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List of heads of state of Germany

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This is a list of heads of state of Germany.

History

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Germany was ruled by monarchs from the beginning of division of the Frankish Empire in August 843 to the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in August 1806.[1][2][3] During most of 19th century, independent German principalities were organized into various confederations, such as the Confederation of the Rhine dominated by Napoleon (1806-1913) and the German Confederation created by the Congress of Vienna (1814-1866). The Prussian-led North German Confederation (1866-1871) subsequently morphed into a modern nation state, the German Reich, which was ruled by emperors from 1871 to the collapse of all German monarchies in 1918.

The President of Germany replaced the monarch in 1919. Chancellor Adolf Hitler assumed the duties of head of state as Führer and Chancellor from 1934 until his suicide in April 1945. In 1949, Germany was divided into two states. The Federal President, head of state of West Germany, became head of state for all of Germany following German reunification in 1990.

East Frankish kingdom, 843–962

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Carolingians

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Seal/Portrait Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Louis the German
Ludwig der Deutsche 		Carolingian 11 August 843 — 23 August 876 Son of Emperor Louis the Pious and grandson of Charlemagne
Carloman
(Karlmann) 		Carolingian 28 August

876

— 22 March 880 Son of Louis the German; ruled in Bavaria; from 877, also King of Italy
Louis the Younger
(Ludwig III. der Jüngere) 		Carolingian 28 August 876 — 20 January 882 Son of Louis the German; ruled in East Francia, Saxony; from 880, also Bavaria
Charles the Fat
(Karl III. der Dicke) 		Carolingian 28 August 876 12 February 881 11 November 887 Son of Louis the German; ruled in Alemannia, Raetia, from 882 in the entire Eastern Kingdom; from 879, also King of Italy
Arnulf of Carinthia
(Arnulf von Kärnten) 		Carolingian 30 November 887 25 April 896 8 December 899 Illegitimate son of Carloman
Louis the Child
(Ludwig IV. das Kind) 		Carolingian 21 January 900 — 20/24 September 911 Son of Arnulf of Carinthia

Conradine dynasty

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Seal Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Conrad I
(Konrad I.) 		Conradine (Franconian) 10 November 911 — 23 December 918 Elected by the nobility

Ottonian dynasty

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Seal Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Henry I the Fowler
(Heinrich I. der Vogler) 		Liudolfing (Saxon) 23 April 919 — 2 July 936 Elected by the nobility
Arnulf the Bad
(Arnulf der Böse, Herzog von Bayern) 		Luitpolding (Bavarian) 919 — 921 Rival king to Henry I

Holy Roman Empire, 962–1806

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The title "King of the Romans", used under the Holy Roman Empire, is (from this point onwards) considered equivalent to King of Germany. A king was chosen by the German electors and would then proceed to Rome to be crowned emperor by the pope.

Ottonian dynasty (continued)

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Image Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Otto I the Great
(Otto I. der Große) 		Ottonian 7 August 936 2 February 962 7 May 973 Son of Henry I; first king crowned in Aachen Cathedral since Lothair I; crowned as Otto by the grace of God King;[4] crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 961
Otto II the Red
(Otto II.) 		Ottonian 26 May 961 25 December 967 7 December 983 Son of Otto I;
Otto by the grace of God King[4] under his father 961–973;
also crowned Emperor in his father's lifetime
Otto III
(Otto III.) 		Ottonian 25 December 983 21 May 996 21 January 1002 Son of Otto II; Otto by the grace of God King[4]
Henry II
(Heinrich II. der Heilige) 		Ottonian 7 June 1002 26 April 1014 13 July 1024 Great-grandson of Henry I

Salian dynasty

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Image Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Conrad II
(Konrad II.) 		Salian (Frankish) 8 September 1024 26 March 1027 4 June 1039 Great-great-grandson of Otto I
Henry III
(Heinrich III.) 		Salian 14 April 1028 25 December 1046 5 October 1056 Son of Conrad II;
King (of the Germans?)[4] under his father 1028–1039
Henry IV
(Heinrich IV.) 		Salian 17 July 1054 21 March 1084 31 December 1105 Son of Henry III;
King of Germany under his father, 1054–1056
Rudolf of Rheinfelden
(Rudolf von Rheinfelden) 		Rheinfeld 15 March 1077 — 15 October 1080 Rival king to Henry IV
Hermann of Salm
(Hermann von Luxemburg, Graf von Salm) 		Salm 6 August 1081 — 28 September 1088 Rival king to Henry IV
Conrad
(Konrad) 		Salian 30 May 1087 — 27 July 1101 Son of Henry IV;
King of Germany under his father, 1087–1098,
King of Italy, 1093–1098, 1095–1101 in rebellion.
Henry V
(Heinrich V.) 		Salian 6 January 1099 13 April 1111 23 May 1125 Son of Henry IV;
King of Germany under his father, 1099–1105, forced his father to abdicate

Supplinburger dynasty

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Image Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Lothair III
(Lothar III.) 		Supplinburger 30 August 1125 4 June 1133 4 December 1137 He was Lothair II of Germany, but Lothair III of Italy

Hohenstaufen and Welf dynasties

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Image Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Conrad III
(Konrad III.) 		Hohenstaufen 7 March 1138 — 15 February 1152 Grandson of Henry IV (through his mother);
Previously Rival King to Lothair III 1127–1135
Henry Berengar
(Heinrich (VI.)) 		Hohenstaufen 30 March 1147 — August? 1150 Son of Conrad III;
King of Germany under his father 1147–1150
Frederick I Barbarossa
(Friedrich I. Barbarossa) 		Hohenstaufen 4 March 1152 18 June 1155 10 June 1190 Nephew of Conrad III
Henry VI
(Heinrich VI.) 		Hohenstaufen 15 August 1169 14 April 1191 28 September 1197 Son of Frederick I;
King of Germany under his father 1169–1190
Frederick II
(Friedrich II.) 		Hohenstaufen 1197 — 1197 Son of Henry VI;
King of Germany under his father, 1196
Philip of Swabia
(Philipp von Schwaben) 		Hohenstaufen 6 March 1198 — 21 August 1208 Son of Frederick I; rival king to Otto IV
Otto IV
(Otto IV. von Braunschweig) 		Welf 29 March 1198 4 October 1209 5 July 1215 Rival king to Philip of Swabia; later opposed by Frederick II; deposed, 1215; died 19 May 1218
Frederick II
(Friedrich II.) 		Hohenstaufen 5 December 1212 22 November 1220 26 December 1250 Son of Henry VI;
Rival king to Otto IV until 5 July 1215
Henry
(Heinrich (VII.)) 		Hohenstaufen 23 April 1220 — 15 August 1235 Son of Frederick II;
King of Germany under his father, 1220–1235
Conrad IV
(Konrad IV.) 		Hohenstaufen May 1237 — 1 May 1254 Son of Frederick II;
King of Germany under his father, 1237–1250

Interregnum

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Further information: Interregnum (HRE)
Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Henry Raspe
(Heinrich Raspe) 		Thuringia 22 May 1246 — 16 February 1247 Rival King to Frederick II and great-great-great grandson of Henry IV
William of Holland
(Wilhelm von Holland) 		Holland 3 October 1247 — 28 January 1256 Rival King to Frederick II and Conrad IV, 1247–1254
Richard of Cornwall
(Richard von Cornwall) 		Plantagenet 13 January 1257 — 2 April 1272 Brother-in-law of Frederick II; rival king to Alfonso of Castile; held no real authority.
Alfonso of Castile
(Alfons von Kastilien) 		House of Ivrea 1 April 1257 — 1275 Grandson of Philip; rival king to Richard of Cornwall; held no authority; later opposed by Rudolf I; relinquished claims 1275, died 1284

Changing dynasties

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Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Rudolf I
(Rudolf I. von Habsburg) 		Habsburg 29 September 1273 — 15 July 1291 First of the Habsburgs
Adolf of Nassau
(Adolf von Nassau) 		Nassau 5 May 1292 — 23 June 1298 According to some historians, Adolf's election was preceded by the short-lived kingship of Conrad, Duke of Teck. See his article for details.
Albert I
(Albrecht I. von Habsburg) 		Habsburg 24 June 1298 — 1 May 1308 Son of Rudolf I; Rival king to Adolf of Nassau, 1298
Henry VII
(Heinrich VII. von Luxemburg) 		Luxembourg 27 November 1308 13 June 1311 24 August 1313 Holy Roman Emperor
Louis IV
(Ludwig IV. der Bayer) 		Wittelsbach 20 October 1314 17 January 1328 11 October 1347 Grandson of Rudolf I; rival king to Frederick the Fair, 1314–1322
Frederick the Fair
(Friedrich der Schöne) 		Habsburg 19 October 1314/
5 September 1325 		— 28 September 1322/
13 January 1330 		Son of Albert I;
rival king to Louis IV, 1314–1322;
associate king with Louis IV, 1325–1330
Charles IV
(Karl IV. von Luxemburg) 		Luxembourg 11 July 1346 5 April 1355 29 November 1378 Grandson of Henry VII; rival king to Louis IV, 1346–1347;
also King of Bohemia, King of Italy and Holy Roman Emperor
Günther von Schwarzburg
(Günther von Schwarzburg) 		Schwarzburg 30 January 1349 — 24 May 1349 Rival king to Charles IV
Wenceslaus
(Wenzel von Böhmen) 		Luxembourg 10 June 1376 — 20 August 1400 Son of Charles IV; king of Germany under his father 1376–1378; deposed 1400;
also by inheritance King of Bohemia; died 1419
Rupert of the Palatinate
(Ruprecht von der Pfalz) 		Wittelsbach 21 August 1400 — 18 May 1410 Great-grandnephew of Louis IV
Sigismund
(Sigismund von Luxemburg) 		Luxembourg 20 September 1410
/21 July 1411 		3 May 1433 9 December 1437 Son of Charles IV
Jobst of Moravia
(Jobst von Mähren) 		Luxembourg 1 October 1410 — 8 January 1411 Nephew of Charles IV; rival king to Sigismund

Habsburg

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Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Albert II
(Albrecht II.) 		Habsburg 18 March 1438 — 27 October 1439 4th in descent from Albert I;
son-in-law of Sigismund
Frederick III
(Friedrich III.) 		Habsburg 2 February 1440 16 March 1452 19 August 1493 4th in descent from Albert I; 2nd cousin of Albert II
Maximilian I
(Maximilian I.) 		Habsburg 16 February 1486 4 February 1508 12 January 1519 Son of Frederick III; King of Germany under his father, 1486–1493; assumed the title "Elected Emperor" in 1508 with the pope's approval
Charles V
(Karl V.) 		Habsburg 28 June 1519 28 June 1519 3 August 1556 Grandson of Maximilian I; died 21 September 1558
Ferdinand I
(Ferdinand I.) 		Habsburg 5 January 1531 14 March 1558 25 July 1564 Grandson of Maximilian I; brother of Charles V; King of Germany under his brother Charles V 1531–1556; last king to be crowned in Aachen Cathedral. Emperor
Maximilian II
(Maximilian II.) 		Habsburg 22 November 1562 25 July 1564 12 October 1576 Son of Ferdinand I;
King of Germany under his father 1562–1564
Rudolf II
(Rudolf II.) 		Habsburg 27 October 1575 2 November 1576 20 January 1612 Son of Maximilian II;
King of Germany under his father, 1575–1576
Matthias
(Matthias) 		Habsburg 13 June 1612 13 June 1612 20 March 1619 Son of Maximilian II
Ferdinand II
(Ferdinand II.) 		Habsburg 28 August 1619 28 August 1619 15 February 1637 Grandson of Ferdinand I
Ferdinand III
(Ferdinand III.) 		Habsburg 22 December 1636 15 February 1637 2 April 1657 Son of Ferdinand II;
King of Germany under his father 1636–1637
Ferdinand IV
(Ferdinand IV.) 		Habsburg 31 May 1653 — 9 July 1654 Son of Ferdinand III;
King of Germany under his father
Leopold I
(Leopold I.) 		Habsburg 18 July 1658 18 July 1658 5 May 1705 Son of Ferdinand III
Joseph I
(Joseph I.) 		Habsburg 23 January 1690 5 May 1705 17 April 1711 Son of Leopold I; King of Germany under his father 1690–1705
Charles VI
(Karl VI.) 		Habsburg 27 October 1711 27 October 1711 20 October 1740 Son of Leopold I

Wittelsbach

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Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Charles VII
(Karl VII.) 		Wittelsbach 14 January 1742 14 January 1742 20 January 1745 Great-great-grandson of Ferdinand II; Husband of Maria Amalia, daughter of Joseph I

Habsburg-Lorraine

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Image Coat of arms Name House King Emperor Ended Notes
Francis I
(Franz I.) 		Lorraine 13 September 1745 13 September 1745 18 August 1765 Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; Husband of Maria Theresa, daughter of Charles VI
Joseph II
(Joseph II.) 		Habsburg-Lorraine 27 March 1764 18 August 1765 20 February 1790 Son of Francis I and Maria Theresa; King of Germany under his father 1764–1765
Leopold II
(Leopold II.) 		Habsburg-Lorraine 30 September 1790 30 September 1790 1 March 1792 Son of Francis I and Maria Theresa
Francis II
(Franz II.) 		Habsburg-Lorraine 7 July 1792 7 July 1792 6 August 1806 Son of Leopold II; Dissolved the Holy Roman Empire; also Emperor of Austria 1804–1835; President of the German Confederation (1815-1835), died 1835

Confederation of the Rhine, 1806–1813

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Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Napoleon
Emperor of the French
King of Italy 		Protector of the Confederation of the Rhine
Bonaparte 		12 July 1806 December 1813
Karl Theodor von Dalberg,
Prince-Archbishop of Regensburg
Grand Duke of Frankfurt 		Prince-primate of the
Confederation of the Rhine
Dalberg 		25 July 1806 26 October 1813
Eugène de Beauharnais,
Grand Duke of Frankfurt 		Prince-primate of the
Confederation of the Rhine
Beauharnais 		26 October 1813 December
1813

German Confederation, 1815–1866

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Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Francis I,
Emperor of Austria
(Franz I., Kaiser von Österreich) 		Head of the presiding power (Präsidialmacht) Austria[5]
Habsburg-Lorraine 		20 June 1815 2 March 1835
Ferdinand I,
Emperor of Austria
(Ferdinand I., Kaiser von Österreich) 		Head of the presiding power (Präsidialmacht) Austria[5]
Habsburg-Lorraine 		2 March 1835 12 July 1848
Archduke John of Austria
(Erzherzog Johann von Österreich) 		Regent (Reichsverweser) of the revolutionary German Empire[6]
Habsburg-Lorraine 		12 July 1848 20 December 1849
Frederick William IV, King of Prussia
(Friedrich Wilhelm IV., König von Preußen) 		Emperor of the Germans elect[7]
Hohenzollern 		28 March 1849 28 April 1849
Presidium of the Union (Unionsvorstand) of the
Erfurt Union[8] 		26 May 1849 29 November 1850
Francis Joseph I,
Emperor of Austria
(Franz Joseph I., Kaiser von Österreich) 		Head of the presiding power (Präsidialmacht) Austria
Habsburg-Lorraine 		1 May 1850 24 August 1866

North German Confederation, 1867–1871

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Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Wilhelm I,
King of Prussia
(Wilhelm I, König von Preußen)
Holder of the Bundespräsidium of the
North German Confederation
Hohenzollern 		1 July 1867 1 January 1871[9]

German Reich, 1871–1945

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German Emperor, 1871-1918

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Name Portrait Title House Began Ended
Wilhelm I,
German Emperor
(Wilhelm I., Deutscher Kaiser)
German Emperor
Hohenzollern 		1 January 1871[9] 9 March 1888
Friedrich III,
German Emperor
(Friedrich III., Deutscher Kaiser)
German Emperor
Hohenzollern 		9 March 1888 15 June 1888
Wilhelm II,
German Emperor
(Wilhelm II., Deutscher Kaiser)
German Emperor
Hohenzollern 		15 June 1888 9/28 November 1918[10]

President, 1919–1945

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† denotes people who died in office.

Portrait Reichspräsident Took office Left office Time in office Party Election
Friedrich Ebert
Ebert, FriedrichFriedrich Ebert
(1871–1925)		11 February 191928 February 1925 †6 years, 17 days SPD1919
Hans Luther
Luther, HansHans Luther
(1879–1962)
Acting
[a]		28 February 192512 March 192512 days Nonpartisan–
Walter Simons
Simons, WalterWalter Simons
(1861–1937)
Acting
[b]		12 March 192512 May 192561 days Nonpartisan–
Paul von Hindenburg
Hindenburg, PaulGeneralfeldmarschall
Paul von Hindenburg
(1847–1934)		12 May 19252 August 1934 †9 years, 82 days Nonpartisan1925
1932
Adolf Hitler
Hitler, AdolfAdolf Hitler
(1889–1945)
Führer und Reichskanzler		2 August 193430 April 1945 †10 years, 271 days NSDAP–
Karl Dönitz
Dönitz, KarlGroßadmiral
Karl Dönitz
(1891–1980)		30 April 194523 May 194523 days NSDAP–

Federal Republic of Germany, from 1949

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† denotes people who died in office.

Portrait Bundespräsident Took office Left office Time in office Party Election
Theodor Heuss
Heuss, TheodorTheodor Heuss
(1884–1963)		13 September 194912 September 19599 years, 364 days FDP1949
1954
Heinrich Lübke
Lübke, HeinrichHeinrich Lübke
(1894–1972)		13 September 195930 June 1969
(resigned)		9 years, 290 days CDU1959
1964
Gustav Heinemann
Heinemann, GustavGustav Heinemann
(1899–1976)		1 July 196930 June 19744 years, 364 days SPD1969
Walter Scheel
Scheel, WalterWalter Scheel
(1919–2016)		1 July 197430 June 19794 years, 364 days FDP1974
Karl Carstens
Carstens, KarlKarl Carstens
(1914–1992)		1 July 197930 June 19844 years, 365 days CDU1979
Richard von Weizsäcker
Weizsäcker, RichardRichard von Weizsäcker
(1920–2015)		1 July 198430 June 19949 years, 364 days CDU1984
1989
Roman Herzog
Herzog, RomanRoman Herzog
(1934–2017)		1 July 199430 June 19994 years, 364 days CDU1994
Johannes Rau
Rau, JohannesJohannes Rau
(1931–2006)		1 July 199930 June 20044 years, 365 days SPD1999
Horst Köhler
Köhler, HorstHorst Köhler
(born 1943)		1 July 200431 May 2010
(resigned)		5 years, 334 days CDU2004
2009
Jens Böhrnsen
Böhrnsen, JensJens Böhrnsen
(born 1949)
Acting
[c]		31 May 201030 June 201030 days SPD–
Christian Wulff
Wulff, ChristianChristian Wulff
(born 1959)		30 June 201017 February 2012
(resigned)		1 year, 232 days CDU2010
Horst Seehofer
Seehofer, HorstHorst Seehofer
(born 1949)
Acting
[c]		17 February 201218 March 201230 days CSU–
Joachim Gauck
Gauck, JoachimJoachim Gauck
(born 1940)		18 March 201218 March 20175 years, 0 days Independent2012
Frank-Walter Steinmeier
Steinmeier, Frank-WalterFrank-Walter Steinmeier
(born 1956)		18 March 2017Incumbent7 years, 235 days SPD2017
2022

German Democratic Republic (East Germany), 1949–1990

[edit]

† denotes people who died in office.

Portrait Name Took office Left office Time in office Party
President of the Republic
Präsident der Republik
Wilhelm Pieck
Pieck, WilhelmWilhelm Pieck
(1876–1960)		11 October 19497 September 1960 †10 years, 332 days SED
Johannes Dieckmann
Dieckmann, JohannesJohannes Dieckmann
(1893–1969)
Acting
[d]		7 September 196012 September 19605 days LDPD
Chairman of the State Council
Vorsitzender des Staatsrats
Walter Ulbricht
Ulbricht, WalterWalter Ulbricht
(1893–1973)		12 September 19601 August 1973 †12 years, 323 days SED
Friedrich Ebert Jr.
Ebert, FriedrichFriedrich Ebert Jr.
(1894–1979)
Acting
[e]		1 August 19733 October 197363 days SED
Willi Stoph
Stoph, WilliWilli Stoph
(1914–1999)		3 October 197329 October 19763 years, 26 days SED
Erich Honecker
Honecker, ErichErich Honecker
(1912–1994)		29 October 197618 October 1989
(resigned)		12 years, 354 days SED
Egon Krenz
Krenz, EgonEgon Krenz
(born 1937)		18 October 19896 December 1989
(resigned)		49 days SED
Manfred Gerlach
Gerlach, ManfredManfred Gerlach
(1928–2011)		6 December 19895 April 1990
(office abolished)		120 days LDPD
President of the People's Chamber
Präsident der Volkskammer
Sabine Bergmann-Pohl
Bergmann-Pohl, SabineSabine Bergmann-Pohl
(born 1946)		5 April 19902 October 1990
(East Germany joined Federal Republic)		180 days CDU

Styles of the Heads of State

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Unified state (1871 to 1945)
Country Years Title of Head of State
German Empire German Empire 1871–1918 German Emperor Deutscher Kaiser
Weimar Republic Weimar Republic 1919–1933 President of the Reich Reichspräsident
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany 1933–1934 President of the Reich Reichspräsident
1934–1945 Leader and Chancellor Führer und Reichskanzler
1945 President of the Reich Reichspräsident
East and West Germany (1949 to 1990)
Country Years Title of Head of State
West Germany West Germany 1949–1990 Federal President Bundespräsident
East Germany East Germany 1949–1960 President of the German Democratic Republic Präsident der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik
1960–1990 Chairman of the State Council Vorsitzender des Staatsrates
1990 President of the People's Chamber Präsident der Volkskammer
Unified state (1990 to present)
Country Years Title of Head of State
Germany Germany 1990–Present Federal President Bundespräsident

Notes

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  1. ^ Acting head of state, as Chancellor of Germany
  2. ^ Acting head of state, as President of the Reichsgericht.
  3. ^ a b Acting head of state, as President of the Bundesrat.
  4. ^ Acting head of state, as President of the Volkskammer.
  5. ^ Acting head of state, as Deputy Chairman of the State Council.

References

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  1. ^ Gowers, Bernard (December 2011). "III The Central Middle Ages (900-1200)". Annual Bulletin of Historical Literature. 95 (1): 12–21. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8314.2011.01248.x. ISSN 0066-3832.
  2. ^ Arnold, Benjamin (1997). Medieval Germany 500–1300. doi:10.1007/978-1-349-25677-8. ISBN 978-0-333-61092-3.
  3. ^ The bee and the eagle: Napoleonic France and the end of the Holy Roman Empire, 1806. Forrest, Alan I., Wilson, Peter H. (Peter Hamish). Basingstoke [England]: Palgrave Macmillan. 2009. ISBN 978-0-230-00893-9. OCLC 227575082.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  4. ^ a b c d Medieval Europeans: studies in ethnic identity and national perspectives in medieval Europe By Alfred P. Smyth, Palgrave Macmillan (1998), p. 64
  5. ^ a b Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. I: Reform und Restauration 1789 bis 1830. 2nd edition, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart [et.al.] 1967, p. 589.
  6. ^ Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Vol. I: Reform und Restauration 1789 bis 1830. 2nd edition, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart [et.al.] 1967, p. 625–627, 808.
  7. ^ Elected Emperor of the Germans by the Frankfurt National Assembly on 28 March 1849, but refused the crown on 28 April 1849. Manfred Botzenhart: Deutscher Parlamentarismus in der Revolutionszeit 1848–1850. Droste Verlag, Düsseldorf 1977, pp. 697/698.
  8. ^ Anlage II: Additional-Akte zu dem Entwurf der Verfassung des Deutschen Reichs. In: Thüringer Landtag Erfurt (ed.): 150 Jahre Erfurter Unionsparlament (1850–2000) (= Schriften zur Geschichte des Parlamentarismus in Thüringen. H. 15) Wartburg Verlag, Weimar 2000, ISBN 3-86160-515-5, S. 27–44, here pp. 185–187.
  9. ^ a b Ernst Rudolf Huber: Deutsche Verfassungsgeschichte seit 1789. Band III: Bismarck und das Reich. 3. Auflage, Kohlhammer Verlag, Stuttgart 1988, S. 750/751.
  10. ^ His abdication was announced by the Chancellor on 9 November, and the Emperor went into exile in the Netherlands. He did not formally abdicate until 28 November.
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