Jump to content

Male contraceptive

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Male contraception)

Male contraceptives, also known as male birth control, are methods of preventing pregnancy by interrupting the function of sperm.[1] The main forms of male contraception available today are condoms, vasectomy, and withdrawal, which together represented 20% of global contraceptive use in 2019.[2][3][4][5] New forms of male contraception are in clinical and preclinical stages of research and development, but as of 2024, none have reached regulatory approval for widespread use.[6][7][8][9]

These new methods include topical creams, daily pills, injections, long-acting implants, and external devices, and these products have both hormonal and non-hormonal mechanisms of action.[6][10][11][12][13][14][15] Some of these new contraceptives could even be unisex, or usable by any person, because they could theoretically incapacitate mature sperm in the man's body before ejaculation, or incapacitate sperm in the body of a woman after insemination.[16][17]

Background

[edit]

In the 21st century, surveys indicated that around half of men in countries across the world have been interested in using a variety of novel contraceptive methods,[18][19][20][21] and men in clinical trials for male contraceptives have reported high levels of satisfaction with the products.[12][22] Women worldwide have also shown a high level of interest in new male contraceptives, and though both male and female partners could use their own contraceptives simultaneously, women in long-term relationships have indicated a high degree of trust in their male partner's ability to successfully manage contraceptive use.[18][23][24]

A modelling study from 2018 suggested that even partial adoption of new male contraceptives would significantly reduce unintended pregnancy rates around the globe,[25] which remain at nearly 50%, even in developed countries where women have access to modern contraceptives.[26][27][28] Unintended pregnancies are associated with negative socioeconomic, educational, and health outcomes for women, men, and the resulting children (especially in historically marginalized communities),[27][29][30][31][32][33][34] and 60% of unintended pregnancies end in abortions,[35][36] many of which are unsafe and can lead to women's harm or death.[37][38][39][40] Therefore, the development of new male contraceptives has the potential to improve racial, economic, and gender equality across the world, advance reproductive justice and reproductive autonomy for all people, and save lives.

Available methods

[edit]

Vasectomy

[edit]
Diagram of an open vasectomy
Main article: Vasectomy

Vasectomy is surgical procedure for permanent male sterilization usually performed in a physician's office in an outpatient procedure.[41] During the procedure, the vasa deferentia of a patient are severed, and then tied or sealed to prevent sperm from being released during ejaculation.[42] Vasectomy is an effective procedure, with less than 0.15% of partners becoming pregnant within the first 12 months after the procedure.[43] Vasectomy is also a widely reliable and safe method of contraception, and complications are both rare and minor.[44][45] Vasectomies can be reversed, though rates of successful reversal decline as the time since vasectomy increases, and the procedure is technically difficult and often costly.[42][46][41]

Condoms

[edit]
A rolled-up condom
Main article: Condom

A condom is a barrier device made of latex or thin plastic film that is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and retains ejaculated semen, thereby preventing pregnancy.[47] Condoms are less effective at preventing pregnancy than vasectomy or modern methods of female contraception, with a real-world failure rate of 13%.[43] However, condoms have the advantage of providing protection against some sexually transmitted infections such as HIV/AIDS.[48][49] Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception (such as spermicide) for greater protection.[50]

Withdrawal

[edit]
Main article: Coitus interruptus

The withdrawal method, also known as coitus interruptus or pulling out, is a behavior that involves halting penile-vaginal intercourse to remove the penis out and away from the vagina prior to ejaculation.[51][52] Withdrawal is considered a less-effective contraceptive method, with typical-use failure rates around 20%.[41][43] However, it requires no equipment or medical procedures.[51]

Contraceptive Failure Rate[43][note 1]
Method Typical use Perfect use
Vasectomy 0.15% 0.10%
Condoms 13% 2%
Withdrawal 20% 4%

Research into new methods

[edit]

Researchers have been working to generate novel male contraceptives with diverse mechanisms of action and possible delivery methods, including long-acting reversible contraceptives (LARCs), daily transdermal gels, daily and on-demand oral pills, monthly injectables, and implants.[53][54][55] Efforts to develop male contraceptives have been ongoing for many decades, but progress has been slowed by a lack of funding and industry involvement. As of 2024, most funding for male contraceptive research is derived from government or philanthropic sources.[56][57][58][59]

Novel male contraceptives could work by blocking various steps of the sperm development process, blocking sperm release, or interfering with any of the sperm functions necessary to reach and fertilize an egg in the female reproductive tract.[60] Advantages and disadvantages of each of these approaches will be discussed below, along with relevant examples of products in development.

Methods that block or interfere with sperm production

[edit]

These methods work by preventing the testes from producing sperm, or interfering with sperm production in a way that leads to the production of nonfunctional sperm.[61] This approach can be accomplished by either hormonal or nonhormonal small-molecule drugs, or potentially by thermal methods. The effectiveness of contraceptives in this group can be easily assessed microscopically, by measuring sperm count or abnormalities in sperm shape, but because spermatogenesis takes approximately 70 days to complete,[62] these methods are likely to require approximately three months of use before they become effective, and approaches that halt sperm production at an early stage of the process may result in reduced testicular size.[63] Methods have been suggested in the 1980s.[64]

Hormonal male contraceptives

[edit]

Hormonal contraceptives for men work similarly to hormonal female methods, using steroids to interrupt the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and thereby block sperm production. Administering external androgens and progestogens suppresses secretion of the gonadotropins LH and FSH, which impairs testosterone production and sperm generation in the testes, leading to reduced sperm counts in ejaculates within 4–12 weeks of use.[65] However, since the contraceptives contain testosterone or related androgens, the levels of androgens in the blood remain relatively constant, thereby limiting side effects and maintaining masculine secondary sex characteristics like muscle mass and hair growth.[65]

Multiple methods of male hormonal contraception have been tested in clinical trials since the 1990s, and although one trial was halted early, leading to a large amount of press attention,[66][67][68][69][70] most hormonal male contraceptives have been found to be effective, reversible, and well-tolerated.[71][72][73][74][75][76]

In clinical trials
[edit]

As of 2024, the following hormonal male contraceptive products are in clinical trials:

  • NES/T (Nesterone/Testosterone gel) is a transdermal gel that users apply to the upper arms and shoulders once daily.[77][78] Developed as a collaboration between the NICHD and Population Council, NES/T is in a phase II clinical trial,[79] where it is being evaluated for safety and efficacy, with healthy couples relying on it as their only means of birth control.[10][80][81][82]
  • DMAU (Dimethandrolone undecanoate) is a steroid-based contraceptive molecule with both androgenic and progestational activities, which allows it to be used as a single agent. DMAU has been tested in clinical trials in both oral[83][22] and injectable forms.[11]
  • 11β-MNTDC is another dual-function molecule (progestogenic androgen) in clinical development as an oral contraceptive for men.[12]

Some anabolic steroids may exhibit suppressive effects on spermatogenesis, but none are being investigated for use as a male contraceptive.[84]

Non-hormonal male contraceptives

[edit]

Non-hormonal contraceptives for men are a diverse group of molecules that act by inhibiting any of the many proteins involved in sperm production, release, or function. Because sperm cells are highly specialized, they express many proteins that are rare in the rest of the human body.[85][86][87] This suggests the possibility that non-hormonal contraceptives that specifically block these sperm proteins could have fewer side effects than hormonal contraceptives, since sex steroid receptors are found in tissues throughout the body.[88] Non-hormonal contraceptives can work by blocking spermatogenesis, sperm release, or mature sperm function, resulting in products with a wide variety of usage patterns, from slow onset to on-demand usage.[89] Contraceptives targeting mature sperm functions could even be taken by both sperm-producing and egg producing people.[17][16] Challenges of non-hormonal contraceptive development include bioavailability and delivery past the blood-testis barrier.[90]

In clinical trials
[edit]

As of 2024, the following non-hormonal male contraceptive product is in clinical trials:

  • YCT529, a retinoic acid receptor antagonist, began a Phase 1 clinical trial in 2023[91] organized by the US startup YourChoice Pharmaceuticals. The clinical test on humans is done by the UK company Quotient Sciences.[92][93][94] It was originally planned in 2022 instead of 2023, with an expected marketing date 5 years later.[95]
In preclinical development
[edit]

As of 2024, the following non-hormonal male contraceptive products are in preclinical development:

Thermal male contraception
[edit]
Main article: Heat-based contraception

Prolonged testicular heating had been shown to reduce sperm counts in 1941,[115] considered as a method of birth control after 1968 and in the 1980s[116][117] No modern clinical trials have demonstrated the safety, contraceptive effectiveness, or reversibility of this approach. Various devices are in early preclinical stages of development, and as of 2017 some approaches have been used by men through self-experimentation.[14][118] As of 2015, the mechanism by which heating disrupts spermatogenesis was still not fully understood.[119] There have been theoretical concerns that prolonged heating could increase the risk of testicular cancer since the inborn birth defcet of cryptorchidism carries a risk of testicular cancer[120] or that heating could damage sperm DNA, resulting in harm to potential offspring.[121]

Methods that block sperm release

[edit]

These approaches work by either physically or chemically preventing the emission of sperm during ejaculation, and are likely to be effective on-demand.

Non-hormonal pharmaceutical methods in preclinical and clinical development

[edit]

α1-adrenoceptor antagonists and P2X1 antagonists have been shown to inhibit smooth muscle contractions in the vas deferens during ejaculation, and therefore prevent the release of semen and sperm while maintaining the sensation of orgasm.[122][123][124] Various molecules in these categories are under consideration as possible on-demand male contraceptives.

Vas-occlusive contraception

[edit]
Main article: Vas-occlusive contraception
A diagram of the mechanism of action of vas-occlusive contraceptive methods.

Vas-occlusive contraception is a form of male contraception that blocks sperm transport in the vas deferens, the tubes that carry sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory ducts.

Vas-occlusive contraception provides a contraceptive effect through physical blockage of the vas deferens, the duct connecting the epididymis to the urethra. While a vasectomy excises, or removes, a piece of each vas deferens and occludes the remaining open ends of the duct, vas-occlusive methods aim to block the duct while leaving it intact. Vas-occlusive methods generally aim to create long-acting reversible options, through a second procedure that removes the blockage.[138] However, full reversibility remains questionable, since animal and human studies have shown sperm abnormalities, incomplete recovery of sperm parameters, and the development of fertility-impairing antibodies against one's own sperm after blockage removal.[111][139][140][141][142][143]

In clinical trials
[edit]

As of 2024, the following vas-occlusive male contraceptive products are in clinical trials:

  • RISUG is an injectable male contraceptive vas-occlusive gel that has been in development in India since the 1970s,[144][145] and has shown high effectiveness at pregnancy prevention in multiple clinical trials through Phase III in India,[146][147][148] though the results of the largest phase III study were published in a questionably peer-reviewed predatory journal.[149] RISUG is proposed to be reversed through a second injection that dissolves the polymer,[150] but as of 2024, reversibility and return to fertility after removal of RISUG have not been shown in humans.[146] As of 2022, RISUG was awaiting approval from the Drug Controller General of India for mass production.[148]
  • ADAM is a hydrogel-based male contraceptive implant in early clinical development[151] by Contraline, Inc.[152] The implant is administered to a user in a procedure similar to a no-scalpel vasectomy, and is proposed to provide protection from pregnancy for approximately two years, after which the hydrogel degrades, thereby restoring fertility.[153]
In preclinical development
[edit]

As of 2024, the following vas-occlusive male contraceptive products are in preclinical development:

  • Plan A, formerly known as Vasalgel, is an adaptation of the polymer used in RISUG, which as of 2024 is in preclinical development in the United States by NEXT life sciences.[154][155][156][157][158][159]
  • Other methods for vas occlusion have been proposed, though these methods are largely in very early development.[160][161][162][163]

Barrier methods

[edit]

Research into new, more acceptable designs of condoms is ongoing.[164][165]

Methods that block functions of mature sperm

[edit]

These approaches work by blocking functions that mature sperm need in order to reach and fertilize an egg in the female reproductive tract, such as motility, capacitation, semen liquification, or fertilization. Drugs or devices that target mature sperm are likely to be effective on-demand (taken just before intercourse), and could even be delivered either in sperm-producing or egg-producing bodies, leading to unisex contraceptives.[17][16]

In preclinical development

[edit]

As of 2024, the following non-hormonal male contraceptive approaches are in preclinical or early development:

Acceptability

[edit]

Although some people question whether men would be interested in managing their own contraceptives[188] or whether women would trust their male partners to do so successfully,[189] studies consistently show that men around the world have significant levels of interest in novel forms of male contraception[18][23][190][19][191][192] and that women in committed relationships would generally trust their male partners to manage the contraceptive burden in the relationship.[23] Additionally, males participating in various contraceptive clinical trials have reported high satisfaction with the products they were using.[81][12][22]

Among men

[edit]

Studies on potential uptake indicate that in most countries, more than half of men surveyed would be willing to use a new method of male contraception.[18][20][190][193][194][195] Interestingly, some of the highest rates were reported in low-income countries like Nigeria and Bangladesh where 76% of men surveyed indicated that they would be willing to use a new method within the first 12 months that it is available.[18] This is particularly compelling, since it has been estimated that a mere 10% uptake of new male contraceptive methods could avert nearly 40% of unintended pregnancies in Nigeria.[25] Across the world, many young and middle-aged men especially want the ability to control their own fertility, and are not well-served by existing family planning programs.[196]

Although a phase II trial for an injectable male contraceptive was halted in 2011 by an independent data safety monitoring board due likely to rare adverse effects experienced by some participants,[197][67] leading many popular articles to suggest men could not tolerate side effects similar to those that many women endure on hormonal birth control,[70][198] in reality more than 80% of the study's male participants stated at the end of the trial that they were satisfied with the contraceptive injection, and would be willing to use the method if it were available.[199] Subsequent hormonal male contraceptive clinical trials have progressed successfully, showing high levels of efficacy and acceptability among the participants.[12][22][81][200]

Among women

[edit]

It is sometimes assumed that women won’t trust men to take contraceptives, since women would bear the consequences of a male partner's missed dose or misuse.[189] Of course, male contraceptive options would not have to replace female contraceptives, and in casual sexual encounters both partners may prefer to independently control their own contraceptive methods. On the other hand, some long-term couples might want only one partner to bear the contraceptive burden. Indeed, there is evidence that a large proportion of women in relationships in many countries around the world would trust their partners to take a potential male method,[24][18] and many women want more male partner involvement in their own reproductive health services.[201] Further, current contraceptive use data show that more than a quarter of women worldwide already rely on male-controlled methods for contraception (such as condoms and vasectomy),[202] and this figure could grow as more male contraceptive methods become available.

Potential benefits

[edit]

On unintended pregnancy rates

[edit]

Despite the fact that modern female pharmaceutical contraception has been on the market since the 1960s,[203] 40-50% of pregnancies are still unintended worldwide, leading to an approximate total of 121 million unintended pregnancies annually.[204][205][206] Importantly, most studies on unintended pregnancies only measure women's intentions about the pregnancy, and so pregnancies that were unintended by men are understudied and may be under-reported.[207] Unintended pregnancies have been shown to be linked with a wide variety of negative outcomes on mental and physical health, as well as educational and socioeconomic attainment in both parents and the children born of unintended pregnancies.[27][29][30][32][33][34]

Surprisingly, although the rate of unintended pregnancies (per 1000 women of childbearing age) is higher in developing countries,[205][208][209] the percentage of pregnancies that are unintended is actually higher in developed countries, since a lower proportion of women in developed countries are intending to conceive at any given time.[205] Research indicates that unmet need for modern contraception is the cause of 84% of unintended pregnancies in developing countries.[210] In the United States, which has a higher unintended pregnancy rate than many other developed nations,[211] one important reason that women cite for nonuse of contraceptives is concerns about the side effects of existing products.[212] Taken together, these statistics suggests that the current suite of contraceptives is insufficient to meet the fertility planning needs of people across the world, and therefore the introduction of new male contraceptives is likely to decrease the stubbornly high global rates of unintended pregnancy.[25]

International market research indicates that 49% of men in the United states and 76% of men in Nigeria would try a novel male contraceptive within the first year of its existence.[18] Independent modelling predicts that even if real-world usage is only 10% as high as the market research suggests, the introduction of a male contraceptive would avert roughly 200,000 unintended pregnancies per year in the USA and Nigeria each.[25]

For men

[edit]

Fathers with unintended births report lower proportions of happiness than in fathers with intentional births[213] and unintended fatherhood for men in their early 30's is associated with a significant increase in depressive symptoms.[214] In addition, men in insecure financial situations are more likely to report a recent unintended pregnancy,[207] and supporting and raising a child brings significant costs that can exacerbate financial insecurity.[215][216] More broadly, access to effective and reliable contraception would advance men's ability to "maintain personal bodily autonomy, have children, not have children, and parent the children we have in safe and sustainable communities" in accordance with the principles of Reproductive Justice.[217]

For women and gender equity

[edit]

Family planning has been found to be associated with overall well-being and is one of the most efficient tools for women's empowerment.[218][219][220] Positive outcomes of effective birth control include improvements in women's health, self-agency, education, labor force participation, financial stability, as well as decreases in pregnancy-related deaths,[221][222][223] and these positive social and health impacts may be further realized by the addition of novel male and unisex methods.[25][18] New male contraceptive options would not come at the expense of women’s reproductive autonomy, since women would still be able to take advantage of all of the contraceptive methods available to them, choose to have both partners use their own contraceptive methods at the same time, or rely solely on their male partners’ form of contraception.

Interventions encouraging male engagement in couples' reproductive health and decisionmaking have shown positive outcomes related to promoting more equitable gender norms in the context of family planning,[224] and increased joint decision making in couples. It is reasonable to assume from these data that increasing male involvement as contraceptive users will further improve gender equity.[225]

For transgender, nonbinary, and intersex people

[edit]

While this article has used the term "male" contraception for clarity, these contraceptives are most accurately described as "sperm-targeting" contraceptives, since they would work effectively in any body that produces sperm, regardless of that person's gender identity or external genitalia.[17] Importantly, contraceptives that block functions of mature sperm could be delivered in a unisex manner, incapacitating sperm before ejaculation in sperm-producing people, or after sperm arrives in the body of egg-producing people.[16][17]

Transgender, nonbinary, and intersex people are underserved by current contraceptive options. For example, many trans men can become pregnant (both intentionally and unintentionally),[226] but may prefer not to use estrogen- or progestin-containing hormonal birth control (both because of the social classification of these hormones as "female sex hormones" and because of a fear they will interfere with masculinizing hormone therapy, although the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists states that these hormonal contraceptives have little effect on masculinization.)[227][228][229] Trans women who have not had gender-affirming genital surgery may have similar unmet contraceptive needs as those of cisgender men, since gender-affirming hormonal therapy is not effective contraception.[229] Nonbinary and intersex people may be less likely to use current methods of birth control, since they are popularly categorized by the labels "male" and "female", which may not match an individual's gender identity or may invoke feelings of gender dysphoria.[228] This dynamic may contribute to the higher rates of unintended pregnancies seen in the LGBTQ+ community as compared to heterosexual peers,[230][231][232] which could in theory be ameliorated by the introduction of unisex contraceptives.

For child welfare

[edit]

Novel male contraceptive options are predicted to reduce the incidence unintended pregnancies,[25][18] and being the product of an intended rather than unintended pregnancy has been shown to correlate with improved health and wellbeing outcomes in children.[31][222][233][234] Additionally, reduced family size correlates with improved educational outcomes,[235] and children born after the introduction of family planning programs in the USA experienced a reduction in poverty rates, both in childhood and adulthood.[236]

For racial and socioeconomic equality

[edit]

Unintended pregnancies rates increase as income decreases, both between countries[36] and between socioeconomic and racial groups within a given country.[211][237]  Women of color, especially Black women, in the United States and other developed countries have dramatically higher rates of death during and after birth and worse maternal health outcomes, due in part to systemic discrimination.[238][222]  Since unintended pregnancies can have negative effects on an individual's physical and mental health, educational attainment, and economic prospects, these higher unintended pregnancy rates likely contribute to the persistent socioeconomic gaps within and between societies.[27][29][30][31][32][33][34]   It’s therefore possible that the introduction of new male contraceptives would not only mitigate gender inequities, as discussed above, but racial and income inequities as well, by providing more ways for individuals to avoid unintended pregnancies.[25]

For national economies

[edit]

In addition to the personal financial savings of avoiding unintended pregnancy mentioned above, on a societal level, contraceptives are a public health intervention with a high return on investment: for every dollar the United States government spends on family planning programs, it saves $7.09, for a total of over $13 billion per year.[239] Unintended pregnancies in the United States are estimated to cause $4.5 billion in direct medical costs.[34][32] New male contraceptives are likely to prevent some unintended pregnancies[25] and therefore reduce these costs.

On abortion rates

[edit]

61% of unintended pregnancies end in abortion,[35] whereas only 20% of all pregnancies end in abortion.[240] Interestingly, unintended pregnancy rates are higher in countries where abortion is illegal than those where abortion is legal, yet the incidence of abortion is similar between these groups of countries.[35][241] Illegal abortions are more likely to be unsafe, and there are an estimated 25 million unsafe abortions globally each year, leading to 50,000 - 70,000 yearly deaths and 5 million people with long-term health consequences.[37][38][39][40] Importantly, increases in the prevalence and uptake of modern contraceptives have been shown to decrease unintended pregnancy and abortion rates when fertility rates are constant.[242][243][244] This suggests that the introduction of new forms of male contraception could prevent a significant number of abortions, save lives, and avoid unnecessary suffering.

History

[edit]
Main articles: History of birth control, History of condoms, and Vasectomy § History

Early history

[edit]

A variety of plant extracts have been used throughout history in attempts to prevent pregnancy, though most were used by women, and the efficacy and safety of these methods is questionable.[245][246][247]

Condoms made of animal organs or fabric have been in documented use since at least the 16th century,[248] and various types of penile coverings have been depicted and referenced in materials from cultures around the world as early as 3000 BCE, though it is not always clear that these coverings were used for birth control or protection from sexually transmitted infections.[249] The 1800's saw the development of thick reusable rubber condoms,[248][249] and thinner disposable latex rubber condoms entered production in the 1920s.[250][251][252]

Vasectomy was first performed in humans in the late 1800s, but not initially as a method of voluntary birth control. Instead, it was first used as an attempted treatment (later proved to be ineffective) for enlarged prostates, and within a few years, one-sided vasectomy became popular as a supposed method of sexual rejuvenation in older men.[253][254] Although this rejuvenation treatment was ineffective pseudoscience and any perceived effects were likely due only to the placebo effect, many prominent men, such as Sigmund Freud and W.B. Yeats, sought out the procedure.[255] In the early 1900s, the use of vasectomy took a darker turn, and it became widely promoted and practiced as a means of eugenic involuntary sterilization.[254][253] It was not until the 1950s that vasectomy became widely used as a method for voluntary sterilization and family planning.[254][253] Since then, vasectomy has undergone extensive technical improvements and innovations, such that it is no longer a single procedure, but a family of related procedures.[253][256]

Modern history

[edit]

In the 1990s, and into the early 2000s, major pharmaceutical companies Organon, Wyeth, and Schering were pursuing preclinical and clinical development of various male contraceptive products, but in 2006, all three companies ceased development of these products within a short time of each other, for reasons that have not been publicly released.[257][110]

In 2013, the Male Contraceptive Initiative was founded with the goal of funding and supporting the development of new male contraceptives.[258][259]

In 2020, Dr. Polina Lishko was awarded the MacArthur "Genius" Fellowship for her contributions to the understanding of sperm physiology, with the award specifically noting her work on "opening up new avenues in ... the development of male-specific or unisex contraceptives."[260]

Past research efforts

[edit]

Many researchers have attempted to develop male contraceptive products over the last hundred years. A selection of these efforts (that are no longer in development as of 2024) are listed below.

  • Hormonal
    • Trestolone (MENT) was investigated as a contraceptive implant in the 1990s and early 2000s by the Population Council, but this molecule was never approved for contraceptive use.[261][262]
    • An injectable male contraceptive consisting of Testosterone undecanoate and Norethisterone enanthate reached Phase II clinical trials in 2008.[263] The injection was administered every 8 weeks, and it effectively and reversibly suppressed sperm production in at least 95% of the participants.[66][67] However, in 2011 the trial was halted early on the recommendation of a World Health Organization Research Project Review Panel, based on their evaluation of adverse events, specifically noting "mood changes, depression, pain at the injection site, and increased libido".[66][67] This decision generated significant controversy amongst scientists and in public media.[67][68][69][70]
  • Non-Hormonal
    • WIN 18446 is a molecule initially developed by a pharmaceutical company called Sterling Drug that was shown to produce reversible infertility in rats. In the late 1950s, it was tested in male prisoners at the Oregon State Penitentiary, and while it showed effective and reversible suppression of sperm production with limited adverse effects, if men drank alcohol while taking WIN 18446, they experienced a severe Disulfiram-alcohol reaction, including nausea, vomiting, and heart palpitations, and so the molecule was not developed further at that time.[110][264] However, research on this class of compounds was renewed in 2006 by a team at University of Washington, who uncovered the mechanism of action for the contraceptive effect and the alcohol reaction (inhibition of Aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) enzymes), and are attempting to produce molecules that selectively inhibit the sperm-specific isoform of the enzyme (ALDH1A2).[110][265][266][54]
    • Gossypol, an extract of cotton, has been studied as a male contraceptive pill, and was given to thousands of men in China in the 1970s.[267] It successfully decreased sperm production, leading to infertility without significant adverse effects, but this effect was permanent in a substantial percentage of the users, and so it was not pursued for widespread approval.[268] However, synthetic derivatives of gossypol that work through a similar mechanism of action, but more selectively target the sperm-specific Lactate Dehydrogenase C enzyme, are still in development as potential male contraceptives.[269][184][185]
    • Miglustat (Zavesca or NB-DNJ) is a drug approved for treatment of several rare lipid storage disorders. In several genetically-related strains of laboratory mice, it provided effective and fully reversible contraception,[270][271] but later studies of showed no contraceptive effect in rabbits or humans.[272][271]
    • Various small molecules have been shown to cause infertility in rodents and other species by disrupting the junctions between Sertoli cells and elongating spermatids, leading to premature release of immature, nonfunctional sperm.[273] These fertility-disrupting molecules include derivatives of lonidamine, such as Adjudin[274] and Gamendazole,[275] and indenopyridine derivatives such as CDB-4022 and RTI-4587-073(l).[276] Toxicity, reversibility, and bioavailability challenges limited the development of lonidamide derivatives, though efforts to create more specific delivery vehicles partially ameliorated these problems.[54][277] A new lonidamide derivative called BHD that showed contraceptive effects in rodents was developed in 2023, but further characterization is needed.[278] Indenopyridine derivatives have not been fully evaluated for effects on fertility and toxicity, and as of 2024, it is unclear if work on these compounds is ongoing.[279]
    • In the 20th century, various small molecules such as α-chlorohydrin and 6-chloro-6-deoxy-glucose were shown to cause infertility in rodents, but these molecules also caused unacceptable systemic toxicity, and were not developed further.[280]
    • Contraceptive immunization with sperm antigens has been found to be partially effective and reversible in male primates.[281]
    • Numerous plant extracts and naturally-derived molecules have been preliminarily evaluated for use as male contraceptives or spermicides. While some of these extracts have become the basis of more specific molecular drug development campaigns mentioned earlier in this article, others require more work to clarify the active ingredient, or further research into efficacy, toxicity, and reversibility.[282][283][284] These molecules face an additional financial challenge in drug development, since unaltered natural products cannot be patented in the United States and many other countries, which reduces the interest of for-profit pharmaceutical companies in these compounds.[285][286]
  • Vas-Occlusive
    • The following vas-occusive device prototypes were developed in the late 20th and early 21st centuries, but are no longer in development.
      • The intra-vas device (IVD) was a rod-shaped device intended to be inserted into the lumen of the vas deferens via a small incision.[13][287]
      • The “Shug” was a noninjectable device consisting of 2 silicone plugs with nylon tails to help anchor the plug to the vas deferens, and was inserted via the no-scalpel scrotal puncture method.[288]
      • Injectable medical polyurethane was used as a vas-occlusive contraceptive for several hundred thousand men in China in the 1980s.[289][142]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ The percentage of users of each method who will experience an unintended pregnancy in the first year of use of the method.

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "FAQS". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  2. ^ "Contraceptive Use by Method 2019" (PDF). United Nations.
  3. ^ "Contraceptive Use in the United States by Method". Guttmacher Institute. 7 April 2021.
  4. ^ Haakenstad A, Angelino O, Irvine CM, Bhutta ZA, Bienhoff K, Bintz C, et al. (July 2022). "Measuring contraceptive method mix, prevalence, and demand satisfied by age and marital status in 204 countries and territories, 1970-2019: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2019". Lancet. 400 (10348): 295–327. doi:10.1016/s0140-6736(22)00936-9. PMC 9304984. PMID 35871816.
  5. ^ Daniels K, Abma JC (2023-12-12). Contraceptive Methods Women Have Ever Used: United States, 2015-2019 (Report). Hyattsville, MD: National Center for Health Statistics (U.S.). doi:10.15620/cdc:134502.
  6. ^ a b "What Is In Development". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Archived from the original on 2024-02-29. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  7. ^ Gorvett Z. "The weird reasons there still isn't a male contraceptive pill". BBC Future.
  8. ^ Gibbens S (2023-03-03). "Birth control options for men are advancing. Here's how they work". National Geographic Magazine. Archived from the original on March 3, 2023. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  9. ^ Barber R (Dec 4, 2022). "In the hunt for a male contraceptive, scientists look to stop sperm in their tracks". National Public Radio. Retrieved Oct 12, 2023.
  10. ^ a b Amory JK, Blithe DL, Sitruk-Ware R, Swerdloff RS, Bremner WJ, Dart C, et al. (August 2023). "Design of an international male contraceptive efficacy trial using a self-administered daily transdermal gel containing testosterone and segesterone acetate (Nestorone)". Contraception. 124: 110064. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2023.110064. PMID 37210024. S2CID 258800752.
  11. ^ a b Clinical trial number NCT02927210 for "Injectable DMAU for Male Contraception in Healthy Male Volunteers (CCN015) (DMAU)" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  12. ^ a b c d e Nguyen BT, Yuen F, Farrant M, Thirumalai A, Fernando F, Amory JK, et al. (November 2021). "Acceptability of the oral hormonal male contraceptive prototype, 11β-methyl-19-nortestosterone dodecylcarbonate (11β-MNTDC), in a 28-day placebo-controlled trial". Contraception. 104 (5): 531–537. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2021.06.009. PMC 8995005. PMID 34153318.
  13. ^ a b Cook LA, Van Vliet HA, Lopez LM, Pun A, Gallo MF (March 2014). "Vasectomy occlusion techniques for male sterilization". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014 (3): CD003991. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD003991.pub4. PMC 7173716. PMID 24683020.
  14. ^ a b Soufir JC (2017). "Hormonal, chemical and thermal inhibition of spermatogenesis: contribution of French teams to international data with the aim of developing male contraception in France". Basic and Clinical Andrology. 27: 3. doi:10.1186/s12610-016-0047-2. PMC 5237323. PMID 28101363.
  15. ^ a b Long JE, Lee MS, Blithe DL (January 2019). "Male Contraceptive Development: Update on Novel Hormonal and Nonhormonal Methods". Clinical Chemistry. 65 (1): 153–160. doi:10.1373/clinchem.2018.295089. PMID 30602479.
  16. ^ a b c d Lishko PV (October 2016). "Contraception: Search for an Ideal Unisex Mechanism by Targeting Ion Channels". Trends in Biochemical Sciences. 41 (10): 816–818. doi:10.1016/j.tibs.2016.08.002. PMC 5364274. PMID 27545067.
  17. ^ a b c d e Skinner WM (2022). Investigating Sperm-Specific Proteins and Physiology to Inform Development of Non-Hormonal, Unisex Contraception (Thesis). ProQuest 2884070213.[page needed]
  18. ^ a b c d e f g h i "International Market Research". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-02-09.
  19. ^ a b Glasier A (November 2010). "Acceptability of contraception for men: a review". Contraception. 82 (5): 453–456. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2010.03.016. PMID 20933119.
  20. ^ a b Heinemann K, Saad F, Wiesemes M, White S, Heinemann L (February 2005). "Attitudes toward male fertility control: results of a multinational survey on four continents". Human Reproduction. 20 (2): 549–556. doi:10.1093/humrep/deh574. PMID 15608042.
  21. ^ Friedman M (2019). "Interest Among U.S. Men for New Male Contraceptive Options" (PDF). Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved Oct 12, 2023.
  22. ^ a b c d Nguyen BT, Farrant MT, Anawalt BD, Yuen F, Thirumalai A, Amory JK, et al. (July 2020). "Acceptability of oral dimethandrolone undecanoate in a 28-day placebo-controlled trial of a hormonal male contraceptive prototype". Contraception. 102 (1): 52–57. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2020.04.006. PMC 7287214. PMID 32298717.
  23. ^ a b c Reynolds-Wright JJ, Cameron NJ, Anderson RA (September 2021). "Will Men Use Novel Male Contraceptive Methods and Will Women Trust Them? A Systematic Review". Journal of Sex Research. 58 (7): 838–849. doi:10.1080/00224499.2021.1905764. hdl:20.500.11820/d54d8a6a-eaa6-47d4-9204-4bdf87fc920b. PMID 33900134.
  24. ^ a b Glasier AF, Anakwe R, Everington D, Martin CW, van der Spuy Z, Cheng L, et al. (March 2000). "Would women trust their partners to use a male pill?". Human Reproduction. 15 (3): 646–649. doi:10.1093/humrep/15.3.646. PMID 10686212.
  25. ^ a b c d e f g h Dorman E, Perry B, Polis CB, Campo-Engelstein L, Shattuck D, Hamlin A, et al. (January 2018). "Modeling the impact of novel male contraceptive methods on reductions in unintended pregnancies in Nigeria, South Africa, and the United States". Contraception. 97 (1): 62–69. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2017.08.015. PMC 5732079. PMID 28887053.
  26. ^ Sedgh G, Singh S, Hussain R (September 2014). "Intended and unintended pregnancies worldwide in 2012 and recent trends". Studies in Family Planning. 45 (3): 301–314. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2014.00393.x. PMC 4727534. PMID 25207494.
  27. ^ a b c d Singh S, Sedgh G, Hussain R (December 2010). "Unintended pregnancy: worldwide levels, trends, and outcomes". Studies in Family Planning. 41 (4): 241–250. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2010.00250.x. PMID 21465725.
  28. ^ Finer LB, Zolna MR (March 2016). "Declines in Unintended Pregnancy in the United States, 2008-2011". The New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (9): 843–852. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa1506575. PMC 4861155. PMID 26962904.
  29. ^ a b c Herd P, Higgins J, Sicinski K, Merkurieva I (March 2016). "The Implications of Unintended Pregnancies for Mental Health in Later Life". American Journal of Public Health. 106 (3): 421–429. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.302973. PMC 4815713. PMID 26691118.
  30. ^ a b c Finer LB, Sonfield A (February 2013). "The evidence mounts on the benefits of preventing unintended pregnancy". Contraception. 87 (2): 126–127. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2012.12.005. PMID 23305754.
  31. ^ a b c Gipson JD, Koenig MA, Hindin MJ (March 2008). "The effects of unintended pregnancy on infant, child, and parental health: a review of the literature". Studies in Family Planning. 39 (1): 18–38. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2008.00148.x. PMID 18540521.
  32. ^ a b c d Trussell J (March 2007). "The cost of unintended pregnancy in the United States". Contraception. 75 (3): 168–170. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2006.11.009. PMID 17303484.
  33. ^ a b c Wise A, Geronimus AT, Smock PJ (2017). "The Best of Intentions: A Structural Analysis of the Association between Socioeconomic Disadvantage and Unintended Pregnancy in a Sample of Mothers from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (1979)". Women's Health Issues. 27 (1): 5–13. doi:10.1016/j.whi.2016.10.006. PMC 5219931. PMID 27913056.
  34. ^ a b c d Trussell J, Henry N, Hassan F, Prezioso A, Law A, Filonenko A (February 2013). "Burden of unintended pregnancy in the United States: potential savings with increased use of long-acting reversible contraception". Contraception. 87 (2): 154–161. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2012.07.016. PMC 3659779. PMID 22959904.
  35. ^ a b c "Unintended Pregnancy and Abortion Worldwide". Guttmacher Institute. 2020-06-10. Retrieved 2024-02-10.
  36. ^ a b Bearak J, Popinchalk A, Ganatra B, Moller AB, Tunçalp Ö, Beavin C, et al. (September 2020). "Unintended pregnancy and abortion by income, region, and the legal status of abortion: estimates from a comprehensive model for 1990-2019". The Lancet. Global Health. 8 (9): e1152–e1161. doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30315-6. PMID 32710833.
  37. ^ a b "Unsafe Abortion: The Missing Link in Global Efforts to Improve Maternal Health | Guttmacher Institute". www.guttmacher.org. 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  38. ^ a b "Worldwide, an Estimated 25 Million Unsafe Abortions Occur Each Year | Guttmacher Institute". www.guttmacher.org. 2017-09-25. Retrieved 2024-02-23.
  39. ^ a b Haddad LB, Nour NM (2009). "Unsafe abortion: unnecessary maternal mortality". Reviews in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 2 (2): 122–126. PMC 2709326. PMID 19609407.
  40. ^ a b Ahman E, Shah IH (November 2011). "New estimates and trends regarding unsafe abortion mortality". International Journal of Gynaecology and Obstetrics. 115 (2): 121–126. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.05.027. PMID 21885049.
  41. ^ a b c Hatcher RA (2023). Contraceptive Technology (22nd ed.). Managing Contraception LLC. ISBN 978-1-284-29926-7.
  42. ^ a b "Male Vasectomy Procedure | What is a Vasectomy?". www.plannedparenthood.org. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  43. ^ a b c d "Contraceptive Effectiveness in the United States". Guttmacher Institute. 2020-01-23. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  44. ^ Yang F, Li J, Dong L, Tan K, Huang X, Zhang P, et al. (July 2021). "Review of Vasectomy Complications and Safety Concerns". The World Journal of Men's Health. 39 (3): 406–418. doi:10.5534/wjmh.200073. PMC 8255399. PMID 32777870.
  45. ^ "How effective is vasectomy?". NICHD - Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development. 2022-02-18. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  46. ^ Patel AP, Smith RP (2016). "Vasectomy reversal: a clinical update". Asian Journal of Andrology. 18 (3): 365–371. doi:10.4103/1008-682x.175091. PMC 4854082. PMID 26975488.
  47. ^ "Condoms | How to Put On a Condom Video". www.plannedparenthood.org. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  48. ^ "What are the Benefits and Advantages of Using Condoms?". www.plannedparenthood.org. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  49. ^ Trussell J (2007). "Contraceptive efficacy.". In Hatcher RA, Trussell J, Nelson AL, Cates W, Stewart FH, Kowal D (eds.). Contraceptive Technology (Nineteenth Revised ed.). New York NY: Ardent Media. Archived from the original on 2008-05-31. Retrieved 2016-10-10.
  50. ^ Kestelman P, Trussell J (1991). "Efficacy of the simultaneous use of condoms and spermicides". Family Planning Perspectives. 23 (5): 226–7, 232. doi:10.2307/2135759. JSTOR 2135759. PMID 1743276.
  51. ^ a b "Pull Out Method | Withdrawal Method | What is Pulling Out?". www.plannedparenthood.org. Retrieved 2024-01-26.
  52. ^ Carroll JL (2012). Sexuality Now: Embracing Diversity. Cengage Learning. ISBN 978-1-111-83581-1.[page needed]
  53. ^ "What Is In Development". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  54. ^ a b c d Abbe CR, Page ST, Thirumalai A (September 2020). "Male Contraception". The Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine. 93 (4): 603–613. PMC 7513428. PMID 33005125.
  55. ^ Anderson DJ, Johnston DS (April 2023). "A brief history and future prospects of contraception". Science. 380 (6641): 154–158. Bibcode:2023Sci...380..154A. doi:10.1126/science.adf9341. PMC 10615352. PMID 37053322. S2CID 258112296.
  56. ^ Wang CC. "Male Birth Control Is in Development, but Barriers Still Stand in the Way". Scientific American. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  57. ^ Vitale G (November 2022). "Birth control for men". Chemical & Engineering News. 100 (41). Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  58. ^ Sitruk-Ware R (2018-05-11). "Getting contraceptives for men to the market will take pharma's help". STAT. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  59. ^ "G-Finder data portal". Policy Cures Research. Retrieved Oct 12, 2023.
  60. ^ "Mechanisms of Male Contraception". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  61. ^ "Spermatogenesis – Mechanisms of Male Contraception". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-01-27.
  62. ^ Amann RP (10 September 2008). "The cycle of the seminiferous epithelium in humans: a need to revisit?". Journal of Andrology. 29 (5): 469–487. doi:10.2164/jandrol.107.004655. PMID 18497337.
  63. ^ a b Matzuk MM, McKeown MR, Filippakopoulos P, Li Q, Ma L, Agno JE, et al. (August 2012). "Small-molecule inhibition of BRDT for male contraception". Cell. 150 (4): 673–684. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2012.06.045. PMC 3420011. PMID 22901802.
  64. ^ Palacios A, McClure RD, Campfield A, Swerdloff RS (July 1981). "Effect of testosterone enanthate on testis size". The Journal of Urology. 126 (1): 46–48. doi:10.1016/s0022-5347(17)54372-4. PMID 6788960.
  65. ^ a b Page ST, Blithe D, Wang C (2022). "Hormonal Male Contraception: Getting to Market". Frontiers in Endocrinology. 13: 891589. doi:10.3389/fendo.2022.891589. PMC 9203677. PMID 35721718.
  66. ^ a b c Behre HM, Zitzmann M, Anderson RA, Handelsman DJ, Lestari SW, McLachlan RI, et al. (December 2016). "Efficacy and Safety of an Injectable Combination Hormonal Contraceptive for Men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 101 (12): 4779–4788. doi:10.1210/jc.2016-2141. PMID 27788052.
  67. ^ a b c d e Abbe C, Roxby AC (April 2020). "Assessing safety in hormonal male contraception: a critical appraisal of adverse events reported in a male contraceptive trial". BMJ Sexual & Reproductive Health. 46 (2): 139–146. doi:10.1136/bmjsrh-2018-200206. PMC 8029306. PMID 31754066.
  68. ^ a b "Male Birth Control Study Killed After Men Report Side Effects". National Public Radio. 3 November 2016. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
  69. ^ a b Scutti S (2016-10-31). "Male birth control shot found effective, but side effects cut study short". CNN. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  70. ^ a b c Hafner J (November 2016). "Male birth control study nixed after men can't handle side effects women face daily". USA Today. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  71. ^ "Contraceptive efficacy of testosterone-induced azoospermia in normal men. World Health Organization Task Force on methods for the regulation of male fertility". Lancet. 336 (8721): 955–959. October 1990. doi:10.1016/0140-6736(90)92416-F. PMID 1977002. S2CID 25825354.
  72. ^ World Health Organization Task Force on Methods for the Regulation of Male Fertility (April 1996). "Contraceptive efficacy of testosterone-induced azoospermia and oligozoospermia in normal men". Fertility and Sterility. 65 (4): 821–829. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)58221-1. PMID 8654646.
  73. ^ McLachlan RI, McDonald J, Rushford D, Robertson DM, Garrett C, Baker HW (August 2000). "Efficacy and acceptability of testosterone implants, alone or in combination with a 5alpha-reductase inhibitor, for male hormonal contraception". Contraception. 62 (2): 73–78. doi:10.1016/S0010-7824(00)00139-6. PMID 11102590.
  74. ^ Turner L, Conway AJ, Jimenez M, Liu PY, Forbes E, McLachlan RI, et al. (October 2003). "Contraceptive efficacy of a depot progestin and androgen combination in men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 88 (10): 4659–4667. doi:10.1210/jc.2003-030107. PMID 14557437.
  75. ^ Gu Y, Liang X, Wu W, Liu M, Song S, Cheng L, et al. (June 2009). "Multicenter contraceptive efficacy trial of injectable testosterone undecanoate in Chinese men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 94 (6): 1910–1915. doi:10.1210/jc.2008-1846. PMID 19293262.
  76. ^ Gu YQ, Wang XH, Xu D, Peng L, Cheng LF, Huang MK, et al. (February 2003). "A multicenter contraceptive efficacy study of injectable testosterone undecanoate in healthy Chinese men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 88 (2): 562–568. doi:10.1210/jc.2002-020447. PMID 12574181.
  77. ^ "With a New Gel, the Future of Male Birth Control Looks Bright". Yahoo News. 2023-03-01. Retrieved 2023-10-09.
  78. ^ "What Happens When Men Take Hormonal Birth Control?". Cosmopolitan. 2022-02-22. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  79. ^ Clinical trial number NCT03452111 for "Study of Daily Application of Nestorone (NES) and Testosterone (T) Combination Gel for Male Contraception" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  80. ^ Ilani N, Roth MY, Amory JK, Swerdloff RS, Dart C, Page ST, et al. (October 2012). "A new combination of testosterone and nestorone transdermal gels for male hormonal contraception". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 97 (10): 3476–3486. doi:10.1210/jc.2012-1384. PMC 3462927. PMID 22791756.
  81. ^ a b c Roth MY, Shih G, Ilani N, Wang C, Page ST, Bremner WJ, et al. (October 2014). "Acceptability of a transdermal gel-based male hormonal contraceptive in a randomized controlled trial". Contraception. 90 (4): 407–412. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2014.05.013. PMC 4269220. PMID 24981149.
  82. ^ Anawalt BD, Roth MY, Ceponis J, Surampudi V, Amory JK, Swerdloff RS, et al. (November 2019). "Combined nestorone-testosterone gel suppresses serum gonadotropins to concentrations associated with effective hormonal contraception in men". Andrology. 7 (6): 878–887. doi:10.1111/andr.12603. PMC 6768743. PMID 30969032.
  83. ^ Jacobsohn T, Nguyen B, Fernando F, Brown J, Blithe D, Lee M, et al. (2022). "ODP644 Oral Dosing of Progestogenic Androgens for Male Contraception Show Low Serum Testosterone and High Acceptability in Placebo-Controlled Trials". Journal of the Endocrine Society. 6 (Supplement_1): A676. doi:10.1210/jendso/bvac150.1398. PMC 9625429.
  84. ^ El Osta R, Almont T, Diligent C, Hubert N, Eschwège P, Hubert J (2016). "Anabolic steroids abuse and male infertility". Basic and Clinical Andrology. 26: 2. doi:10.1186/s12610-016-0029-4. PMC 4744441. PMID 26855782.
  85. ^ Chen SR, Batool A, Wang YQ, Hao XX, Chang CS, Cheng CY, et al. (November 2016). "The control of male fertility by spermatid-specific factors: searching for contraceptive targets from spermatozoon's head to tail". Cell Death & Disease. 7 (11): e2472. doi:10.1038/cddis.2016.344. PMC 5260884. PMID 27831554.
  86. ^ Zheng LP, Wang HF, Li BM, Zeng XH (October 2013). "Sperm-specific ion channels: targets holding the most potential for male contraceptives in development". Contraception. 88 (4): 485–491. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2013.06.002. PMID 23845210.
  87. ^ Robertson MJ, Kent K, Tharp N, Nozawa K, Dean L, Mathew M, et al. (August 2020). "Large-scale discovery of male reproductive tract-specific genes through analysis of RNA-seq datasets". BMC Biology. 18 (1): 103. doi:10.1186/s12915-020-00826-z. PMC 7436996. PMID 32814578.
  88. ^ Johnston DS, Goldberg E (August 2020). "Preclinical contraceptive development for men and women". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 147–156. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa076. PMC 7496738. PMID 32561907.
  89. ^ "Mechanisms of Male Contraception". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  90. ^ Cheng CY, Mruk DD (January 2012). Sibley DR (ed.). "The blood-testis barrier and its implications for male contraception". Pharmacological Reviews. 64 (1): 16–64. doi:10.1124/pr.110.002790. PMC 3250082. PMID 22039149.
  91. ^ Clinical trial number NCT06094283 for "First in Human Study Evaluating Single Ascending Oral Doses of YCT-529 in Healthy Males" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  92. ^ "A non-hormonal pill could soon expand men's birth control options" (Press release). American Chemical Society. 23 March 2022.
  93. ^ "YourChoice Therapeutics begins first-in-human trial for male birth control pill". University of Minnesota College of Pharmacy. 13 December 2023. Retrieved 2023-12-18.
  94. ^ "Is that an oral male contraceptive on the horizon?". 30 March 2022.
  95. ^ "Is that an oral male contraceptive on the horizon?".
  96. ^ Zhen QS, Ye X, Wei ZJ (February 1995). "Recent progress in research on Tripterygium: a male antifertility plant". Contraception. 51 (2): 121–129. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(94)00018-R. PMID 7750290.
  97. ^ Chang Z, Qin W, Zheng H, Schegg K, Han L, Liu X, et al. (February 2021). "Triptonide is a reversible non-hormonal male contraceptive agent in mice and non-human primates". Nature Communications. 12 (1): 1253. Bibcode:2021NatCo..12.1253C. doi:10.1038/s41467-021-21517-5. PMC 7902613. PMID 33623031.
  98. ^ "A male contraceptive pill in the making?". EurekAlert! (Press release). Dana-Farber Cancer Institute. 16 August 2012.
  99. ^ Wisniewski A, Georg GI (March 2020). "BET proteins: Investigating BRDT as a potential target for male contraception". Bioorganic & Medicinal Chemistry Letters. 30 (6): 126958. doi:10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.126958. PMC 7023680. PMID 32019712.
  100. ^ Yu Z, Ku AF, Anglin JL, Sharma R, Ucisik MN, Faver JC, et al. (March 2021). "Discovery and characterization of bromodomain 2-specific inhibitors of BRDT". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 118 (9). Bibcode:2021PNAS..11821102Y. doi:10.1073/pnas.2021102118. PMC 7936271. PMID 33637650.
  101. ^ Modukuri RK, Yu Z, Tan Z, Ta HM, Ucisik MN, Jin Z, et al. (May 2022). "Discovery of potent BET bromodomain 1 stereoselective inhibitors using DNA-encoded chemical library selections". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 119 (22): e2122506119. Bibcode:2022PNAS..11922506M. doi:10.1073/pnas.2122506119. PMC 9295786. PMID 35622893.
  102. ^ Salicioni AM, Gervasi MG, Sosnik J, Tourzani DA, Nayyab S, Caraballo DA, et al. (August 2020). "Testis-specific serine kinase protein family in male fertility and as targets for non-hormonal male contraception†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 264–274. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa064. PMC 7401350. PMID 32337545.
  103. ^ Kadiyska T, Tourtourikov I, Dabchev K, Madzharova D, Tincheva S, Spandidos DA, et al. (June 2022). "Role of testis‑specific serine kinase 1B in undiagnosed male infertility". Molecular Medicine Reports. 25 (6). doi:10.3892/mmr.2022.12720. PMC 9073834. PMID 35485285.
  104. ^ Faber EB, Wang N, Georg GI (August 2020). "Review of rationale and progress toward targeting cyclin-dependent kinase 2 (CDK2) for male contraception†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 357–367. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa107. PMC 7523694. PMID 32543655.
  105. ^ Faber EB, Sun L, Tang J, Roberts E, Ganeshkumar S, Wang N, et al. (June 2023). "Development of allosteric and selective CDK2 inhibitors for contraception with negative cooperativity to cyclin binding". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 3213. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14.3213F. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-38732-x. PMC 10239507. PMID 37270540.
  106. ^ Faber EB, Wang N, John K, Sun L, Wong HL, Burban D, et al. (February 2023). "Screening through Lead Optimization of High Affinity, Allosteric Cyclin-Dependent Kinase 2 (CDK2) Inhibitors as Male Contraceptives That Reduce Sperm Counts in Mice". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 66 (3): 1928–1940. doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.2c01731. PMC 11556300. PMID 36701569. S2CID 256302901.
  107. ^ Kean S (October 2012). "Contraception research. Reinventing the pill: male birth control". Science. 338 (6105): 318–320. doi:10.1126/science.338.6105.318. PMID 23087225.
  108. ^ Noman MA, Kyzer JL, Chung SS, Wolgemuth DJ, Georg GI (August 2020). "Retinoic acid receptor antagonists for male contraception: current status†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 390–399. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa122. PMC 7401398. PMID 32671394.
  109. ^ Chung SS, Wang X, Roberts SS, Griffey SM, Reczek PR, Wolgemuth DJ (June 2011). "Oral administration of a retinoic Acid receptor antagonist reversibly inhibits spermatogenesis in mice". Endocrinology. 152 (6): 2492–2502. doi:10.1210/en.2010-0941. PMC 3100616. PMID 21505053.
  110. ^ a b c d e Anthes E (3 August 2017). "Why We Can't Have the Male Pill". Bloomberg. Retrieved 2024-05-07.
  111. ^ a b Thirumalai A, Amory JK (June 2021). "Emerging approaches to male contraception". Fertility and Sterility. 115 (6): 1369–1376. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2021.03.047. PMC 8169637. PMID 33931201.
  112. ^ Noman MA, Kyzer JL, Chung SS, Wolgemuth DJ, Georg GI (August 2020). "Retinoic acid receptor antagonists for male contraception: current status†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 390–399. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa122. PMC 7401398. PMID 32671394.
  113. ^ Kyzer JL, Noman MA, Cuellar RA, Chung SS, Maitra S, Naqvi T, et al. (July 2023). "Investigation of selective retinoic acid receptor alpha antagonist ER-50891 and related analogs for male contraception". Archiv der Pharmazie. 356 (7): e2300031. doi:10.1002/ardp.202300031. PMID 37154197.
  114. ^ Hong SH, Castro G, Wang D, Nofsinger R, Kane M, Folias A, et al. (February 2024). "Targeting nuclear receptor corepressors for reversible male contraception". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 121 (9): e2320129121. Bibcode:2024PNAS..12120129H. doi:10.1073/pnas.2320129121. PMC 10907271. PMID 38377195.
  115. ^ Macleod J, Hotchkiss RS (May 1941). "The Effect of Hyperpyrexia Upon Spermatozoa Counts in Men". Endocrinology. 28 (5): 780–784. doi:10.1210/endo-28-5-780.
  116. ^ Kandeel FR, Swerdloff RS (January 1988). "Role of temperature in regulation of spermatogenesis and the use of heating as a method for contraception". Fertility and Sterility. 49 (1): 1–23. doi:10.1016/S0015-0282(16)59640-X. PMID 3275550.
  117. ^ Robinson D, Rock J, Menkin MF (April 1968). "Control of human spermatogenesis by induced changes of intrascrotal temperature". JAMA. 204 (4): 290–297. doi:10.1001/jama.1968.03140170006002. PMID 5694622.
  118. ^ Labourie P, Ferrari B (2023-08-30). "I Made My Own DIY Birth Control By Pushing My Balls Into My Body". Vice. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  119. ^ Durairajanayagam D, Agarwal A, Ong C (January 2015). "Causes, effects and molecular mechanisms of testicular heat stress". Reproductive Biomedicine Online. 30 (1): 14–27. doi:10.1016/j.rbmo.2014.09.018. PMID 25456164.
  120. ^ Wood HM, Elder JS (February 2009). "Cryptorchidism and testicular cancer: separating fact from fiction". The Journal of Urology. 181 (2): 452–461. doi:10.1016/j.juro.2008.10.074. PMID 19084853.
  121. ^ Ahmad G, Moinard N, Esquerré-Lamare C, Mieusset R, Bujan L (March 2012). "Mild induced testicular and epididymal hyperthermia alters sperm chromatin integrity in men". Fertility and Sterility. 97 (3): 546–553. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2011.12.025. PMID 22265039.
  122. ^ White CW, Choong YT, Short JL, Exintaris B, Malone DT, Allen AM, et al. (December 2013). "Male contraception via simultaneous knockout of α1A-adrenoceptors and P2X1-purinoceptors in mice". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (51): 20825–20830. doi:10.1073/pnas.1318624110. PMC 3870707. PMID 24297884.
  123. ^ a b Bennetts FM, Mobbs JI, Ventura S, Thal DM (December 2022). "The P2X1 receptor as a therapeutic target". Purinergic Signalling. 18 (4): 421–433. doi:10.1007/s11302-022-09880-4. PMC 9832217. PMID 35821454.
  124. ^ a b Kobayashi K, Masumori N, Kato R, Hisasue S, Furuya R, Tsukamoto T (September 2009). "Orgasm is preserved regardless of ejaculatory dysfunction with selective alpha1A-blocker administration". International Journal of Impotence Research. 21 (5): 306–310. doi:10.1038/ijir.2009.27. PMC 2834370. PMID 19536124.
  125. ^ Bhat GS, Shastry A (March 2020). "A prospective double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of silodosin 8 mg as an on-demand, reversible, nonhormonal oral contraceptive for males: a pilot study". World Journal of Urology. 38 (3): 747–751. doi:10.1007/s00345-019-02806-7. PMID 31076850. S2CID 149444504.
  126. ^ Kobayashi K, Masumori N, Hisasue S, Kato R, Hashimoto K, Itoh N, et al. (September 2008). "Inhibition of Seminal emission is the main cause of anejaculation induced by a new highly selective alpha1A-blocker in normal volunteers". The Journal of Sexual Medicine. 5 (9): 2185–2190. doi:10.1111/j.1743-6109.2008.00779.x. PMID 18399947.
  127. ^ Capogrosso P, Serino A, Ventimiglia E, Boeri L, Dehò F, Damiano R, et al. (November 2015). "Effects of silodosin on sexual function - realistic picture from the everyday clinical practice". Andrology. 3 (6): 1076–1081. doi:10.1111/andr.12095. PMID 26446512.
  128. ^ "CHMP Assessment Report for Silodyx (International Nonproprietary Name: silodosin)" (PDF). Europeans Medicine Agency. 10 January 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 7 November 2014.
  129. ^ US 20230145374, El Glaoui G, El Glaoui M, Perrin P, Droupy S, Agathon-Meriau V, "Non-hormonal compositions and methods for male contraception", issued 9 April 2024, assigned to Laboratoires Majorelle Pharmajor International Laboratoires Major SAS 
  130. ^ "Clean Sheets Pill". Parsemus Foundation. Retrieved 2024-05-11.
  131. ^ Greenberg HR, Carrillo C (January 1968). "Thioridazine-induced inhibition of masturbatory ejaculation in an adolescent". The American Journal of Psychiatry. 124 (7): 991–993. doi:10.1176/ajp.124.7.991. PMID 5688684.
  132. ^ Homonnai ZT, Shilon M, Paz GF (May 1984). "Phenoxybenzamine--an effective male contraceptive pill". Contraception. 29 (5): 479–491. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(84)90022-2. PMID 6430643.
  133. ^ Kjaergaard N, Kjaergaard B, Lauritsen JG (June 1988). "Prazosin, an adrenergic blocking agent inadequate as male contraceptive pill". Contraception. 37 (6): 621–629. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(88)90008-X. PMID 2899490.
  134. ^ Amobi NI, Smith IC (March 1995). "Differential inhibition in the human vas deferens by phenoxybenzamine: a possible mechanism for its contraceptive action". Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. 103 (2): 215–221. doi:10.1530/jrf.0.1030215. PMID 7616492.
  135. ^ Amobi N, Guillebaud J, Kaisary A, Lloyd-Davies RW, Turner E, Smith IC (February 2003). "Contractile actions of imidazoline alpha-adrenoceptor agonists and effects of noncompetitive alpha1-adrenoceptor antagonists in human vas deferens". European Journal of Pharmacology. 462 (1–3): 169–177. doi:10.1016/S0014-2999(03)01346-3. PMID 12591110.
  136. ^ Mathiew M, Dennis BM, Bennetts F, Su NN, Nguyen N, Botteon A, et al. (August 2020). "Synthesis of 2-phenyl-5,6,7,8-tetrahydroquinoxaline derivatives and screening for P2X1-purinoceptor antagonist activity in isolated preparations of rat vas deferens, for translation into a male contraceptive†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 323–332. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa117. PMC 7526726. PMID 32648904.
  137. ^ Eise NT, Simpson JS, Thompson PE, Ventura S (2022-07-28). Quintas LE (ed.). "Aqueous extracts of Urtica dioica (stinging nettle) leaf contain a P2-purinoceptor antagonist-Implications for male fertility". PLOS ONE. 17 (7): e0271735. Bibcode:2022PLoSO..1771735E. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0271735. PMC 9333203. PMID 35900970.
  138. ^ "Sperm Transport – Mechanisms of Male Contraception". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  139. ^ Silva AF, Ramalho-Santos J, Amaral S (September 2021). "The impact of antisperm antibodies on human male reproductive function: an update". Reproduction. 162 (4): R55–R71. doi:10.1530/REP-21-0123. PMID 34338216.
  140. ^ Shibahara H, Wakimoto Y, Fukui A, Hasegawa A (April 2021). "Anti-sperm antibodies and reproductive failures". American Journal of Reproductive Immunology. 85 (4): e13337. doi:10.1111/aji.13337. PMID 32885505. S2CID 221496379.
  141. ^ Francavilla F, Santucci R, Barbonetti A, Francavilla S (May 2007). "Naturally-occurring antisperm antibodies in men: interference with fertility and clinical implications. An update". Frontiers in Bioscience. 12 (8–12): 2890–2911. doi:10.2741/2280. PMID 17485267.
  142. ^ a b Zhao SC, Lian YH, Yu RC, Zhang SP (December 1992). "Recovery of fertility after removal of polyurethane plugs from the human vas deferens occluded for up to 5 years". International Journal of Andrology. 15 (6): 465–467. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2605.1992.tb01139.x. PMID 1483735.
  143. ^ McDonald SW (2000). Cellular responses to vasectomy. International Review of Cytology. Vol. 199. pp. 295–339. doi:10.1016/s0074-7696(00)99006-5. ISBN 978-0-12-364603-3. PMID 10874581.
  144. ^ Khilwani B, Badar A, Ansari AS, Lohiya NK (2020). "RISUG® as a male contraceptive: journey from bench to bedside". Basic and Clinical Andrology. 30: 2. doi:10.1186/s12610-020-0099-1. PMC 7017607. PMID 32082579.
  145. ^ Altstedter A (2017-04-04). "Male contraceptive is being blocked by drug companies who make billions from the female pill". The Independent. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  146. ^ a b Sharma RS, Mathur AK, Singh R, Das HC, Singh GJ, Toor DP, et al. (July 2019). "Safety & efficacy of an intravasal, one-time injectable & non-hormonal male contraceptive (RISUG): A clinical experience". The Indian Journal of Medical Research. 150 (1): 81–86. doi:10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_635_18. PMC 6798614. PMID 31571633.
  147. ^ Guha SK, Singh G, Ansari S, Kumar S, Srivastava A, Koul V, et al. (October 1997). "Phase II clinical trial of a vas deferens injectable contraceptive for the male" (PDF). Contraception. 56 (4): 245–250. doi:10.1016/s0010-7824(97)00142-x. PMID 9408706. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2017-09-21. Retrieved 2021-08-14.
  148. ^ a b Lohiya NK, Ansari AS, Sadasukhi TC, Pachera S, Khilwani B, Dhaked RK (2022-12-20). "RISUG® offers early contraception: An experience during Phase III clinical trials". Journal of Reproductive Healthcare and Medicine. 3: 11. doi:10.25259/JRHM_8_2022. ISSN 2768-1114.
  149. ^ "ICMR completes clinical trials of world's first injectable male contraceptive; study claims it's safe". The New Indian Express. 2023-10-19. Retrieved 2024-05-10.
  150. ^ Ansari AS, Badar A, Balasubramanian K, Lohiya NK (2017). "Contraception with RISUG® and functional reversal through DMSO and NaHCO3 in male rabbits". Asian Journal of Andrology. 19 (4): 389–395. doi:10.4103/1008-682X.185000. PMC 5507081. PMID 27586026.
  151. ^ Clinical trial number NCT05134428 for "Safety Evaluation of the ADAM System" at ClinicalTrials.gov
  152. ^ "Contraline Announces First Patients Successfully Implanted in Male Contraceptive Study". www.businesswire.com. 2022-11-10. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  153. ^ "Male contraceptive implanted at Epworth Freemasons in world first - Epworth HealthCare". www.epworth.org.au. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  154. ^ "Home". NEXT Life Sciences. Retrieved 2023-10-13.
  155. ^ "Vasalgel, a Multi-year Contraceptive". Retrieved 19 February 2018.
  156. ^ "$1.55M Raised for Plan A™ Male Birth Control Product, Seeking Clinical Trials in 2023". Yahoo Finance. 2023-06-02. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  157. ^ Waller D, Bolick D, Lissner E, Premanandan C, Gamerman G (2017). "Reversibility of Vasalgel™ male contraceptive in a rabbit model". Basic and Clinical Andrology. 27: 8. doi:10.1186/s12610-017-0051-1. PMC 5381074. PMID 28417005.
  158. ^ Colagross-Schouten A, Lemoy MJ, Keesler RI, Lissner E, VandeVoort CA (2017). "The contraceptive efficacy of intravas injection of Vasalgel™ for adult male rhesus monkeys". Basic and Clinical Andrology. 27: 4. doi:10.1186/s12610-017-0048-9. PMC 5294830. PMID 28191316.
  159. ^ Waller D, Bolick D, Lissner E, Premanandan C, Gamerman G (2016). "Azoospermia in rabbits following an intravas injection of Vasalgel ™". Basic and Clinical Andrology. 26: 6. doi:10.1186/s12610-016-0033-8. PMC 4812607. PMID 27030808.
  160. ^ Wang ZQ, Liu ZQ, Zhao CH, Zhang K, Kang ZJ, Qu TR, et al. (April 2022). "An Ultrasound-Induced Self-Clearance Hydrogel for Male Reversible Contraception". ACS Nano. 16 (4): 5515–5528. doi:10.1021/acsnano.1c09959. PMID 35352555. S2CID 247791477.
  161. ^ Ding W, Chen Z, Gu Y, Chen Z, Zheng Y, Sun F (July 2021). "Magnetic Testis Targeting and Magnetic Hyperthermia for Noninvasive, Controllable Male Contraception via Intravenous Administration". Nano Letters. 21 (14): 6289–6297. Bibcode:2021NanoL..21.6289D. doi:10.1021/acs.nanolett.1c02181. PMID 34232048. S2CID 235756835.
  162. ^ "This is how the Bimek SLV works". bimek.com. Retrieved 2024-01-14.
  163. ^ Kjaergaard N, Kjaergaard B, Lauritsen JG (June 1988). "Prazosin, an adrenergic blocking agent inadequate as male contraceptive pill". Contraception. 37 (6): 621–629. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(88)90008-x. PMID 2899490.
  164. ^ Lee C. "The search to make a perfect condom". www.bbc.com. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  165. ^ Jordyn T (2015-11-18). "2 Years Later, Here's What Happened to Bill Gates' Condoms of the Future". Mic. Retrieved 2024-01-30.
  166. ^ Balbach M, Rossetti T, Ferreira J, Ghanem L, Ritagliati C, Myers RW, et al. (February 2023). "On-demand male contraception via acute inhibition of soluble adenylyl cyclase". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 637. Bibcode:2023NatCo..14..637B. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-36119-6. PMC 9929232. PMID 36788210.
  167. ^ Balbach M, Ghanem L, Rossetti T, Kaur N, Ritagliati C, Ferreira J, et al. (September 2021). "Soluble adenylyl cyclase inhibition prevents human sperm functions essential for fertilization". Molecular Human Reproduction. 27 (9). doi:10.1093/molehr/gaab054. PMC 8473925. PMID 34463764.
  168. ^ Sullivan W. "Male Birth Control Drug 'Stops Sperm in Their Tracks' in Study of Mice". Smithsonian Magazine. Retrieved 2023-10-12.
  169. ^ Gomes AA, Santos NC, Rosa LR, Borges RJ, Fontes MR, Hamil KG, et al. (September 2023). "Interactions of the male contraceptive target EPPIN with semenogelin-1 and small organic ligands". Scientific Reports. 13 (1): 14382. Bibcode:2023NatSR..1314382G. doi:10.1038/s41598-023-41365-1. PMC 10474283. PMID 37658081.
  170. ^ O'Rand MG, Hamil KG, Adevai T, Zelinski M (2018). "Inhibition of sperm motility in male macaques with EP055, a potential non-hormonal male contraceptive". PLOS ONE. 13 (4): e0195953. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1395953O. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195953. PMC 5908160. PMID 29672554.
  171. ^ "A birth control pill for men? How a UNC scientist-turned-entrepreneur plans to curb unintended pregnancies". Innovate Carolina | UNC Innovation & Entrepreneurship. 2023-12-14. Retrieved 2023-12-21.
  172. ^ Luque GM, Schiavi-Ehrenhaus LJ, Jabloñski M, Balestrini PA, Novero AG, Torres NI, et al. (2023). "High-throughput screening method for discovering CatSper inhibitors using membrane depolarization caused by external calcium chelation and fluorescent cell barcoding". Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 11: 1010306. doi:10.3389/fcell.2023.1010306. PMC 9892719. PMID 36743410.
  173. ^ Smith JF, Syritsyna O, Fellous M, Serres C, Mannowetz N, Kirichok Y, et al. (April 2013). "Disruption of the principal, progesterone-activated sperm Ca2+ channel in a CatSper2-deficient infertile patient". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (17): 6823–6828. doi:10.1073/pnas.1216588110. PMC 3637729. PMID 23530196.
  174. ^ Cavarocchi E, Whitfield M, Chargui A, Stouvenel L, Lorès P, Coutton C, et al. (May 2021). "The sodium/proton exchanger SLC9C1 (sNHE) is essential for human sperm motility and fertility" (PDF). Clinical Genetics. 99 (5): 684–693. doi:10.1111/cge.13927. PMID 33462806. S2CID 231642168.
  175. ^ Tan Z, Garcia TX (February 2023). "SLO3 in the fast lane: The latest male contraceptive target with a promising small-molecule inhibitor". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 120 (8): e2221758120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12021758T. doi:10.1073/pnas.2221758120. PMC 9974486. PMID 36791103.
  176. ^ Lyon M, Li P, Ferreira JJ, Lazarenko RM, Kharade SV, Kramer M, et al. (January 2023). "A selective inhibitor of the sperm-specific potassium channel SLO3 impairs human sperm function". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 120 (4): e2212338120. Bibcode:2023PNAS..12012338L. doi:10.1073/pnas.2212338120. PMC 9942793. PMID 36649421.
  177. ^ Syeda SS, Sánchez G, McDermott JP, Hong KH, Blanco G, Georg GI (August 2020). "The Na+ and K+ transport system of sperm (ATP1A4) is essential for male fertility and an attractive target for male contraception†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 343–356. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa093. PMC 7401355. PMID 32588885.
  178. ^ Numata S, McDermott JP, Blanco G (2022). "Genetic Ablation of Na,K-ATPase α4 Results in Sperm Energetic Defects". Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology. 10: 911056. doi:10.3389/fcell.2022.911056. PMC 9178190. PMID 35693932.
  179. ^ Syeda SS, Sánchez G, Hong KH, Hawkinson JE, Georg GI, Blanco G (March 2018). "Design, Synthesis, and in Vitro and in Vivo Evaluation of Ouabain Analogues as Potent and Selective Na,K-ATPase α4 Isoform Inhibitors for Male Contraception". Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 61 (5): 1800–1820. doi:10.1021/acs.jmedchem.7b00925. PMC 5846083. PMID 29291372.
  180. ^ Georg G, Hawkinson J, Syeda S (31 January 2018). "Heart-Stopping Arrow Poison Could be Key to Male Birth Control". The Conversation – via The Smithsonian Magazine.
  181. ^ Mariani NA, Silva JV, Fardilha M, Silva EJ (September 2023). "Advances in non-hormonal male contraception targeting sperm motility". Human Reproduction Update. 29 (5): 545–569. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmad008. PMID 37141450.
  182. ^ Anamthathmakula P, Winuthayanon W (August 2020). "Mechanism of semen liquefaction and its potential for a novel non-hormonal contraception†". Biology of Reproduction. 103 (2): 411–426. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa075. PMC 7523691. PMID 32529252.
  183. ^ Anamthathmakula P, Erickson JA, Winuthayanon W (May 2022). "Blocking serine protease activity prevents semenogelin degradation leading to hyperviscous semen in humans". Biology of Reproduction. 106 (5): 879–887. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioac023. PMC 9113478. PMID 35098308.
  184. ^ a b Iida-Norita R, Miyata H, Kaneda Y, Emori C, Noda T, Nakagawa T, et al. (July 2023). "Generation of humanized LDHC knock-in mice as a tool to assess human LDHC-targeting contraceptive drugs". Andrology. 11 (5): 840–848. doi:10.1111/andr.13359. PMID 36464740. S2CID 254245669.
  185. ^ a b Goldberg E (March 2021). "The sperm-specific form of lactate dehydrogenase is required for fertility and is an attractive target for male contraception (a review)". Biology of Reproduction. 104 (3): 521–526. doi:10.1093/biolre/ioaa217. PMID 33252126.
  186. ^ Danshina PV, Qu W, Temple BR, Rojas RJ, Miley MJ, Machius M, et al. (June 2016). "Structural analyses to identify selective inhibitors of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase-S, a sperm-specific glycolytic enzyme". Molecular Human Reproduction. 22 (6): 410–426. doi:10.1093/molehr/gaw016. PMC 4884916. PMID 26921398.
  187. ^ Sexton JZ, Danshina PV, Lamson DR, Hughes M, House AJ, Yeh LA, et al. (2011-07-04). "Development and Implementation of a High Throughput Screen for the Human Sperm-Specific Isoform of Glyceraldehyde 3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase (GAPDHS)". Current Chemical Genomics. 5: 30–41. doi:10.2174/1875397301105010030. PMC 3134944. PMID 21760877.
  188. ^ Filipovic J (2023-12-18). "Scientists are on the verge of a male birth-control pill. Will men take it?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
  189. ^ a b "Are we ready for men to take the pill?". 2019-10-21. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
  190. ^ a b "Nearly half of US men interested in taking new male contraceptives post-Dobbs decision". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
  191. ^ Buck KA, Stadick JL, Frazier ML (September 2020). "Preparing for sperm-targeted contraception: College students' perceptions and intentions related to non-hormonal intravas injectable gel". Public Health Nursing. 37 (5): 639–646. doi:10.1111/phn.12761. PMID 32627239. S2CID 220367503.
  192. ^ Amouroux M, Mieusset R, Desbriere R, Opinel P, Karsenty G, Paci M, et al. (2018). "Are men ready to use thermal male contraception? Acceptability in two French populations: New fathers and new providers". PLOS ONE. 13 (5): e0195824. Bibcode:2018PLoSO..1395824A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0195824. PMC 5973589. PMID 29813095.
  193. ^ Weston GC, Schlipalius ML, Bhuinneain MN, Vollenhoven BJ (March 2002). "Will Australian men use male hormonal contraception? A survey of a postpartum population". The Medical Journal of Australia. 176 (5): 208–210. doi:10.5694/j.1326-5377.2002.tb04374.x. PMID 11999235. S2CID 14438520.
  194. ^ Sax MR, Hurley EG, Rossi RA, Thakore S, Hasija A, Sroga-Rios J (February 2021). "Young Adult Males' Perspectives of Male Hormonal Contraception". Southern Medical Journal. 114 (2): 73–76. doi:10.14423/SMJ.0000000000001204. PMID 33537786. S2CID 231804527.
  195. ^ Martin CW, Anderson RA, Cheng L, Ho PC, van der Spuy Z, Smith KB, et al. (March 2000). "Potential impact of hormonal male contraception: cross-cultural implications for development of novel preparations". Human Reproduction. 15 (3): 637–645. doi:10.1093/humrep/15.3.637. PMID 10686211.
  196. ^ Marcell AV, Gibbs SE, Choiriyyah I, Sonenstein FL, Astone NM, Pleck JH, et al. (April 2016). "National Needs of Family Planning Among US Men Aged 15 to 44 Years". American Journal of Public Health. 106 (4): 733–739. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2015.303037. PMC 4815999. PMID 26890180.
  197. ^ Vogelsong K. "ISRCTN". www.isrctn.com. doi:10.1186/isrctn07760234. Retrieved 2024-02-02.
  198. ^ "Did gender bias kill hormonal birth control for men?". PBS NewsHour. 2016-11-07. Retrieved 2024-02-22.
  199. ^ Behre HM, Zitzmann M, Anderson RA, Handelsman DJ, Lestari SW, McLachlan RI, et al. (December 2016). "Efficacy and Safety of an Injectable Combination Hormonal Contraceptive for Men". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 101 (12): 4779–4788. doi:10.1210/jc.2016-2141. PMID 27788052.
  200. ^ Thirumalai A, Ceponis J, Amory JK, Swerdloff R, Surampudi V, Liu PY, et al. (February 2019). "Effects of 28 Days of Oral Dimethandrolone Undecanoate in Healthy Men: A Prototype Male Pill". The Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism. 104 (2): 423–432. doi:10.1210/jc.2018-01452. PMC 6306388. PMID 30252061.
  201. ^ Zolna MR, Frost JJ, Lindberg LD (2011-06-07). "Couple-Focused Services in Publicly Funded Family Planning Clinics: Identifying the Need, 2009". Guttmacher Institute.
  202. ^ Contraceptive Use by Method 2019: Data Booklet. United Nations. 2019-12-10. doi:10.18356/1bd58a10-en. ISBN 978-92-1-004652-7. S2CID 241385492.
  203. ^ McCracken JA (October 2010). "Reflections on the 50th anniversary of the birth control pill". Biology of Reproduction. 83 (4): 684–686. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.110.087809. PMID 20811017.
  204. ^ Finer LB, Zolna MR (March 2016). "Declines in Unintended Pregnancy in the United States, 2008-2011". The New England Journal of Medicine. 374 (9): 843–852. doi:10.1056/NEJMsa1506575. PMC 4861155. PMID 26962904.
  205. ^ a b c Sedgh G, Singh S, Hussain R (September 2014). "Intended and unintended pregnancies worldwide in 2012 and recent trends". Studies in Family Planning. 45 (3): 301–314. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.678.2268. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2014.00393.x. PMC 4727534. PMID 25207494.
  206. ^ Finer LB, Zolna MR (November 2011). "Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006". Contraception. 84 (5): 478–485. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.295.8407. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.07.013. PMC 3338192. PMID 22018121.
  207. ^ a b Kågesten A, Bajos N, Bohet A, Moreau C (January 2015). "Male experiences of unintended pregnancy: characteristics and prevalence". Human Reproduction. 30 (1): 186–196. doi:10.1093/humrep/deu259. PMC 4262464. PMID 25316449.
  208. ^ Bearak J, Popinchalk A, Alkema L, Sedgh G (April 2018). "Global, regional, and subregional trends in unintended pregnancy and its outcomes from 1990 to 2014: estimates from a Bayesian hierarchical model". The Lancet. Global Health. 6 (4): e380–e389. doi:10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30029-9. PMC 6055480. PMID 29519649.
  209. ^ Bearak JM, Alkema L, Kantorová V, Casterline J (March 2023). "Alignment between Desires and Outcomes among Women Wanting to Avoid Pregnancy: A Global Comparative Study of "Conditional" Unintended Pregnancy Rates". Studies in Family Planning. 54 (1): 265–280. doi:10.1111/sifp.12234. PMID 36811721.
  210. ^ "Adding It Up: Investing in Contraception and Maternal and Newborn Health, 2017". Guttmacher Institute. 2017-06-23. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  211. ^ a b "Unintended Pregnancy in the United States". Guttmacher Institute. 2012-01-26. Retrieved 2024-02-07.
  212. ^ Mosher W, Jones J, Abma J (August 2015). "Nonuse of contraception among women at risk of unintended pregnancy in the United States". Contraception. 92 (2): 170–176. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2015.05.004. PMC 6413311. PMID 25998937.
  213. ^ Lindberg LD, Kost K (April 2014). "Exploring U.S. men's birth intentions". Maternal and Child Health Journal. 18 (3): 625–633. doi:10.1007/s10995-013-1286-x. PMC 3844082. PMID 23793481.
  214. ^ Maximova K, Quesnel-Vallée A (March 2009). "Mental health consequences of unintended childlessness and unplanned births: gender differences and life course dynamics". Social Science & Medicine. 68 (5): 850–857. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2008.11.012. PMC 3762744. PMID 19097676.
  215. ^ Hamm M, Miller E, Jackson Foster L, Browne M, Borrero S (July 2018). ""The Financial Is the Main Issue, It's Not Even the Child": Exploring the Role of Finances in Men's Concepts of Fatherhood and Fertility Intention". American Journal of Men's Health. 12 (4): 1074–1083. doi:10.1177/1557988318775189. PMC 6131444. PMID 29774803.
  216. ^ Smith I, Youssef GJ, Shatte A, Teague SJ, Knight T, Macdonald JA (2022). ""You are not alone": A big data and qualitative analysis of men's unintended fatherhood" (PDF). SSM - Qualitative Research in Health. 2: 100085. doi:10.1016/j.ssmqr.2022.100085. S2CID 248211972.
  217. ^ "Reproductive Justice". Sister Song. Retrieved 2024-02-08.
  218. ^ Monjok E (May 2010). "Contraceptive practices in Nigeria: Literature review and recommendation for future policy decisions". Open Access Journal of Contraception: 9. doi:10.2147/oajc.s9281.
  219. ^ Allen RH (November 2007). "The role of family planning in poverty reduction". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 110 (5): 999–1002. doi:10.1097/01.AOG.0000287063.32004.23. PMID 17978110.
  220. ^ Campbell-White A, Merrick TW, Yazbeck AS (2006). Reproductive Health -- the Missing Millennium Development Goal. doi:10.1596/978-0-8213-6613-4. ISBN 978-0-8213-6613-4.
  221. ^ Finlay JE, Lee MA (June 2018). "Identifying Causal Effects of Reproductive Health Improvements on Women's Economic Empowerment Through the Population Poverty Research Initiative". The Milbank Quarterly. 96 (2): 300–322. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12326. PMC 5987803. PMID 29870117.
  222. ^ a b c Kavanaugh ML, Anderson RM (2013). Contraception and Beyond: The Health Benefits of Services Provided at Family Planning Centers [Internet] (Report). Guttmacher Institute.
  223. ^ Bernstein A, Jones KM (September 2019). The Economic Effects of Contraceptive Access: A Review of the Evidence - Key Findings from the Literature [Internet] (Report). Institute for Women’s Policy Research. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  224. ^ Hardee K, Croce-Galis M, Gay J (January 2017). "Are men well served by family planning programs?". Reproductive Health. 14 (1): 14. doi:10.1186/s12978-017-0278-5. PMC 5260026. PMID 28115004.
  225. ^ Increasing Men's Engagement to Improve Family Planning Programs in South Asia [Internet]. FHI360 (Family Health International) (Report). Research Triangle Park, NC. 2012. Retrieved 8 February 2024.
  226. ^ Light AD, Obedin-Maliver J, Sevelius JM, Kerns JL (December 2014). "Transgender men who experienced pregnancy after female-to-male gender transitioning". Obstetrics and Gynecology. 124 (6): 1120–1127. doi:10.1097/aog.0000000000000540. PMID 25415163. S2CID 36023275.
  227. ^ Francis A, Jasani S, Bachmann G (2018-07-13). "Contraceptive challenges and the transgender individual". Women's Midlife Health. 4 (1): 12. doi:10.1186/s40695-018-0042-1. PMC 6297942. PMID 30766722.
  228. ^ a b Nisly NL, Imborek KL, Miller ML, Kaliszewski SD, Williams RM, Krasowski MD (December 2018). "Unique Primary Care Needs of Transgender and Gender Non-Binary People". Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology. 61 (4): 674–686. doi:10.1097/grf.0000000000000404. PMID 30339607. S2CID 53009782.
  229. ^ a b "Health Care for Transgender and Gender Diverse Individuals". www.acog.org. Retrieved 2024-02-09.
  230. ^ Everett BG, McCabe KF, Hughes TL (September 2017). "Sexual Orientation Disparities in Mistimed and Unwanted Pregnancy Among Adult Women". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 49 (3): 157–165. doi:10.1363/psrh.12032. PMC 5819992. PMID 28598550.
  231. ^ Hodson K, Meads C, Bewley S (February 2017). "Lesbian and bisexual women's likelihood of becoming pregnant: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BJOG. 124 (3): 393–402. doi:10.1111/1471-0528.14449. PMC 5299536. PMID 27981741.
  232. ^ Lindley LL, Walsemann KM (July 2015). "Sexual Orientation and Risk of Pregnancy Among New York City High-School Students". American Journal of Public Health. 105 (7): 1379–1386. doi:10.2105/ajph.2015.302553. PMC 4463368. PMID 25973807.
  233. ^ David HP (1992). "Born Unwanted: Long-Term Developmental Effects of Denied Abortion". Journal of Social Issues. 48 (3): 163–181. doi:10.1111/j.1540-4560.1992.tb00902.x. ISSN 0022-4537.
  234. ^ David HP (May 2006). "Born unwanted, 35 years later: the Prague study". Reproductive Health Matters. 14 (27): 181–190. doi:10.1016/s0968-8080(06)27219-7. PMID 16713893.
  235. ^ Downey DB (1995). "When Bigger Is Not Better: Family Size, Parental Resources, and Children's Educational Performance". American Sociological Review. 60 (5): 746–761. doi:10.2307/2096320. ISSN 0003-1224. JSTOR 2096320.
  236. ^ Bailey MJ, Malkova O, Norling J (2014-03-06). "Do family planning programs decrease poverty? Evidence from public census data". CESifo Economic Studies. 60 (2): 312–337. doi:10.1093/cesifo/ifu011. PMC 4206087. PMID 25346655.
  237. ^ Finer LB, Zolna MR (November 2011). "Unintended pregnancy in the United States: incidence and disparities, 2006". Contraception. 84 (5): 478–485. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2011.07.013. PMC 3338192. PMID 22018121.
  238. ^ Singh GK (2020-12-30). "Trends and Social Inequalities in Maternal Mortality in the United States, 1969-2018". International Journal of MCH and AIDS. 10 (1): 29–42. doi:10.21106/ijma.444. PMC 7792749. PMID 33442490.
  239. ^ Frost JJ, Sonfield A, Zolna MR, Finer LB (December 2014). "Return on investment: a fuller assessment of the benefits and cost savings of the US publicly funded family planning program". The Milbank Quarterly. 92 (4): 696–749. doi:10.1111/1468-0009.12080. PMC 4266172. PMID 25314928.
  240. ^ Jones RK, Kirstein M, Philbin J (December 2022). "Abortion incidence and service availability in the United States, 2020". Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 54 (4): 128–141. doi:10.1363/psrh.12215. PMC 10099841. PMID 36404279.
  241. ^ Bearak J, Popinchalk A, Ganatra B, Moller AB, Tunçalp Ö, Beavin C, et al. (September 2020). "Unintended pregnancy and abortion by income, region, and the legal status of abortion: estimates from a comprehensive model for 1990-2019". The Lancet. Global Health. 8 (9): e1152–e1161. doi:10.1016/s2214-109x(20)30315-6. PMID 32710833.
  242. ^ Gebeyehu NA, Tegegne KD (2003). "Intention to Use Postpartum Contraceptive and Its Determinants in Sub-Saharan Africa: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis". Women's Health Reports. 4 (1): 627–641. doi:10.2307/3180995. JSTOR 3180995. PMC 10754424. PMID 38155871.
  243. ^ Bongaarts J, Westoff CF (September 2000). "The potential role of contraception in reducing abortion". Studies in Family Planning. 31 (3): 193–202. doi:10.1111/j.1728-4465.2000.00193.x. PMID 11020931.
  244. ^ Bajos N, Le Guen M, Bohet A, Panjo H, Moreau C (2014-03-26). "Effectiveness of family planning policies: the abortion paradox". PLOS ONE. 9 (3): e91539. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...991539B. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0091539. PMC 3966771. PMID 24670784.
  245. ^ Dioscorides. De Materia Medica. Archived from the original on 2011-07-28. (translated by Goodyer (1655), modified and published 1933 by Robert Gunther). The herbs are said to "extinguish conception".
  246. ^ Kolata G (1994-03-08). "In Ancient Times, Flowers and Fennel For Family Planning". The New York Times.
  247. ^ Sailani MR, Moeini H (July 2007). "Effect of Ruta graveolens and Cannabis sativa alcoholic extract on spermatogenesis in the adult wistar male rats". Indian Journal of Urology. 23 (3): 257–260. doi:10.4103/0970-1591.33720. PMC 2721602. PMID 19718326.
  248. ^ a b Youssef H (April 1993). "The history of the condom". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 86 (4): 226–228. doi:10.1177/014107689308600415. PMC 1293956. PMID 7802734.
  249. ^ a b Collier A (2007). The humble little condom: a history (1st American paperback ed.). Amherst, NY: Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-556-6.
  250. ^ Chemical & Metallurgical Engineering 1930-02: Vol 37 Iss 2. Access Intelligence LLC. February 1930 – via Internet Archive.
  251. ^ Borge J (2021-02-11). "Durex condoms: how their teenage immigrant inventor was forgotten by history". The Conversation. Retrieved 2024-05-06.
  252. ^ Borge J, Hall LA (2020). Protective practices: a history of the London Rubber Company and the condom business. Montreal; Kingston; London; Chicago: McGill-Queen's University Press. ISBN 978-0-2280-0333-5. OCLC 1143645992.
  253. ^ a b c d Sheynkin YR (August 2009). "History of vasectomy". The Urologic Clinics of North America. Vasectomy and Vasectomy Reversal: Important Issues. 36 (3): 285–294. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2009.05.007. PMID 19643231.
  254. ^ a b c Drake MJ, Mills IW, Cranston D (September 1999). "On the chequered history of vasectomy". BJU International. 84 (4): 475–481. doi:10.1046/j.1464-410x.1999.00206.x. PMID 10468765.
  255. ^ Ellmann R (1985-05-09). "Yeats's Second Puberty". The New York Review of Books. Vol. 32, no. 8. ISSN 0028-7504. Retrieved 2024-05-06.
  256. ^ Rogers MD, Kolettis PN (November 2013). "Vasectomy". The Urologic Clinics of North America. Office Procedures in Urology. 40 (4): 559–568. doi:10.1016/j.ucl.2013.07.009. PMID 24182975.
  257. ^ Goodman A (2008-08-03). "The Long Wait for Male Birth Control". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 2024-05-07.
  258. ^ "History". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-05-07.
  259. ^ "Vision and Mission". Male Contraceptive Initiative. Retrieved 2024-05-07.
  260. ^ "Polina V. Lishko". www.macfound.org. Retrieved 2024-05-07.
  261. ^ Nieschlag E, Kumar N, Sitruk-Ware R (March 2013). "7α-methyl-19-nortestosterone (MENTR): the population council's contribution to research on male contraception and treatment of hypogonadism". Contraception. 87 (3): 288–295. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2012.08.036. PMID 23063338.
  262. ^ Sundaram K, Kumar N, Bardin CW (April 1993). "7 alpha-methyl-nortestosterone (MENT): the optimal androgen for male contraception". Annals of Medicine. 25 (2): 199–205. doi:10.3109/07853899309164168. PMID 8489761.
  263. ^ Vogelsong K. "Sperm suppression and contraceptive protection provided by norethisterone enantate (NET-EN) combined with testosterone undecanoate (TU) in healthy men". www.isrctn.com. doi:10.1186/isrctn07760234. Retrieved 2024-05-08.
  264. ^ Heller CG, Moore DJ, Paulsen CA (January 1961). "Suppression of spermatogenesis and chronic toxicity in men by a new series of bis(dichloroacetyl) diamines". Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 3 (1): 1–11. Bibcode:1961ToxAP...3....1H. doi:10.1016/0041-008X(61)90002-3. PMID 13713106.
  265. ^ Paik J, Haenisch M, Kim A, Snyder JM, Amory JK (January 2024). "Return to fertility, toxicology, and transgenerational impact of treatment with WIN 18,446, a potential male contraceptive, in mice". Contraception. 129: 110306. doi:10.1016/j.contraception.2023.110306. PMC 10959076. PMID 37813273.
  266. ^ Amory JK (November 2016). "Male contraception". Fertility and Sterility. 106 (6): 1303–1309. doi:10.1016/j.fertnstert.2016.08.036. PMC 5159259. PMID 27678037.
  267. ^ Sullivan W (25 September 1979). "Thousands Try Male 'Pill' In China". The New York Times. Retrieved 18 December 2023.
  268. ^ Coutinho EM (April 2002). "Gossypol: a contraceptive for men". Contraception. 65 (4): 259–263. doi:10.1016/s0010-7824(02)00294-9. PMID 12020773.
  269. ^ Yu Y, Deck JA, Hunsaker LA, Deck LM, Royer RE, Goldberg E, et al. (July 2001). "Selective active site inhibitors of human lactate dehydrogenases A4, B4, and C4". Biochemical Pharmacology. 62 (1): 81–89. doi:10.1016/S0006-2952(01)00636-0. PMID 11377399.
  270. ^ van der Spoel AC, Jeyakumar M, Butters TD, Charlton HM, Moore HD, Dwek RA, et al. (December 2002). "Reversible infertility in male mice after oral administration of alkylated imino sugars: a nonhormonal approach to male contraception". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 99 (26): 17173–17178. Bibcode:2002PNAS...9917173V. doi:10.1073/pnas.262586099. PMC 139288. PMID 12477936.
  271. ^ a b Bone W, Walden CM, Fritsch M, Voigtmann U, Leifke E, Gottwald U, et al. (January 2007). "The sensitivity of murine spermiogenesis to miglustat is a quantitative trait: a pharmacogenetic study". Reproductive Biology and Endocrinology. 5 (1): 1. doi:10.1186/1477-7827-5-1. PMC 1794412. PMID 17241468.
  272. ^ Amory JK, Muller CH, Page ST, Leifke E, Pagel ER, Bhandari A, et al. (March 2007). "Miglustat has no apparent effect on spermatogenesis in normal men". Human Reproduction. 22 (3): 702–707. doi:10.1093/humrep/del414. PMID 17067996.
  273. ^ Kim J, So B, Heo Y, So H, Jo JK (January 2024). "Advances in Male Contraception: When Will the Novel Male Contraception be Available?". The World Journal of Men's Health. 42 (3): 487–501. doi:10.5534/wjmh.230118. PMC 11216971. PMID 38164023.
  274. ^ Mruk DD, Cheng CY (October 2004). "Sertoli-Sertoli and Sertoli-germ cell interactions and their significance in germ cell movement in the seminiferous epithelium during spermatogenesis". Endocrine Reviews. 25 (5): 747–806. doi:10.1210/er.2003-0022. PMID 15466940.
  275. ^ Tash JS, Attardi B, Hild SA, Chakrasali R, Jakkaraj SR, Georg GI (June 2008). "A novel potent indazole carboxylic acid derivative blocks spermatogenesis and is contraceptive in rats after a single oral dose". Biology of Reproduction. 78 (6): 1127–1138. doi:10.1095/biolreprod.106.057810. PMID 18218612.
  276. ^ Service CA, Puri D, Hsieh TC, Patel DP (2023). "Emerging concepts in male contraception: a narrative review of novel, hormonal and non-hormonal options". Therapeutic Advances in Reproductive Health. 17: 26334941221138323. doi:10.1177/26334941221138323. PMC 9996746. PMID 36909934.
  277. ^ Mruk DD, Wong CH, Silvestrini B, Cheng CY (November 2006). "A male contraceptive targeting germ cell adhesion". Nature Medicine. 12 (11): 1323–1328. doi:10.1038/nm1420. PMID 17072312.
  278. ^ Gong S, Zhu S, Zhou P, Cheng CY, Li W, Yao W, et al. (May 2023). "Discovering a Reversible Male Contraceptive Agent Derived from Lonidamine". ACS Omega. 8 (20): 18245–18254. doi:10.1021/acsomega.3c01840. PMC 10210193. PMID 37251173.
  279. ^ Kim J, So B, Heo Y, So H, Jo JK (January 2024). "Advances in Male Contraception: When Will the Novel Male Contraception be Available?". The World Journal of Men's Health. 42 (3): 7–8. doi:10.5534/wjmh.230118. PMC 11216971. PMID 38164023.
  280. ^ Plant TM, Zeleznik AJ (2015). Knobil and Neill's physiology of reproduction (4th ed.). Amsterdam: Elsevier/Academic Press. pp. 740–741. ISBN 978-0-12-397175-3.
  281. ^ O'rand MG, Widgren EE, Sivashanmugam P, Richardson RT, Hall SH, French FS, et al. (November 2004). "Reversible immunocontraception in male monkeys immunized with eppin" (PDF). Science. 306 (5699): 1189–1190. Bibcode:2004Sci...306.1189O. doi:10.1126/science.1099743. PMID 15539605. S2CID 34816491.
  282. ^ Shunnarah A, Tumlinson R, Calderón AI (2021-10-22). "Natural Products with Potential for Nonhormonal Male Contraception". Journal of Natural Products. 84 (10): 2762–2774. doi:10.1021/acs.jnatprod.1c00565. ISSN 0163-3864. PMID 34633803.
  283. ^ Hifnawy MS, Aboseada MA, Hassan HM, Tohamy AF, El Naggar EM, Abdelmohsen UR (2021). "Nature-inspired male contraceptive and spermicidal products". Phytochemistry Reviews. 20 (4): 797–843. Bibcode:2021PChRv..20..797H. doi:10.1007/s11101-020-09721-5. ISSN 1568-7767.
  284. ^ Dias TR, Alves MG, Oliveira PF, Silva BM (2015). "Natural Products as Modulators of Spermatogenesis: The Search for a Male Contraceptive". Current Molecular Pharmacology. 7 (2): 154–166. doi:10.2174/1874467208666150126155912. PMID 25620230.
  285. ^ Lowe D (8 Apr 2014). "Can You Patent A Natural Product? Prepare For a Different Answer". Science.
  286. ^ christina.reilly@829llc.com (2016-05-12). "New USPTO Guidance On Patent Eligibility Of Natural Products". Foley & Lardner LLP. Retrieved 2024-07-23.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  287. ^ Song L, Gu Y, Lu W, Liang X, Chen Z (August 2006). "A phase II randomized controlled trial of a novel male contraception, an intra-vas device". International Journal of Andrology. 29 (4): 489–495. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2605.2006.00686.x. PMID 16573708.
  288. ^ Zaneveld LJ, Burns JW, Beyler S, Depel W, Shapiro S (March 1988). "Development of a potentially reversible vas deferens occlusion device and evaluation in primates". Fertility and Sterility. 49 (3): 527–533. doi:10.1016/s0015-0282(16)59785-4. PMID 3342906.
  289. ^ Zhao SC (May 1990). "Vas deferens occlusion by percutaneous injection of polyurethane elastomer plugs: clinical experience and reversibility". Contraception. 41 (5): 453–459. doi:10.1016/0010-7824(90)90055-z. PMID 2347193.
[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Contraception for males.

Prominent funders of male contraceptive research

[edit]

Conferences and courses discussing male contraception

[edit]

Scientific Research

[edit]

Clinical care, advocacy, and accessibility

[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Male_contraceptive&oldid=1258103732"