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Approximate political map of Punjab from 1764 to 1803 by Joseph Davey Cunningham. The area under Sikh-rule is coloured blue.
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A Sikh state is a political entity that is ruled by Sikhs.[1][2] There were various Sikh states, empires, and dynasties, beginning with the First Sikh State to the Sikh-ruled princely states of British India.

History

Further information: History of Sikhism

Theological underpinnings

The bards Satta Doom and Balvand Rai state the following in the Guru Granth Sahib regarding Guru Nanak establishing a raj (governance or rule):[3]

Nanak established the Dominion by raising
the fort of Truth on firm foundations …
With might and bravery of One’s wisdom-sword,
Perfection bestowed the gift of life …
The Light and the method were same,
the Sovereign only changed the body.
Impeccable Divine canopy waves,
the Throne of Guru-ship is occupied.

— Satta Doom and Balvand Rai, Guru Granth Sahib, page 966
Guru Gobind Singh laid the foundation for later Sikh sovereignty[3]

The Sikh concept of miri-piri emphasizes that spirituality and temporality are intrinsically linked to one another, legitimizing Sikh aims to establish their own sovereignty.[3] Guru Gobind Singh taught the principles of Raj Karega Khalsa as forming the basis for Sikh-rule.[3] In-response to a question posed by Bhai Nand Lal, the tenth guru responded as follows on the issue of sovereignty:[3]

Nand Lal, listen to this truth:
I will establish the Raj (Sovereignty). (56)
The four categories will become one category,
I will recite Vahiguru (Awe-Wisdom) recitation. (57)
[They will] mount horses and fly hawks,
The Turks (empire) will flee seeing them. (58)
I will make one fight a hundred and twenty-five thousand.
I will free those Singhs (warriors) who ascend (die). (59)
The spears will wave and the elephants will be caparisoned,
The nine-instruments will resound from gate to gate. (60)
When a hundred and twenty-five thousand guns will discharge,
Then the Khalsa will be victorious from wherever the sun shines and sets. (61)
The Khalsa will rule and no one will be a dissenter,
All will unite after exhaustion, those who take refuge will survive. (62)

— Bhai Nand Lal of Goya, Nasihatnamah/Tankhahnamah, stanzas 56-62

Establishment of the first Sikh rule

Main article: First Sikh State

The first Sikh polity, albeit a short-lived one, was founded by Banda Singh Bahadur in 1710, after his forces captured Sirhind and issued silver rupee coinage from the Mukhlisgarh Fort based at the Shivalik range.[4] This was a republic that existed from 1710 to 1716.[3] The issuing of coinage was a mark of sovereignty, marking the beginning of Banda's rule over Sirhind.[4] Furthermore, Banda rejected using both the traditional Indic Bikrami calendar and the Islamicate calendar, creating his own calendar where the first year commenced on the date of his victory over Sirhind.[4] Banda's state issued coins in the name of the Sikh gurus.[4]

Formation of the Sikh Confederacy

Main article: Sikh Confederacy

Between the period of 1726–1733, Zakaria Khan, the Mughal viceroy of Lahore province, enacted a genocidal policy against the Sikhs.[5] After the oppressive anti-Sikh government policy failed to get rid of the Sikh threat, the Mughal government decided to try pacifying the Sikhs by granting them an official jagir (estate) grant.[5] Upon Sikh request, a Nawab title was offered to the Sikhs, which was bestowed upon Kapur Singh in 1733 (since Darbara Singh had rejected it), alongside a khilat and bag of gold.[5] In 1734, Nawab Kapur Singh divided the Sikh congregation into two groups: the Taruna Dal and the Buddha Dal.[5] Each of these Dals ("armies") were further sub-divided into five groups (with Kapur Singh's own grouping being the additional).[5] After a short period of peace between the Mughals and Sikhs, differences between them started to grow again due to the restless and provocative antics of the Taruna Dal, and the Nawab-ship that was bestowed upon the Sikhs earlier by the Mughal Empire was revoked and the jagir was confiscated in 1735.[5] Thus, the former anti-Sikh genocidal policies of the Mughals was put in-place again and the Sikhs once again had to disperse to places of safe haven, such as the Lakhi Jungle.[5] With the invasion of India by Nadir Shah between January–May 1739 and the total destruction of the Mughal administration in the Punjab as a result, the Sikhs saw an opportunity for themselves and pillaged and sought revenge on their enemies.[5] On 1 July 1745, Zakarian Khan died and he was succeeded by less-effective Mughal administrators, such as Yahiya Khan.[5] After this point, Kapur Singh divided the Sikh congregation into twenty-five bands (jathas), with each band consisting of about a hundred young Sikh men under the command of a respective leader.[5] With this reform, a basic confederation structure for military activities of the Sikhs was forming shape.[5] After an initial invasion of India by Ahmad Shah Abdali, Kapur Singh realized that the Afghan invader would surely return for more loot, additionally due to the strict ruling-style of Moin-ul-Mulk, Kapur Singh resolved to reform the then sixty-five (the number of Sikh bands had since swelled from the twenty-five bands that had been established earlier) Sikh bands into eleven misls on the annual Vaisakhi gathering at Amritsar on 29 March 1748, establishing the Sikh Confederacy and its constituent misls, with the united army of all the Sikhs called the Dal Khalsa.[5] The earlier Taruna Dal and Buddha Dal division system that was established earlier in 1734 was retained, with each of the eleven misls being assigned as part of a dal, with the seminal division being as follows:[5]

  • Buddha Dal:[5]
    • Ahluwalia Misl[5]
    • Dallewalia Misl[5]
    • Faizulpuria Misl[5]
    • Karorasinghia Misl[5]
    • Nishanwalia Misl[5]
    • Shaheedan Misl[5]
  • Taruna Dal:[5]
    • Bhangi Misl[5]
    • Kanhaiya Misl[5]
    • Nakai Misl[5]
    • Ramgarhia Misl[5]
    • Sukarchakia Misl[5]

Establishment of Sikh monarchies

Miniature painting of Sikh rulers Surjan Singh and his son Trilok Singh, ca.1830–1840

After the fall of Sirhind in 1763, many Sikh kingdoms began to take root after being founded by sardars of the precursory Sikh misls, such as Patiala, Jind, Nabha, Kalsia, Manimajra, and Kaithal.[6][7][8][9][10][11] The sarkar of Sirhind was cut-up and distributed amongst hundreds of both petty and prominent Sikh sardars.[12] The Sukerchakia Misl formed the Sikh Empire after the capture of Lahore in 1799.[13][14]

Khalistan movement

Main article: Khalistan movement

Some segments of the Sikh community advocate for an independent state called Khalistan.[15]

Administration

Parganas, 'ilaqa, and ta'alluqa administrative divisions of Sikh polities tended to much smaller scale in-size compared to the Mughal administrative system and more numerous.[12] An example of this is the Gujranwala district, which consisted of twenty-six ta'alluqas during Sikh-rule but three or four parganas during Mughal-rule.[12] An explanation of this is when Sikhs occupied formerly Mughal-controlled territory, they divvied up the Mughal parganas amongst the Sikh sardars.[12] A subdivision of a pargana or ta'alluqa was a tappa or topes.[12] Sikh-rule over Kashmir led to the establishment of four new Kashmiri parganas.[12] The Mughal pargana was comparable in-nature to the Sikh ta'alluqa.[12] At the ta'alluqa-level, the Mughal office of the 'amil was comparable to the Sikh office of the kardar.[12] The basis of revenue administration came from the positions of the muqaddam, chaudhari, and the qanungo.[12]

The Sikh polities did not made radical changes to the pre-existing system but rather made slight changes, which do make them discernible from their predecessors.[12] Whilst in main areas during the Mughal-period the zabt method was predominant, during Sikh-rule it was the ghallabakhshi and kankut that were dominant.[12] However, the most dominant systems of assessment and collection during Sikh-rule were the batai and kankut, however the zabt method was employed in some areas.[12] Outside of main areas, older methods continued unabated for the most part.[12] The ijara practice became popularized during Sikh-rule but this method led to lower shares of produce being received by the state due to lower rates of assessment.[12]

The jagirs bestowed by Sikh states were similar to the mansabdari jagirs that were granted by the Mughals.[12] The dharmarth grants issued by Sikh states were similar to the madad-i-ma'ash grants of the Mughals.[12] A key difference however was the proportion of revenue alienated by the way of jagir was much smaller during Sikh-rule in-comparison to Mughal-rule.[12] However, the proportion of revenue alienated by the way of dharmarth was much larger during Sikh-rule compared to the predecessor Mughals.[12] Another difference was that the proportion of hereditary jagirs was larger during Sikh-rule.[12]

The three classes in-relation to land tenures was the same between Mughal and Sikh-rule:[12]

  1. Peasant proprietor – the most important position[12]
  2. Superior owner (zamindar or ta'alluqdar)[12]
  3. Tenant[12]

During Sikh-rule, the position of the peasant proprietor improved in-relation to the ta'alluqdar whilst the position of the tenant improved in-relation to the other two classes above it.[12] Sikh ruling classes received a relatively smaller share of surplus land revenue in-comparison to their Mughal counterparts, with the revenue during Sikh-rule being distributed to many sardars and rajas (with both being relatively equal in importance).[12] Thus, the peasant proprietor and tenant classes were able to enjoy much of the produce they produced.[12] During the reign of Ranjit Sikh of Lahore State, there were no instances of agricultural crises.[12]

List of historical Sikh states and dynasties

The following list enumerates historical Sikh states, empires, and dynasties in chronological order, ordered by their establishment year:[16]

State or Dynasty Established Disestablished Founder(s) Capital(s) Citation
Early Sikh states
Anandpur 1655 6 December 1704 Tegh Bahadur Anandpur [8]
First Sikh State 1709 1715 Banda Singh Lohgarh [8]
Nawab of Amritsar 1733 1735 Kapur Singh Amritsar [8]
Daranat Shah's State 1740 1741 Deep Singh Unknown [8]
Sikh Confederacy 1748 1799 Kapur Singh Amritsar [8]
Constituent Misls of the Sikh Confederacy
Ahluwalia Misl 1748 1846 Jassa Singh Baggoki (1748 - 1754)

Fatehabad (1754 - 1780)

Kapurthala (1780 - 1825)

Jagraon (1825-1826)

Kapurthala (1826-1846)

[8]
Bhangi Misl 1748 1802 Chhajja Singh Sohal (1748 - 1750)

Gilwali (1750 - 1756)

Amritsar (1756 - 1802)

[8]
Kanhaiya Misl 1748 1811 Jai Singh Sohian (1748 - 1752)

Batala (1752-1762)

Mukerian (1762 - 1811)

[8]
Ramgarhia Misl 1748 1816 Jassa Singh Hargobindgarh(1748 - 1778)

Tosham (1778 - 1783)

Hargobindgarh (1783 - 1816)

[8]
Singhpuria Misl 1748 1804 Kapur Singh Jalandhar [8]
Panjgarhia Misl 1748 1809 Karora Singh Shamchaurasi [8]
Nishanwalia Misl 1748 1809 Dasaundha Singh Ambala [8]
Sukerchakia Misl 1748 1799 Charat Singh Gujranwala [8]
Dallewalia Misl 1748 1807 Gulab Singh Rahon [8]
Nakai Misl 1748 1803 Heera Singh Baherwal Kalan [8]
Shaheedan Misl 1734 1809 Deep Singh Shahzadpur [8]
Sikh monarchal states
Patiala State 1762 20 August 1948 Ala Singh Patiala [17]: 1398 
Jind State 1763 20 August 1948 Gajpat Singh Jind [17]: 1395 
Nabha State 1763 20 August 1948 Hamir Singh Nabha [17]: 1398 [18]
Ladwa State 1763 1846 Gurdit Singh Ladwa [19][20][21][22][23]
Faridkot State 1763 20 August 1948 Hamir Singh Faridkot [17]: 1395 
Kalsia State 1809 1948 Gurbaksh Singh Chhachhrauli [17]: 1396 
Manimajra State 1764 1875 Gharib Das Manimajra [24]: 158–160 [25]
Kaithal State 1767 1843 Desu Singh Kaithal [26][27]
Kapurthala State 1846 20 August 1948 Nihal Singh Kapurthala [17]: 1396 [28]
Sikh Empire 1799 1849 Ranjit Singh Gujranwala (1799–1802)

Lahore (1802–1849)

See also

Notes

References

  1. ^ Singh, Gurbachan; Gyani, Lal Singh (1946). The Idea of the Sikh State. Lahore Book Shop.
  2. ^ Ramusack, Barbara; Copland, Ian (2004). Singh, Harbans (ed.). The Encyclopedia of Sikhism. Vol. 4: S–Z (2nd ed.). Patiala: Punjabi University. pp. 166–177. ISBN 817380530X.
  3. ^ a b c d e f Singh, Harinder (15 June 2020). "Raj Karega Khalsa: The Khalsa & The Rule". Sikh Research Institute. Retrieved 2023-05-10.
  4. ^ a b c d Madra, Amandeep Singh; Singh, Parmjit (27 September 2016). "Introduction". Sicques, Tigers or Thieves: Eyewitness Accounts of the Sikhs (1606–1810). Springer. p. xxx. ISBN 9781137119988.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Gupta, Hari Ram (2007). History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Comrnonwealth or Rise and FalI of Sikh Misls. Vol. IV. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. pp. 71–77. ISBN 978-8121501651.
  6. ^ Sharma, Suresh K. (2006). "History of Karnal: The Sikh Rule". Haryana: Past and Present. Mittal Publications. pp. 132–33. ISBN 9788183240468.
  7. ^ Singh, Bhagat (1993). "Chapter 14 - The Phulkian Misl". A History of the Sikh Misals. Publication Bureau, Punjabi University.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Gupta, Hari Ram (2007). History of the Sikhs: Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls. Vol. 4. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. pp. 158–160. ISBN 978-8121501651.
  9. ^ Sarkar, Jadunath (1964). Fall of the Mughal Empire. Vol. 3: 1771–1788 (3rd ed.). Orient Longman. p. 106.
  10. ^ Singh, Ganda, ed. (1986). The Punjab Past and Present. Part 2. Vol. 20. Patiala: Punjabi University, Patiala. pp. 396–398.
  11. ^ Bond, J. W.; Wright, Arnold (2006). Indian States: A Biographical, Historical, and Administrative Survey. New Delhi: Asian Educational Services. pp. 232–242. ISBN 978-81-206-1965-4. Archived from the original on 20 June 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2024.
  12. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa Banga, Indu (20 August 2023). Agrarian System of the Sikhs: Late Eighteenth and Early Nineteenth Century (Reprint ed.). Manohar Publishers and Distributors. pp. 68–69, 192–193. ISBN 9789388540193.
  13. ^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Ranjit Singh" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 22 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 892.
  14. ^ Grewal, J. S. (1990). The Sikhs of the Punjab, Chapter 6: The Sikh empire (1799–1849). The New Cambridge History of India. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-63764-3. Archived from the original on 27 September 2023. Retrieved 25 October 2015.
  15. ^ "Khalistan: Why are some Sikhs calling for a separate homeland in India?". BBC. 1 December 2023. Retrieved 16 August 2024.
  16. ^ Truhart, Peter (2017). Regents of Nations: Asia, Australia-Oceania, Part 2 (Reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. p. 1395. ISBN 9783111616254.
  17. ^ a b c d e f Truhart, Peter (2017). Regents of Nations: Asia, Australia-Oceania, Part 2 (Reprint ed.). Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783111616254.
  18. ^ "Nabha | Princely State, Maharaja, Punjab | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2024-08-17.
  19. ^ Sharma, Suresh K. (2006). "History of Karnal: The Sikh Rule". Haryana: Past and Present. Mittal Publications. pp. 132–33. ISBN 9788183240468.
  20. ^ Bal, Sarjit Singh (1974). A Brief History of the Modern Punjab. Lyall Book Depot. p. 3.
  21. ^ Mittal, Satish Chandra (1986). "Revolt of Ajit Singh of Ladwa 1845–46". Haryana: A Historical Perspective. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 41.
  22. ^ Sharma, Suresh K. (2006). "History of Karnal: The Sikh Rule". Haryana: Past and Present. Mittal Publications. pp. 132–33. ISBN 9788183240468.
  23. ^ Pasha, Mustapha Kamal (1998). Colonial Political Economy: Recruitment and Underdevelopment in the Punjab. Oxford University Press. p. 158. ISBN 9780195777628.
  24. ^ Gupta, Hari Ram (2007). History of the Sikhs: Sikh Commonwealth or Rise and Fall of Sikh Misls. History of the Sikhs. Vol. 4. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. ISBN 8121501652.
  25. ^ Arora, Amit (8 September 2017). "Amalgamation of History". The Times of India. Retrieved 11 August 2024.
  26. ^ Sarkar, Jadunath (1964). Fall of the Mughal Empire. Vol. 3: 1771–1788 (3rd ed.). Orient Longman. p. 106.
  27. ^ Gupta, Hari Ram (2007). History of the Sikhs: The Sikh Comrnonwealth or Rise and FalI of Sikh Misls. Vol. IV. Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers. pp. 60–66. ISBN 978-8121501651.
  28. ^ Dogra, R. C.; Mansukhani, Gobind Singh (1995). Encyclopaedia of Sikh Religion and Culture. Vikas Publishing House. p. 249. ISBN 9780706983685.
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