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Sikhism in Greater Vancouver

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Sikhism in Greater Vancouver
Vaisakhi fair mela in Surrey, B.C.
Total population
222,160
8.5% of the total GV population (2021)[1]
Religions
Sikhism
Languages
Canadian English • Punjabi
Canadian French • Hindi • Urdu
Related ethnic groups

Sikhism in Greater Vancouver is one of the main religions across the region, especially among the Indo-Canadian population. The Sikh community in Vancouver is the oldest, largest and most influential across Canada, having begun in the late 19th century.[2]

By 1995, Vancouver had one of the two largest Sikh populations in the world outside of India.[3] In 2003, Sikhs became the largest group in Greater Vancouver who did not practice Christianity.[4] In 2011, there were 155,945 Sikhs in Greater Vancouver, representing 6.8% of the region's population.[5][6][7]

As of 2021, the Sikh population in Metro Vancouver is 222,165, forming 8.5% of the total regional population.[1]

History

[edit]
Sikhs on Granville Street in Vancouver, 1908
Queensborough, New Westminster Sikh temple, 1931.

On 3 June 1902, a small contingent of Sikh soldiers from Punjab arrived in Vancouver aboard the Empress of Japan to take part in the Commonwealth-wide celebration of King Edward VII's coronation.[8] These Sikh men were the source of curiosity, especially their turbans.[8] The Sikh men were impressed by the natural beauty of British Columbia, with word spreading back home in the Punjab after their about the prospects of emigrating to British Columbia, leading to the first Sikh pioneers to arrive in Vancouver from then onwards.[8] Between 1904 and 1908, around 5,000 South Asian migrants (almost all men) arrived in British Columbia, with most working in farming or the lumber mills.[8] In 1906, the Khalsa Diwan Society, the first Sikh-Canadian organization, was established.[8] In 1906, discrimination against Sikhs became ingrained, such as targeted eviction and exclusion from public facilities.[8] The first Sikh temple, a gurdwara, was erected at Second Avenue in Vancouver, which opened its doors to worshippers on 19 January 1908.[8] This temple would serve as a centre for the Sikh community for decades.[8]

Sikh Population History
in Metro Vancouver
YearPop.±%
1981 22,390—    
1991 49,625+121.6%
2001 99,005+99.5%
2011 155,945+57.5%
2021 222,165+42.5%
Source: Statistics Canada
[9][10]: 94 [11][5][1]

At the turn of the century the Mayor of Vancouver did not permit cremation, so when the first Sikh died in 1907, he could not be cremated in the Vancouver city limits. Christian missionaries did not permit him to be buried with whites. Even though the missionaries promoted burial, the Sikhs instead cremated the man in a distant wilderness. This prompted Sikhs to establish their own religious institutions.[12] In 1912, the mayor of Vancouver wrote that Sikhs "are not suited to the country. ... They are immoral and quarrelsome and have not the stamina enough to become good workers", with him contradictorily concluding that the economic success of Sikhs posed a danger to White-Canadian workers.[8] In 1914, the Vancouverite-Sikh community donated provisions, including food, to the passengers of the Komagata Maru to show solidarity with its passengers.[8]

Beginning in the 1930s, within the Vancouver area, many clean-shaven, or sahajdhari, Sikhs began hanging up their hats and entering the gurdwaras with uncovered heads (an akin to men leaving their hats on while attending Christian churches). Turban-wearing, or kesdhari, Sikhs objected to this practice.[13]

Until the 1960s Sikh religious organizations were the primary political interest groups of the Indo-Canadian community in the Vancouver region.[14] At that time there were three gurdwaras in Metro Vancouver: the two Khalsa Diwan Society (KDS) gurdwaras in Vancouver and New Westminster, and the Akali Singh gurdwara in Vancouver.[15] In 1970, the original building of the first Sikh temple on the Second Avenue in Vancouver was sold and demolished and the temple was shifted to a newly-constructed building off of Southeast Marine Drive in Vancouver.[8] The political structure of the Sikh community began to shift in the early 1970s since newcomers to politics began vying for influence against established political leaders as immigration increased the size of the community.[14] In 1981 there were 22,392 Sikhs in Vancouver, virtually all of them being ethnic Punjabi.[16] That year, Dusenbery wrote that the maturation of Punjabi Sikhs who were children of immigrants, the increase in immigration, and the rise of gora (White) Sikh converts from Canada and the United States changed the character of the Vancouver Sikh community in the period 1971-1981.[2] Several turbanned Sikhs began criticizing the practice of entering gurdwaras with uncovered heads in the 1970s.[17] By 1977, Vancouver's Sikh community, along with that of the Greater Toronto Area, were one of the two largest Canadian Sikh communities.[18]

Organizations that favored the establishment of Khalistan began assuming control of Greater Vancouver gurdwaras after Operation Bluestar occurred in 1984.[19] In 1988 Hugh Johnston wrote that in regards to the city's Punjabi community, "being Punjabi is coming to mean, exclusively, being Sikh",[14] and that "it seems likely that Punjabi culture" in Vancouver would be exclusively "an aspect of Sikh identity" and exclude Hindus, who disagreed on the Khalistan issue.[20]

Population distribution of Sikh Canadians in Vancouver by federal electoral district, 2021 census

Around 1995 moderate Sikhs politically challenged more extremist Sikhs in gurdwaras in Vancouver and Surrey. A December 1996 attack on the Guru Nanak temple in Surrey led by extremists and a January 1997 fight occurred.[21] The Ross Street Sikh temple still is in operation and the headquarters of the Khalsa Diwan Society is located next door to it.[8]

Varieties of Sikhism

[edit]
Part of a series on
Sikhism
Khanda
Sikh gurus
Selected revered saints
Philosophy
Practices
Scripture
Places and Takhts
General topics
Sikhism and other religions

Hugh Johnston, in 1988, wrote that there are political divisions and religious divisions within the Sikh community of Vancouver.[14] In 2008 Elizabeth Kamala Nayar stated that Vancouver media reporting on orthodox Sikhs is often negative and that orthodox Sikhs "are portrayed negatively as ‘backward’ and ‘violent’."[22] She also stated that journalists of mainstream publications in Canada often conflate "fundamentalist" Sikhism with the pro-Khalistan movement and "moderate" Sikhism with those opposed to the Khalistan movement; she explained that this occurred when the publications discussed religious conflicts in the Sikh community Vancouver as well as conflicts involving Sikhs throughout Canada.[23] Nayar added that in Vancouver the wearing of turbans often is associated with Sikh fundamentalism.[22]

Gora Sikhs (White Sikhs) are present in Greater Vancouver. Many have attempted to gain involvement with Punjabi Sikhs.[24] In her book The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver: Three Generations Amid Tradition, Modernity, and Multiculturalism, Nayar wrote that "For the most part, the Gora Sikh community functions separately from the Punjabi Sikh community."[25] Some Gora Sikhs have criticized a focus on Indian politics and the factionalism within Punjabi Sikh gurdwaras.[24]

Geographical distribution

[edit]

Subdivisions

[edit]
Sikh Canadians by subdivisions in Metro Vancouver (1981–2021)
Subdivision 2021[26] 2011[27] 2001[28] 1991[29] 1981[30][a]
Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. % Pop. %
Surrey 154,415 27.45% 104,720 22.6% 56,325 16.29% 20,905 8.59% 3,950 2.7%
Delta 19,235 17.93% 10,495 10.63% 8,255 8.57% 3,695 4.18% 1,565 2.11%
Vancouver 16,535 2.54% 16,815 2.85% 15,200 2.82% 12,935 2.78% 10,055 2.46%
Richmond 6,985 3.35% 7,155 3.78% 5,755 3.52% 4,500 3.57% 2,285 2.38%
Burnaby 6,905 2.81% 6,395 2.9% 5,625 2.94% 3,370 2.15% 2,025 1.51%
Langley (District) 5,170 3.95% 1,965 1.91% 1,055 1.22% 300 0.46% 320 0.72%
New Westminster 3,750 4.8% 2,920 4.49% 2,720 5.05% 1,025 2.4% 770 2.07%
Maple Ridge 1,925 2.14% 870 1.16% 695 1.11% 390 0.81% 165 0.52%
Coquitlam 1,855 1.26% 1,430 1.14% 985 0.88% 625 0.76% 330 0.56%
Port Coquitlam 1,335 2.21% 1,260 2.26% 805 1.58% 595 1.63% 280 1.03%
Langley (City) 1,045 3.73% 35 0.14% 50 0.21% 125 0.64% 50 0.34%
White Rock 905 4.37% 85 0.46% 35 0.2% 65 0.42% 85 0.65%
Pitt Meadows 640 3.36% 560 3.16% 670 4.57% 370 3.32% 115 1.85%
North Vancouver (district) 550 0.63% 430 0.51% 400 0.49% 300 0.4% 190 0.29%
North Vancouver (City) 530 0.92% 375 0.79% 265 0.6% 340 0.89% 150 0.45%
West Vancouver 135 0.31% 115 0.27% 120 0.29% 15 0.04% 10 0.03%
Metro Vancouver Subdivision A 105 0.61% 145 1.17% 20 0.26% 0 0% 0 0%
Port Moody 80 0.24% 180 0.55% 20 0.08% 65 0.37% 45 0.3%
Bowen Island 0 0% 5 0.15% 0 0% — — — —
Anmore 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% — —
Lions Bay 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Belcarra 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0% 0 0%
Vancouver CMA 222,165 8.52% 155,945 6.84% 99,005 5.03% 49,625 3.13% 22,390 1.79%

Federal electoral districts

[edit]

2012 boundaries

[edit]
Sikh Canadians by federal electoral districts in Metro Vancouver (2011–2021)
Riding 2021 2011
Population Percentage Population Percentage
Surrey—Newton 62,340[31] 51.47% 46,320 44.35%
Surrey Centre 36,070[32] 27.74% 26,035 23.69%
Fleetwood—Port Kells 30,380[33] 24.5% 21,435 19.64%
Delta 19,270[34] 17.61% 10,490 10.55%
Cloverdale—Langley City 18,745[35] 14.46% 7,405 7.41%
Vancouver South 10,775[36] 9.98% 11,895 12.01%
South Surrey—White Rock 9,410[37] 8.07% 3,945 4.29%
Langley—Aldergrove 7,500[38] 5.72% 3,135 3.09%
New Westminster—Burnaby 6,275[39] 5.1% 5,575 5.22%
Steveston—Richmond East 5,285[40] 5.2% 5,525 5.75%
Burnaby South 3,330[41] 2.79% 2,905 2.79%
Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge 2,570[42] 2.35% 1,425 1.53%
Vancouver Kingsway 2,435[43] 2.27% 2,690 2.65%
Coquitlam—Port Coquitlam 1,815[44] 1.39% 1,680 1.53%
Richmond Centre 1,700[45] 1.59% 1,635 1.75%
Port Moody—Coquitlam 1,495[46] 1.31% 1,195 1.12%
Vancouver Granville 1,260[47] 1.16% 825 0.84%
Burnaby North—Seymour 1,220[48] 1.14% 975 0.98%
North Vancouver 905[49] 0.74% 665 0.61%
Vancouver Centre 895[50] 0.72% 530 0.52%
Vancouver Quadra 665[51] 0.62% 630 0.63%
Vancouver East 610[52] 0.54% 390 0.38%
Vancouver CMA 222,165 8.52% 155,945 6.84%
Note: Based on 2012 Canadian federal electoral redistribution riding boundaries.

2003 boundaries

[edit]
Sikh Canadians by federal electoral districts in Metro Vancouver (2001–2011)
Riding 2011 2001[53]
Population Percentage Population Percentage
Newton—North Delta 44,745 35.05% 30,610 27.61%
Fleetwood—Port Kells 32,860 20.7% 13,025 12.93%
Surrey North 31,185 25.05% 18,845 17.76%
Vancouver South 12,085 9.96% 10,360 9.3%
Burnaby—New Westminster 6,900 5.29% 6,645 6.05%
Delta—Richmond East 6,130 5.57% 5,530 5.4%
South Surrey—White Rock—Cloverdale 5,605 4.49% 1,195 1.22%
Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge—Mission 3,520 2.71% 2,920 2.68%
Vancouver Kingsway 3,040 2.45% 3,680 3.22%
Burnaby—Douglas 2,155 1.77% 1,450 1.35%
Langley 2,000 1.56% 1,100 1%
Richmond 1,935 1.55% 1,175 1.11%
Port Moody—Westwood—Port Coquitlam 1,770 1.37% 1,255 1.15%
New Westminster—Coquitlam 1,360 1.13% 805 0.75%
Vancouver Quadra 820 0.68% 420 0.38%
North Vancouver 780 0.62% 660 0.55%
Vancouver Centre 620 0.46% 340 0.32%
Vancouver East 390 0.38% 415 0.39%
Vancouver CMA 155,945 6.84% 99,005 5.03%
Note: Based on 2003 Canadian federal electoral redistribution riding boundaries.

Gurdwaras

[edit]
Khalsa Diwan Society Vancouver

Sikh gurdwaras (Sikh places of worship) in Vancouver were the city's only community centres for the Indo-Canadians until the 1960s.[14] This meant that the gurdwaras at the time also gave social outlets to Punjabi Hindus and other South Asians.[15] By 1981, gurdwaras mainly filled religious purposes.[54] Many major gurdwaras in Greater Vancouver were initially established in isolated areas, but these areas over time became urbanized.[55]

Sikhs often selected gurdwaras due to religious beliefs, family ties, political beliefs, and/or social reasons, and these were not necessarily gurdwaras that were the closest to them.[56]

By 1988 there were six gurdwaras within a 16-kilometre (10 mi) radius in one area in Vancouver. Four new gurdwaras opened in Metro Vancouver in the 1980s.[56]

Gurdwaras in Vancouver

[edit]

The first gurdwara in Vancouver opened in 1908. It was founded by the Khalsa Diwan Society (KDS), which was established in 1906,[57] This gurdwara was originally on West 2nd Avenue.[58] making it Vancouver's oldest Sikh Society.[59] In 1969 it moved to the intersection of Southwest Marine Drive and Ross Street,[58] in South Vancouver.[55]

The Akali Singh Gurdwara is in East Vancouver, along Skeena Street.[55] It opened in 1952 in response to a religious dispute. Around the time it opened, the Akali Singh Gurdwara did not permit people who had no facial hair from being a part of its management committee, but it allowed them to be a part of the auditing committee.[60] The construction of the current gurdwara, valued at 1.5-2 million dollars, began construction in 1981.[61] Previously the revenue of the Akali Singh gurdwara was equal to that of the KDS,[62] but around the time of the new gurdwara construction, a takeover of the gurdwara was attempted. The gurdwara prevented an internal takeover by restricting election participation to persons who were not members of other Sikh societies. As a result, a severe membership split occurred and the size was reduced. The Akali Singh was opposed to the KDS, which had a more militant attitude towards the Khalistan question.[56]

Around 1975, a Marxist–Leninist Sikh group purchased the Desh Baghat Mandir centre on Main Street after a failed attempt to seize control of other gurdwaras.[17]

Gurdwaras in suburbs and other municipalities

[edit]
Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara Delta-Surrey

Most South Asians in Surrey, as of 2001, are Sikhs.[63] The Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara is on Scott Road in the City of Surrey.[55] As of 2011 in regards to its orthodoxy it is a "moderate" gurdwara.[64] As of 2004 it had 37,000 members, making it one of North America's largest Sikh temples.[65] Dasmesh Darbar Gurdwara is an orthodox gurdwara in Surrey.[66]

The Guru Nanak Sikh Gurdwara was established in North Delta in 1973 by the Guru Nanak Sikh Society in order to serve the around 200 Sikh families living in the Surrey-Delta area.[56] The society itself, the Guru Nanak Sikh Temple Society of Delta Surrey, opened that year.[67] The current facility opened in 1981 along Scott Road in Surrey. Due to opposition to the gurdwara from non-Sikhs in Delta, the Delta city government asked the Guru Nanakh Sikh Society to build the new gurdwara in the Surrey side of a property that had been purchased by the society in 1973. In exchange the Delta city government gave access to the Delta sewage system.[64] As of 1988 it was largest Greater Vancouver gurdwara building. The gurdwara was receiving a level income slightly below those of the two largest Vancouver-area gurdwaras by 1979.[56] Around 1984 the International Sikh Youth Federation (ISYF) took control of the Guru Nanakh Gurdwara. The ISYF was a daughter organization of the World Sikh Organization (WSO), which controlled the KDS.[23] According to Hugh Johnston, as of 1988 the gurdwara "probably" had the second largest membership in Greater Vancouver, after the KDS.[56] In January 1998 a coalition of anti-ISYF Sikhs and Sikhs who favored the Indian Congress wrested power away from the ISYF.[23]

The KDS had its own branch gurdwara in New Westminster.[56] In 1974, the New Westminster Khalsa Diwan became its own Sikh society.[67] Another gurdwara had opened 8 km (5 mi) west of the KDS New Westminster and as a result the gurdwara lost membership, but it continued to operate. Hugh Johnston stated that in the 1970s the KDS New Westminster had a "sizeable income".[56]

The gurdwara of the New Westminster Society is in Richmond. The previous membership followed Baba Mihan Singh, an individual from Doaba who had been invited to attend the New Westminster Society after he arrived in Vancouver; the New Westminster Society had employed one of his relatives as a priest. In 1979 the Nananksar Gurdwara, established by followers of Baba Mihan Singh, was being established, sapping membership from the New Westminster Society.[56] As of 1989, the group controlling the KDS also controlled the New Westminster Society.[62] Since 1984 the Nanaksar Gurdwara attracted Sikhs who were uninterested in politics.[68]

The Shri Guru Ravidass Sabha Temple is a dalit gurdwara in Burnaby.[69] It opened in 1982.[70] As of 2008 there were 900 members. Two Jats filed a complaint with the British Columbia Human Rights Tribunal after they were denied membership, but the tribunal ruled that the gurdwara was minority-serving and had the right to reject the Jats.[69]

See also

[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ Note: 1981 census religious breakdown for all subdivisions includes an "Eastern Non-Christian" section. Estimates derived using the Sikh proportion of Eastern Non-Christian religious total from the 1991 census.
  1. ^ a b c Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Religion by visible minority and generation status: Canada, provinces and territories, census metropolitan areas and census agglomerations with parts". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-10-26.
  2. ^ a b Dusenbery, "Canadian Ideology and Public Policy," p. 101.
  3. ^ International Journal of Punjab Studies, Volume 2. SAGE Publications, 1995. p. 178. "[...]and also in the two largest populations of Sikhs outside of India — in Britain, in London, and in Canada, in Vancouver."
  4. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 3.
  5. ^ a b Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-01-23). "2011 National Household Survey: Data tables Religion (108), Immigrant Status and Period of Immigration (11), Age Groups (10) and Sex (3) for the Population in Private Households of Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2011 National Household Survey". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-09-08.
  6. ^ "Annexes" (Archive). Report of Meetings with Representatives of the Indo‑Canadian Community. Government of Canada. Retrieved on October 21, 2014.
  7. ^ 2011 Census
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Siegel, Leah. "Canada's First Sikh Temple". British Columbia - An Untold History. Retrieved 16 October 2024.
  9. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-04-03). "1981 Census of Canada : volume 2 - provincial series : population; language, ethnic origin, religion, place of birth, schooling". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-09-17.
  10. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-04-03). "Census, 1991 Religions in Canada". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2023-09-09.
  11. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-12-23). "Religion (13) and Age Groups (8) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Metropolitan Areas and Census Agglomerations, 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2022-08-25.
  12. ^ Hans, p. 221-222.
  13. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 7.
  14. ^ a b c d e Johnston, Hugh, p. 1.
  15. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 5.
  16. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 3.
  17. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 8.
  18. ^ Campbell, The Sikhs of Vancouver: A Case Study in Minority-Host Relations Archived 2014-10-19 at the Wayback Machine, p. 4 (PDF document p. 12/136). "Vancouver and Toronto have the largest Sikh communities and Canada."
  19. ^ Nayar, "Misunderstood in the Diaspora," p. 22.
  20. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 2.
  21. ^ "Oct. 28, 2000: Friday's charges came after a 15-year probe." The Vancouver Sun. July 30, 2007. Retrieved on December 5, 2014.
  22. ^ a b Nayar, "Misunderstood in the Diaspora," p. 26-27. "[...]while in Vancouver Sikh fundamentalists are portrayed negatively as ‘backward’ and ‘violent’,[...]In fact, in Vancouver, there is not only the link made between fundamentalism and turban-wearers, but the reportage on orthodox Sikhs is generally made in a bad light."
  23. ^ a b c Nayar, "Misunderstood in the Diaspora," p. 23.
  24. ^ a b Dusenbery, Verne A. "On the Moral Sensitivities of Sikhs in North America" (Chapter 9). In: Lynch, Owen M. Divine Passions: The Social Construction of Emotion in India. University of California Press, 1990. ISBN 0520066472, 9780520066472. Start: p. 239. CITED: p. 248.
  25. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 127.
  26. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-05-17). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Select from a list of geographies, British Columbia Census division". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  27. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-12-23). "NHS Profile, 2011 Subprovincial geography levels: British Columbia Census subdivisions". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  28. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-12-23). "Religion (13) and Age Groups (8) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories, Census Divisions and Census Subdivisions, 2001 Census – 20% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  29. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2019-03-29). "R9101 – Population by Religion (29), Showing Age Groups (13) Education (20% Data) – Canada, provinces and territories, census divisions and census subdivisions". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  30. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2020-05-26). "Data tables, 1981 Census Profile for Canada, Provinces and Territories, Census Divisions and Census Subdivisions, 1981 Census – Part B". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-13.
  31. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Surrey—Newton British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  32. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Surrey Centre British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  33. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Fleetwood—Port Kells British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  34. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Delta British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  35. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Cloverdale—Langley City British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  36. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Vancouver South British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  37. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population South Surrey—White Rock British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  38. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Langley—Aldergrove British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  39. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population New Westminster—Burnaby British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  40. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Steveston—Richmond East British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  41. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Burnaby South British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  42. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Pitt Meadows—Maple Ridge British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  43. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Vancouver Kingsway British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  44. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Coquitlam—Port Coquitlam British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  45. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Richmond Centre British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  46. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Port Moody—Coquitlam British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  47. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Vancouver Granville British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  48. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Burnaby North—Seymour British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  49. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population North Vancouver British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  50. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Vancouver Centre British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  51. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Vancouver Quadra British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  52. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2022-10-26). "Census Profile, 2021 Census of Population Vancouver East British Columbia [Federal electoral district (2013 Representation Order)". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  53. ^ Government of Canada, Statistics Canada (2013-12-23). "2001 Census Topic-based tabulations Religion (13) and Age Groups (8) for Population, for Canada, Provinces, Territories and Federal Electoral Districts (2003 Representation Order), 2001 Census - 20% Sample Data". www12.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved 2024-04-14.
  54. ^ Dusenbery, "Canadian Ideology and Public Policy," p. 102.
  55. ^ a b c d Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 48.
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h i Johnston, Hugh, p. 10.
  57. ^ Nayar, The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, p. 16.
  58. ^ a b Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 46.
  59. ^ Pang, Guek-cheng. Culture Shock! Vancouver. Marshall Cavendish International Asia Pte Ltd, August 15, 2010. ISBN 9814484806, 9789814484800. p. 31.
  60. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 6.
  61. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 9-10.
  62. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 9.
  63. ^ Good, Kristin R. Municipalities and Multiculturalism: The Politics of Immigration in Toronto and Vancouver (Volume 34 of Studies in comparative political economy and public policy). University of Toronto Press, 2009. ISBN 1442609931, 9781442609938. p. 170.
  64. ^ a b Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 49.
  65. ^ Brown, DeNeen L. "Vancouver Struggles With Gang Violence]." Washington Post. Thursday July 22, 2004. p. A12. Online p. 1 (Archive). Retrieved on November 3, 2014.
  66. ^ Nayar, "The Making of Sikh Space," p. 49-50.
  67. ^ a b Johnston, Hugh, p. 18.
  68. ^ Johnston, Hugh, p. 11.
  69. ^ a b "Temple allowed to restrict members because of class" (Archive). Vancouver Sun/CanWest News Service at canada.com. July 12, 2008. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.
  70. ^ Chan, Cheryl. "‘We are zero’: Immigrant says she can’t escape sting of India's caste system, even in Canada" (Archive). National Post. October 10, 2013. Retrieved on October 22, 2014.

References

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Further reading

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