy Saving Trust that administers government grants for domestic photovoltaic systems, the Low Carbon Building Programme, estimated that an installation for an average-sized house would cost between £5,000–£8,000, with most domestic systems usually between 1.5 and 3 kWp, and yield annual savings between £150 and £200 (in 2008).[49]

The Green Energy for Schools programme was intended to provide 100 schools across the UK with solar panels. The first school in Wales was at Tavernspite, in Pembrokeshire, and received panels worth £20,000.[50]

The average UK home consumes about 3,000 kWh of electricity per year, equivalent to about 1 ton of CO2 per home (dependent on electricity industry energy mix). That equates to 25 million tons of CO2 per year from UK domestic electricity consumption. As of September 2019, there is no compulsion for new builds to incorporate any solar power generation.

Feed-in tariff

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Main article: Feed-in tariffs in the United Kingdom

Discussion on implementation of a feed-in tariff programme concluded on 26 September 2008, and the results were published in 2009.[51] The UK government agreed in April 2010 to pay for all grid-connected generated electricity at an initial rate of up to 41.3 pence (US$0.67) per kWh, whether used locally or exported.[52] The rates proved more attractive than necessary, and in August 2011, were drastically reduced for installations over 50 kW,[53] a policy change criticised as marking "the end of the UK's solar industry as we know it".[54] Subsequently, feed-in tariff rates were adjusted annually by the government,[55] and a requirement was introduced for new claims that the home's rating on the Energy Performance Certificate (EPC) had to be 'D' or better.[56] The amount of electricity exported is not usually measured for domestic installations; instead it is calculated by assuming that 50% of the electricity produced is exported into the grid.

The Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy published a consultation on 19 July 2018, stating their intention to close the FIT scheme to new applicants from 1 April 2019[57] and not replace it with a new subsidy.[58]

The Feed-in Tariff was closed to new entries on 1 April 2019, but households are still able to claim on existing tariffs where available.

Smart Export Guarantee

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On 10 June 2019, Ofgem announced[59] that BEIS had introduced the Smart Export Guarantee (SEG), in force from 1 January 2020. This is not a direct replacement of the feed-in tariff scheme, but rather an initiative that rewards solar generators for electricity exported to the grid. Energy suppliers with more than 150,000 domestic customers must provide at least one export tariff.[60] The export tariff rate must be greater than zero. Export is measured by smart meters which the energy supplier will install free of charge.

The SEG is available to households that generate up to 5 MW from solar PV, wind, micro-combined heat and power, hydro or anaerobic digestion.[61]

Contract for Difference

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The Contract for Difference (CfD) scheme, introduced in 2013 to replace the Renewables Obligation, excluded solar PV schemes from the competitive auctions in 2015. The majority of successful CfD auction bidders came from the wind sector. In 2020 the UK government reversed this decision, opening the door for PV projects to compete in the CfD auctions against onshore wind projects.[62]

Future

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Decentralised smaller scale generators which are not connected directly to the transmission network are forecast to increase.[63] New solar farms and battery storage may help to meet increased demand from electric vehicles.[64]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ a b c d Yeganeh Torbati (9 February 2012). "UK wants sustained cuts to solar panel tariffs". Reuters. Archived from the original on 3 December 2018.
  2. ^ "Feed-in Tariffs (FIT)". Ofgem. Retrieved 17 January 2024.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Energy Trends March 2023
  4. ^ "Are solar panels worth it?". Architectural Digest. 11 October 2022. Retrieved 15 October 2022.
  5. ^ "UK and Ireland Annual Insolation Map". ContemporaryEnergy.co.uk. 2007.
  6. ^ "Snapshot of Global PV 1992–2014" (PDF). iea-pvps.org/index.php?id=32. International Energy Agency – Photovoltaic Power Systems Programme. 30 March 2015. Archived from the original on 7 April 2015.
  7. ^ "Solar Cell Efficiency". solarpower2day.net.
  8. ^ "UK: load factor of solar PV 2022". Statista. Retrieved 12 April 2024.
  9. ^ "UK's biggest solar energy farm connects to national grid". The Guardian. 27 June 2011.
  10. ^ "Colored Solar Panels Don't Need Direct Sunlight". inhabitat.com. 18 September 2009.
  11. ^ a b c "ENERGY TRENDS – Table 5: Capacity of, and electricity generated from, renewable sources from 2008 to 2010" (PDF). decc.gov.uk. Department of Energy and Climate Change. June 2011. p. 27. Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 December 2012. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
  12. ^ EUROBSER'VER. "Photovoltaic Barometer – installations 2010 and 2011" (PDF). energies-renouvelables.org. p. 6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 August 2014. Retrieved 1 May 2013.
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h "Energy Trends: UK renewables". Department of Energy & Climate Change. June 2021. p. Renewable electricity capacity and generation (ET 6.1 – quarterly). Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  14. ^ a b "Global Market Outlook for Photovoltaics 2014–2018" (PDF). epia.org. EPIA – European Photovoltaic Industry Association. p. 24. Archived from the original (PDF) on 25 June 2014. Retrieved 12 June 2014.
  15. ^ a b "ENERGY TRENDS – Table 6.1. Renewable electricity capacity and generation" (PDF). Department of Energy & Climate Change. March 2014. p. 50. Retrieved 18 June 2014.
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy (27 May 2021) [29 May 2014]. Solar photovoltaics deployment April 2021 (Report). Retrieved 21 June 2021. {{cite report}}: |author= has generic name (help)
  17. ^ Observ'ER. "Observ'ER – l'observatoire des énergies renouvelables" (PDF). energies-renouvelables.org.
  18. ^ "Solar Photovoltaics". epia.org. Archived from the original on 28 June 2011. Retrieved 9 March 2011.
  19. ^ "Fast-track review of Feed-in Tariffs". GOV.UK. 18 March 2011.
  20. ^ "Tariffs payable per kWh of electricity produced – FI Tariffs – Feed-In Tariffs". fitariffs.co.uk.
  21. ^ European Photovoltaic Industry Association (2012). "Market Report 2011".[permanent dead link‍]
  22. ^ Harvey, Fiona (9 February 2012). "Greg Barker: 4m homes will be solar-powered by 2020". The Guardian.
  23. ^ "Ikea to sell solar panels in UK. stores". The Guardian. Reuters. 30 September 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  24. ^ "Ikea ends residential solar panel deal with Hanergy". Financial Times. 2 November 2015.
  25. ^ "Analysis: UK solar beats coal over half a year". Carbon Brief. 4 October 2016. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
  26. ^ "Solar PV deployment: February 2019". GOV.UK. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
  27. ^ "PV Live Sheffield University". Retrieved 21 June 2021.
  28. ^ a b c d [1] Solar PV Deployment UK Stats 2023
  29. ^ "UK Solar & PV Market Report 2019". UK Business Energy. 24 September 2018. Retrieved 28 September 2019.
  30. ^ a b c "Residential prosumers in the European energy union" (PDF).
  31. ^ "Annual UK solar PV installations hit output milestone". MCS. 21 March 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  32. ^ "Solar panels pay for themselves 2.5 years faster following price cap rise". MakeMyHouseGreen Blog. May 2022. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  33. ^ "The Value Added Tax (Installation of Energy-Saving Materials) Order 2022". GOV.UK. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  34. ^ "Home - Botley West". botleywest.co.uk. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  35. ^ "Major solar project given go-ahead by government". BBC News. Retrieved 6 September 2024.
  36. ^ "Mega solar sites planned over thousands of acres of land on Anglesey". June 2021. Retrieved 15 September 2021.
  37. ^ Butler, Rory (25 April 2023). "Project Fortress: Construction starts on 'UK's largest solar plant'". Construction Wave. Retrieved 19 June 2023.
  38. ^ "Government approves three new solar farms that could power 400,000 homes". Sky News. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
  39. ^ "Sunnica £600m solar farm approved despite objections". BBC. Retrieved 12 July 2024.
  40. ^ a b c d e Cite error: The named reference :1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  41. ^ "Government approves solar farm despite opposition". BBC. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
  42. ^ "Power plant profile: Shotwick Solar PV Park, UK". Power Technology. Retrieved 31 May 2024.
  43. ^ "Wales' first solar park powers up in Pembrokeshire". BBC. 8 July 2011. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
  44. ^ "Conergy completes record-breaking UK solar park". Solar Power Portal. 13 July 2011.
  45. ^ Hughes, Emma (3 August 2011). "Just how many solar projects beat the fast track review?". Solar Power Portal. Semiconductor Media, Ltd. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
  46. ^ "Construction Begins on Britain's Largest Solar Plant". solartribune.com.
  47. ^ "Solar parks: Large scale schemes 'to double' in Wales". BBC. 25 June 2014. Retrieved 25 June 2014.
  48. ^ "Economics of solar have 'switched' but grid and 'cumulative overdevelopment' challenges remain". 2 February 2023.
  49. ^ "Grants and Loans". energysavingtrust.org.uk. Archived from the original on 11 October 2008.
  50. ^ "Free solar power first for school". BBC News. 19 May 2008..
  51. ^ "UK Renewable Energy Strategy Consultation". berr.gov.uk. Archived from the original on 12 October 2008. Retrieved 20 August 2008.
  52. ^ "Feed-in Tariff scheme". Energy Saving Trust. 1 April 2011. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
  53. ^ Nichols, Will (1 August 2011). "Curtain falls on solar subsidy boom". BusinessGreen. Incisive Media Investments Limited. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
  54. ^ Hughes, Emma (1 August 2011). "The end of large-scale solar as we know it". Solar Power Portal. Semiconductor Media, Ltd. Retrieved 4 August 2011.
  55. ^ "Feed-In Tariff (FIT) rates". ofgem.gov.uk.
  56. ^ https://www.ofgem.gov.uk/system/files/docs/2016/02/feed-in_tariff_generation_and_export_tables_08.02.2016_-_31.03.2016.pdf [bare URL PDF]
  57. ^ "Feed-in Tariffs (FIT)". Ofgem.
  58. ^ Jardine, Chris (8 August 2018). "Renewable Energy News – July 2018".
  59. ^ "Smart Export Guarantee (SEG)". Ofgem. 10 June 2019.
  60. ^ "The future for small-scale low-carbon generation: part A". GOV.UK. 8 January 2019.
  61. ^ "Smart Export Guarantee (SEG)". Ofgem. Retrieved 20 June 2022.
  62. ^ "Solar Power Portal BEIS backs down on CfDs as it allows solar back in the scheme".
  63. ^ "Future Energy Scenarios in five minutes" (PDF). National Grid. Retrieved 20 April 2019.
  64. ^ "Battery storage and solar farms to power 100 UK 'Electric Forecourts'". edie. 29 March 2019.
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