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Roger Deakins

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For the English writer, documentary-maker and environmentalist, see Roger Deakin.

Sir
Roger Deakins
CBE
Deakins in 2021
Born
Roger Alexander Deakins

(1949-05-24) 24 May 1949 (age 75)
Torquay, Devon, England
OccupationCinematographer
Years active1974–present
Organization(s)British Society of Cinematographers
American Society of Cinematographers
Spouse
Isabella James Purefoy Ellis
​
​
(m. 1991)​
AwardsFull list
Websiterogerdeakins.com

Sir Roger Alexander Deakins CBE (born 24 May 1949) is an English cinematographer. He is the recipient of five BAFTA Awards for Best Cinematography, and two Academy Awards for Best Cinematography from sixteen nominations. He has collaborated multiple times with directors such as the Coen brothers, Sam Mendes, and Denis Villeneuve. His best-known works include The Shawshank Redemption (1994), Fargo (1996), O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), A Beautiful Mind (2001), Skyfall (2012), Sicario (2015), Blade Runner 2049 (2017), and 1917 (2019), the last two of which earned him Academy Awards.

An alumnus of the National Film and Television School, Deakins was named and serves as an Honorary Fellow of the school in recognition of his "outstanding contribution[s] to ... British film". He is a member of the British Society of Cinematographers and the American Society of Cinematographers, and in 2011 received a Lifetime Achievement Award from the latter organization. Deakins was bestowed a CBE by the Palace for his services to film in 2013, and was knighted as a Knight Bachelor in the 2021 New Year Honours.[1][2]

Early life

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Deakins was born in Torquay in the English county of Devon.[3] His father ran a construction company, while his mother was an actress and amateur painter.[4] Deakins attended Torquay Boys' Grammar School.[5] He took up painting from a young age, and subsequently enrolled in the Bath Academy of Art in Bath, Somerset, where he studied graphic design. While studying in Bath, Deakins developed a passion for photography; he cited the photographer Roger Mayne, a guest lecturer at the academy, as a major source of inspiration.[4][6]

After college, Deakins applied to the newly opened National Film School, but was denied admission as his photography was considered not "filmic" enough. He spent the following year wandering the countryside, photographing rural life in North Devon, before finally being admitted to the National Film School in 1972. Director Michael Radford was one of Deakins's schoolmates.[4]

Career

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Early career

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After graduating, Deakins found work as a cameraman, assisting in the production of projects for about seven years.[4] An early project of his involved filming a nine-month trip on a yacht as an entrant in the Whitbread Round the World Race, titled Around the World with Ridgeway.[7] Deakins was hired to film two documentaries in Africa. His first, Zimbabwe, was a clandestine documentation of the Rhodesian Bush War, while his second, Eritrea – Behind Enemy Lines, depicted the Eritrean War of Independence.[7][8] He also shot anthropological documentaries in India and Sudan.[4]

During the late 1970s and early 1980s, Deakins was involved in a number of music-related projects, including Blue Suede Shoes, a music documentary about the British rockabilly scene, the concert film Van Morrison in Ireland, and the Ray Davies musical film Return to Waterloo. He also made short music videos for Herbie Hancock, Eric Clapton, Marvin Gaye, Tracey Ullman, Madness, Level 42 and Meat Loaf.[8]

Feature films

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Deakins at the 83rd Academy Awards in February 2011

Deakins's first dramatic project was a miniseries titled Wolcott, about a black detective working in the East End of London. The camerawork of the miniseries impressed his former schoolmate and frequent collaborator Michael Radford, who enlisted Deakins for their first dramatic feature, the 1983 film Another Time, Another Place.[4][9] The film screened at the Cannes Film Festival and was well-received; subsequently, Deakins and Radford teamed up again on Nineteen Eighty-Four (1984), based upon George Orwell's novel of the same name.[7] The film was praised for its bold, unusual palette,[4] which Deakins achieved through a process known as bleach bypass, where the silver is retained in the print, creating a washed-out look that reflected Orwell's bleak vision. Deakins was the first Western cinematographer to use the technique, which has since become highly influential and can be seen in films such as Seven (1995) and Saving Private Ryan (1998). Throughout the 1980s, Deakins continued working in Britain, serving as cinematographer for films including Defence of the Realm (1986), Sid and Nancy (1986), White Mischief (1987; his third feature film with Radford), Stormy Monday (1988) and Pascali's Island (1988).[9]

In 1991, Deakins began his long-term collaboration with the Coen brothers, starting with the film Barton Fink. The Coens had been impressed with Deakins's work, and reached out to him after their previous collaborator Barry Sonnenfeld left to pursue a career in directing.[4] The film won the Coens' the Festival de Cannes 1991 Palme d'Or and Best Director awards (and John Turturro the award for Best Actor),[10] and earned Deakins best cinematography awards from New York, Chicago and Los Angeles film critics circles.[citation needed] In 1994, the year Deakins was admitted to the American Society of Cinematographers,[4] he served as cinematographer for The Shawshank Redemption, which earned him his first Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography, and his first American Society of Cinematographers Award.[4] He received two further Academy Award nominations in that decade, for Fargo (1996) and Kundun (1997).[8]

For the Coen brothers film O Brother, Where Art Thou? (2000), Deakins spent some two months fine-tuning the look, turning the lush green Mississippi landscape into a burnt, autumnal yellow and desaturating the overall image. This feat made O Brother the first ever feature film to be digitally color-corrected in its entirety,[11] and earned Deakins his fourth Academy Award nomination.[12] The following year, for his work in the Coen brothers' The Man Who Wasn't There (2001), Deakins received his fifth Oscar nomination[13] and won his first BAFTA Award for Best Cinematography.[14]

In 2008, Deakins received dual Oscar nominations—his sixth and seventh—for The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford (2007) and No Country for Old Men (2007). He was the first cinematographer to achieve such a feat since Robert Surtees, who was nominated for The Last Picture Show and Summer of '42 in 1972.[15] Deakins served as director of photography for Stephen Daldry's The Reader (2008) but left mid-production due to delays and previous commitments, and was replaced by Chris Menges. The two cinematographers received a shared nomination for Best Cinematography at the 81st Academy Awards.[16]

Deakins at the 2019 Toronto International Film Festival for the premiere of The Goldfinch

Deakins worked with the Coens on the 2010 western True Grit—their eleventh collaboration—for which he received his ninth Oscar nomination.[17] Deakins signed on as cinematographer for Skyfall (2012), having previously worked with director Sam Mendes on Jarhead (2005) and Revolutionary Road (2008).[18] For his work, Deakins received another Academy Award nomination for Best Cinematography, eventually losing to Claudio Miranda of Life of Pi—his 10th nomination without securing a win.[19] In addition to his live-action work, Deakins served as both cinematographer and visual consultant on the 2011 animated film Rango (2011), and also served as a visual consultant on animated features, including WALL-E (2008), Puss in Boots (2011), Rise of the Guardians (2012), The Croods (2013), the How to Train Your Dragon trilogy (2010, 2014 and 2019).[20] and Vivo (2021).[21]

Starting with Prisoners (2013), Deakins began working with director Denis Villeneuve. The two proceeded to collaborate on Sicario (2015) and Blade Runner 2049 (2017), with Deakins earning Oscar nominations for all three films.[22] For his work on Blade Runner 2049, Deakins received his first Academy Award for Best Cinematography on his 14th nomination.[23] Deakins reunited with Sam Mendes on the 2019 war film 1917, filmed and edited to appear as one uninterrupted take, for which he received his second Academy Award on his 15th nomination.[24]

Personal life

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Deakins married Isabella James Purefoy Ellis (b. January 1954,[25] professionally known as James Ellis Deakins[26] and often referred to simply as James[27][28]) on 11 December 1991.[29] They had met in 1991 in Los Angeles on the set of David Mamet's Homicide, where she was working as the script supervisor.[27] The two began dating after the Homicide production finished and were married within about six months.[27] Since then, James Ellis has "ovesee[n] the digital workflow of... film[s]",[28] and they have worked together on various projects, including The Goldfinch and 1917.[26] As of February 2020, they reside in Kingswear, Devon, and Santa Monica, California.[28]

Deakins has kept a boat since beginning such activities with his father as a child—with him, first a sailboat, then a motorboat—and he currently keeps one in Torquay, his hometown, to which he often goes (and from which he fishes) when in Britain.[27][28]

When in Devon he enjoys running,[27][28] and has maintained a passion for still photography.[28] In 2021, Deakins released a book of his black-and-white still photographs, Byways.[30]

Since 2005, Deakins has maintained a website through which he frequently communicates with admirers and other industry practitioners. His correspondence includes answering fan questions and offering cinematography tips.[3][4] Since April 2020 he and his wife have hosted the Team Deakins podcast, whose guests have included Sam Mendes, John Crowley, and Denis Villeneuve.[31][32]

Filmography

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Film

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Year Title Director Notes
1977 Cruel Passion Chris Boger
1983 Another Time, Another Place Michael Radford
1984 Nineteen Eighty-Four
1985 The Innocent John Mackenzie
Shadey Philip Saville
Defence of the Realm David Drury
1986 Sid and Nancy Alex Cox
1987 Personal Services Terry Jones
The Kitchen Toto Harry Hook
White Mischief Michael Radford
1988 Stormy Monday Mike Figgis
Pascali's Island James Dearden
Young Distance Vito Zagarrio With Luigi Verga
1990 Mountains of the Moon Bob Rafelson
Air America Roger Spottiswoode
The Long Walk Home Richard Pearce
1991 Barton Fink Coen brothers 1st collaboration with the Coen Brothers
Homicide David Mamet
1992 Thunderheart Michael Apted
Passion Fish John Sayles
1993 The Secret Garden Agnieszka Holland
1994 The Hudsucker Proxy Coen Brothers
The Shawshank Redemption Frank Darabont
1995 Dead Man Walking Tim Robbins
1996 Fargo Coen Brothers
Courage Under Fire Edward Zwick
1997 Kundun Martin Scorsese
1998 The Big Lebowski Coen Brothers
The Siege Edward Zwick
1999 Anywhere but Here Wayne Wang
The Hurricane Norman Jewison
2000 O Brother, Where Art Thou? Coen Brothers
2001 The Man Who Wasn't There
A Beautiful Mind Ron Howard
2003 Levity Ed Solomon
Intolerable Cruelty Coen Brothers
House of Sand and Fog Vadim Perelman
2004 The Ladykillers Coen Brothers
The Village M. Night Shyamalan
2005 Jarhead Sam Mendes 1st collaboration with Mendes
2007 No Country for Old Men Coen Brothers
In the Valley of Elah Paul Haggis
The Assassination of Jesse James
by the Coward Robert Ford 		Andrew Dominik
2008 Doubt John Patrick Shanley
The Reader Stephen Daldry With Chris Menges
Revolutionary Road Sam Mendes
2009 A Serious Man Coen Brothers
2010 The Company Men John Wells
True Grit Coen Brothers
2011 In Time Andrew Niccol
2012 Skyfall Sam Mendes
2013 Prisoners Denis Villeneuve
2014 Unbroken Angelina Jolie
2015 Sicario Denis Villeneuve
2016 Hail, Caesar! Coen Brothers
2017 Blade Runner 2049 Denis Villeneuve
2019 The Goldfinch John Crowley
1917 Sam Mendes
2022 Empire of Light

Short film

Year Title Director Notes
1977 Bad Loser Richard Ryan With Brian Williams
1980 Box On Lindsey Clennell With Jeff Baynes, John Davey, Mike Fox and Chris Morphet
1981 Towers of Babel Jonathan Lewis

Television

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Miniseries

Year Title Director
1981 Wolcott Colin Bucksey

TV movies

Year Title Director
1984 The House Mike Figgis
Return to Waterloo Ray Davies
2001 Dinner with Friends Norman Jewison

Documentary works

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Short film

Year Title Director Notes
1975 Mothers Own Ernest Abbeyquaye
1977 Empty Hand David Litchfield With Howard Sharp
1979 Steppin' Out Lyndall Hobbs
Champions Mike Wallington With Terry Jenkins

Film

Year Title Director Notes
1976 Welcome to Britain Ben Lewin
1977 Before Hindsight Jonathan Lewis
1978 Chimurenga - The War in Zimbabwe Antonia Caccia
1980 Blue Suede Shoes Curtis Clark
1979 Van Morrison in Ireland Michael Radford With Jeff Baynes, Bill Marshall and Chris Morphet
1983 Alan Bush: A Life Anna Ambrose With Dick Pope
1984 The Cinema of Stephen Dwoskin

Television

Year Title Director Notes
1980 Just for Today Berny Stringle TV special;
With Dick Pope
1980-1982 Worlds Apart Chris Curling
Peter Loizos 		2 episodes
1981 Years of Lightning Andrew Piddington Episode "1958: Now Dig This"

Critical reception

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Deakins is often cited as one of the greatest and most influential cinematographers of all time.[33][34][35] His consistent output led fellow cinematographer Robert Elswit to jokingly suggest that the American Society of Cinematographers should establish a special award for "films shot by Roger Deakins."[4] Deakins received 13 Academy Awards nominations without a win, a fact often lamented by journalists and film critics.[36][37][38] His first Oscar win (on his 14th nomination) for Blade Runner 2049[39] at the 90th Academy Awards was widely reported and met with great enthusiasm.[23]

Deakins is among the most respected and sought-after cinematographers in the film business. His involvement in a film could secure the casting of established stars—a distinction usually reserved for auteur directors.[3] He was hired to shoot The Shawshank Redemption at the insistence of Tim Robbins, who had previously worked with him on the Coen brothers film The Hudsucker Proxy.[40] Josh Brolin agreed to join the cast of Sicario only after hearing of Deakins's involvement.[3] When Ryan Gosling accepted his role in Blade Runner 2049, he cited the involvement of Deakins as a factor for his decision.[41]

Awards and recognition

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Main article: List of awards and nominations received by Roger Deakins

He has been nominated for sixteen Academy Awards, winning the Academy Award for Best Cinematography twice—on his fourteenth and fifteenth nominations—for Blade Runner 2049 (2017)[42] and 1917 (2019).[43][44] He has been named as an Honorary Fellow of his alma mater, the National Film and Television School in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, an honour which recognises "outstanding contribution to the British film and television industry" On 28 February 2020.[45]

Deakins is the recipient of five BAFTA Awards for Best Cinematography,[46] for The Man Who Wasn't There (2001) in that same year,[14] and for No Country for Old Men (2007),[14] True Grit (2010),[47] Blade Runner 2049 (2017),[5] 1917 (2019),[48] each in the year following their release. As well, two films that he shot, Fargo (1996),[49][50] and A Serious Man (2009),[51] won Independent Spirit Awards for Best Cinematography in the year after their release.

He received the Royal Photographic Society's Lumière Award for major achievement in cinematography, video or animation in 2009.[52] The National Board of Review, a group of New York-based reviewers whose organization dates to 1909, honoured Deakins in 2007 with its award for Career Achievement in Cinematography.[53] Deakins went on to receive the American Society of Cinematographers and the British Society of Cinematographers Lifetime Achievement Award in 2011 and 2015 respectively.[54][55]

Deakins was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire (CBE) in the 2013 Birthday Honours for services to film.[56] He was knighted in the 2021 New Year Honours, also for services to film.[57][1][2]

References

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  1. ^ a b "The New Year Honours 2021". GOV.UK. 30 December 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
  2. ^ a b "The New Year Honours list 2021". www.thegazette.co.uk. 30 December 2020. Retrieved 31 December 2020.
  3. ^ a b c d Gallagher Shannon, Noah (9 May 2017). "Master of Light". The Paris Review. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Thomson, Patricia (January 2011). "A League of His Own". American Cinematographer. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  5. ^ a b Booth, Richard (9 May 2017). "Devon man Roger Deakins wins at BAFTAs - but will he finally get his Oscar?". Devon Live. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  6. ^ Barnes, Henry (8 October 2015). "Roger Deakins: 'the opposite of a Hollywood person' ... with 12 Oscar nominations to his name". The Guardian. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  7. ^ a b c Schmidlin, Charlie (9 February 2016). "Interview: Roger Deakins Talks 'Sicario,' Partnership With Denis Villeneuve, 'Blade Runner 2,' Digital Vs. Film & More". IndieWire. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  8. ^ a b c Kiste, John (2007). Devonshire's Own. The History Press. ISBN 9780752493664. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  9. ^ a b Rogers, Pauline B. (1998). Contemporary Cinematographers on Their Art. CRC Press. p. 73. ISBN 9781136045783. Retrieved 18 November 2019. roger deakins Wolcott.
  10. ^ Festival de Cannes Personnel (1991). "Festival archives—Awards—Competition—Awards 1991". Festival-Cannes.com. Paris, FR: Festival de Cannes. Archived from the original on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 9 December 2008.
  11. ^ Robertson, Barbara (1 May 2006). "CGSociety – The Colorists". The Colorists: 3. Archived from the original on 22 January 2012. Retrieved 24 October 2007.
  12. ^ Kiang, Jessica; Lyttelton, Oliver; Taylor, Drew (17 September 2015). "The Essentials: The 15 Best-Shot Roger Deakins Films". IndieWire. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  13. ^ Dowell, Pat (27 August 2004). "'The Man Who Wasn't There'". NPR. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  14. ^ a b c Bray, Elisa (15 February 2008). "The unsung heroes of Bafta". The Independent. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  15. ^ Giardina, Carolyn (24 January 2008). "Rare double feature for cinematographer Deakins". Reuters. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  16. ^ Hope-Jones, Mark (February 2010). "Artistry and Conscience". American Cinematographer. Retrieved 18 November 2019.
  17. ^ Keegan, Rebecca (15 February 2011). "Roger Deakins is a 'True Grit' sure shot". Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 20 November 2019. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  18. ^ Heuring, David (25 October 2010). "'Skyfall:' Double Agents, Data Recording, Roger Deakins". NewBay Media. Archived from the original on 19 January 2013. Retrieved 8 January 2013.
  19. ^ Rosen, Christopher (24 February 2013). "Roger Deakins & Oscar: 'Skyfall' Cinematography Loses Academy Award Again". HuffPost. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  20. ^ Thompson, Anne (13 January 2014). "Famed Cinematographer Roger Deakins Talks Coens, Storytelling, 'Prisoners'". IndieWire. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  21. ^ Hopewell, John (12 June 2019). "Sony Pictures Animation Links To Tencent, Sets 'Boondocks,' Tartakovsky Duo". Variety. Retrieved 15 July 2019.
  22. ^ Sharf, Zack (6 December 2018). "Roger Deakins Won't Be Working on Denis Villeneuve's 'Dune,' Greig Fraser to Shoot". IndieWire. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  23. ^ a b BBC Staff (5 March 2018). "Roger Deakins finally wins his Oscar on 14th attempt". BBC. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  24. ^ Giardina, Carolyn (9 February 2020). "Oscars: Roger Deakins Claims Second Cinematography Win for '1917'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
  25. ^ "INVERDART MANAGEMENT COMPANY LIMITED - Officers (free information from Companies House)". Companies House. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  26. ^ a b Bosley, Rachael (13 January 2020). "Lives Under Siege: The Goldfinch and 1917". American Cinematographer. Retrieved 9 February 2020.
  27. ^ a b c d e Salter, Jessica (10 June 2011). "World of Roger Deakins, Cinematographer". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 12 January 2022. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  28. ^ a b c d e f Abdelhamid, Hesham (17 February 2020). "We interview Roger Deakins: Devon's movie maestro". Devon Life. Exeter, UK: Archant Community Media Ltd. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  29. ^ "James Ellis Deakins - Biography - IMDb". IMDb.
  30. ^ "Byways - a book of still photography from Roger Deakins". Retrieved 22 August 2021.
  31. ^ "Roger Deakins Just Started a Filmmaking Podcast. This is Not a Drill". No Film School. 5 May 2020. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  32. ^ "Team Deakins". teamdeakins.libsyn.com. Retrieved 21 July 2020.
  33. ^ "Roger Deakins' Iconic Career in 20 Legendary Shots". IndieWire. 5 October 2017. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  34. ^ Giardina, Carolyn (4 March 2018). "Legendary Cinematographer Roger Deakins Wins First Oscar for 'Blade Runner 2049'". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  35. ^ Wittmer, Carrie (5 March 2018). "Roger Deakins finally won an Oscar for best cinematography after 14 nominations – here's a look through his epic work". Business Insider. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  36. ^ Murphy, Mekado (5 January 2018). "The Bright (and Dark) Side of Roger Deakins". The New York Times. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  37. ^ O'Falt, Chris (23 February 2018). "Roger Deakins' Legacy is Bigger Than an Oscar: A Frank Conversation With the Cinematography Legend". IndieWire. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  38. ^ Keegan, Rebecca (7 December 2017). "Is This the Year Legendary Cinematographer Roger Deakins Gets His Oscar?". Vanity Fair. Retrieved 20 November 2019.
  39. ^ ""Blade Runner 2049" wins Best Cinematography - YouTube". YouTube.
  40. ^ Heiderny, Margaret (22 September 2014). "The Little-Known Story of How The Shawshank Redemption Became One of the Most Beloved Films of All Time". Vanity Fair. Archived from the original on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 5 March 2017.
  41. ^ Goldberg, Matt (16 November 2015), "Ryan Gosling Confirms He's in 'Blade Runner 2'; Talks Shane Black's 'The Nice Guys'", Collider, archived from the original on 17 November 2015, retrieved 16 November 2015
  42. ^ "2018 | Oscars.org | Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences".
  43. ^ "2020 | Oscars.org | Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences".
  44. ^ ""1917" wins Best Cinematography - YouTube". YouTube.
  45. ^ NTFS Staff (28 February 2020). "Honorary Fellows". NTFS.co.uk. Beaconsfield, UK: National Film and Television School (NTFS). Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  46. ^ "BAFTA Awards Search | BAFTA Awards". Awards.bafta.org. Retrieved 29 February 2020.
  47. ^ "Film Awards 2011: Winners List | BAFTA". 13 February 2011.
  48. ^ ASC Staff (3 February 2020). "Rodger Deakins, ASC, BSC Wins BAFTA for 1917". ASC.com. Hollywood, CA: The American Society of Cinematographers (ASC). Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  49. ^ Puig, Claudia (10 January 1997). "'Fargo' Is Leader in Spirit Award Nominations". LATimes.com. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  50. ^ Dretzka, Gary (24 March 1997). "'Fargo' Big Winner Among Independents". ChicagoTribune.com. Retrieved 28 February 2020.
  51. ^ King, Susan (6 March 2010). "'Precious' wins big at Independent Spirit Awards". LATimes.com. Retrieved 28 February 2020. Note, the article now bears a date of 7 March 2014, perhaps indicative of a corrective edit to the earlier story.
  52. ^ RPS Lumière Award. https://rps.org/about/awards/history-and-recipients/lumiere-award/ Retrieved 31 December 2020.
  53. ^ NBR Staff (2007). "2007 Award Winners: 2007 Awards Gala". New York, NY: National Board of Review. Retrieved 28 October 2016. See also "About" section at this web location.
  54. ^ Giardina, Carolyn (13 February 2011). "'Inception' Cinematographer Wally Pfister Wins ASC Film Award". The Hollywood Reporter. Retrieved 3 March 2020.
  55. ^ "Awards | British Society of Cinematographers". bscine.com. Retrieved 17 April 2020.
  56. ^ Palace and Gazette Staff (15 June 2013). "Birthday Honours List—United Kingdom, 14 June 2013". London Gazette (60534, Suppl. No. 1): 7.
  57. ^ "No. 63218". The London Gazette (Supplement). 31 December 2020. p. N2.
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