Lexical changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance
As Classical Latin developed into Proto-Romance, its lexicon underwent numerous changes.
Regularization
[edit]Irregular nouns and verbs tended to be either regularized or replaced with preexisting regular equivalents. Cf. the loss of edere 'to eat' in favour of manducare or its own regularized compound comedere. Similar motives underlie the general replacement of ferre 'carry' with portare or loqui 'speak' with parabolare and fabulari.[1]
Semantic drift
[edit]Various words experienced a significant change in meaning, notable examples being causa ('subject matter' → 'thing'), civitas ('citizenry' → 'city'), focus ('hearth' → 'fire'), mittere ('send' → 'put'), necare ('murder' → 'drown'), pacare ('placate' → 'pay'), and totus ('whole' → 'all, every').[2]
Certain words may have shed their originally lower-status or humble associations to become default unmarked terms, thus replacing the literary Classical equivalents. Cf. the general loss of equus 'horse' in favour of caballus (originally 'workhorse') or that of domus 'house' in favour of casa (originally 'hut').[3]
Loss of short forms
[edit]Words that were felt to be too short or phonetically insubstantial were liable to be replaced, often with their own derivatives, hence auris 'ear' and agnus 'lamb' were rejected in favour of their diminutives auricula and agnellus.[4]
Most Classical particles (such as an, at, autem, donec, enim, etc.) simply died out and survive nowhere in Romance.[5]
Coinages
[edit]There was a trend towards forming compound prepositions of the type ab ante, which at first simply combined the sense of their constituents (hence the original sense of ab ante was 'from before'). In time many would develop a generic sense, often simply that of one of their constituents (hence ab ante came to mean 'before', in competition with ante). Other examples attested in Late Antiquity are de inter, de retro, de foris, de intus, de ab, and de ex.[6]
A number of verb-forming (or extending) suffixes were popularized, such as -icare (based on the adjective ending -icus), -ulare (based on the diminutive -ul-), and -izare (borrowed from Greek).[7]
Borrowing
[edit]Numerous foreign terms were borrowed into the Latin vernacular, a majority of which came from Greek, particularly in the domains of medicine, cooking, and Christian worship. A smaller fraction came from Gaulish or Germanic.[8]
Selected lexical comparisons
[edit]| Meaning | Classical word | Inherited descendants[α] | Competitor(s) in Proto-Romance | Inherited descendants | Origin | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| all | omnis | It. ogni | totus | Fr. tout, Oc. tot, Cat. tot, Sp. todo, Pt. todo, Srd. totu, It. tutto, Ro. tot | Meant 'entire' in CL. | ||
| before | ante | OIt. anti, Sp. ante | avante | Fr. avant, Occ. avan, Cat. abans, Pt. avante, Sp. avante,[β] It. avanti | Ab 'away from' + ante. | ||
| inante | OPt. enante, OSp. enante, Vgl. aninč, OIt. inanti, Nea. 'nnante, Ro. înainte, ARo. nãnte | In + ante. | |||||
| antes | Sp. antes, Pt. antes | Ante + an adverbial analogical -s. | |||||
| begin | incipere | Rms. entscheiver, Ro. începe(re) | comintiare | Fr. commencer, Occ. començar, Cat. començar, Sp. comenzar, Pt. começar, It. cominciare | Prefixed and syncopated version of LL initiare 'start', a verb based on CL initium 'beginning'. | ||
| bird | avis | Cat. au, Sp. ave, Pt. ave, Srd. ae | aucellus | Fr. oiseau, Occ. aucèl, Cat. ocell, It. uccello | Diminutive of avis. | ||
| passarus | Sp. pájaro, Pt. pássaro, Ro. pasăre, It. passero | Alteration of CL passer 'sparrow'. | |||||
| cat | felis | — | cattus | Fr. chat, Occ. cat, Cat. gat, Sp. gato, Pt. gato, It. gatto | Late borrowing of obscure origin. | ||
| ear | auris | — | auricla~oricla | Fr. oreille, Occ. aurelha, Cat. orella, Sp. oreja, Pt. orelha, It. orecchio, Ro. ureche | Diminutive of auris. | ||
| eat | edere | — | comedere | Sp. comer, Pt. comer | Prefixed and regularized version of edere. | ||
| manducare | Fr. manger, Occ. manjar, Cat. menjar, Ara. minchar, OIt. manicare, It. mangiare, Ro. mâncare | Meant 'chew' in CL. | |||||
| evening | vesper | Fr. vêpre, Occ. vèspre, Cat. vespre, Pie. vespr, Lmb. vèsper, Vgl. viaspro | sera | Fr. soir, Rms. saira, Vgl. saira, It. sera, Ro. seară | Likely a shortening of an expression such as sera dies 'late (part of the) day'. | ||
| fire | ignis | — | focus | Fr. feu, Occ. fuòc, Cat. foc, Sp. fuego, Pt. fogo, It. fuoco, Ro. foc | Meant 'hearth' in CL. | ||
| fight | pugna | — | lucta | Fr. lutte, Occ. lucha, Cat. lluita, Sp. lucha, Pt. luta, It. lotta, Ro. luptă | Noun based on CL luctari 'wrestle, struggle'. | ||
| battalia | Fr. bataille, Occ. batalha, Cat. batalla, Pt. batalha, It. battaglia, Ro. bătaie | Alteration of earlier battualia, from CL battuere 'strike', an early borrowing from Gaulish. | |||||
| from | a~ab | Occ. amb, Cat. amb[γ] | de | Fr. de, Oc. de, Cat. de, Sp. de, Pt. de, It. di, Ro. de | Meant 'down from' in CL. | ||
| help | iuvare | Frl. zovâ, It. giovare | adiutare | Fr. aider, Occ. ajudar, Cat. ajudar, Sp. ayudar, Pt. ajudar, It. aiutare, Ro. ajutare | Frequentative of CL adiuvare, a prefixed version of iuvare. | ||
| home | domus | It. duomo,[δ] Srd. domu | casa | OFr. chiese,[ε] Occ. casa, Cat. casa, Sp. casa, Pt. casa, It. casa, Ro. casă | Meant 'hut' in CL. | ||
| horse (m.) | equus | — | caballus | Fr. cheval, Oc. caval, Cat. cavall, Sp. caballo, Pt. cavalo, It. cavallo. Ro. cal. | Originally 'workhorse, nag'. | ||
| inside | intus | OFr. enz, Lig. inte | deintus | Fr. dans, Occ. dins, Cat. dins, It. dentro, Nea. dinto, Pt. dentro | De + intus, originally 'from within'. Attested in Late Latin. | ||
| kitchen | culina | — | cocina | Fr. cuisine, Occ. cosina, Cat. cuina, Sp. cocina, Pt. cozinha, It. cucina | Noun based on CL coquere 'cook'. | ||
| know | scire | Ro. știre, Srd. ischire | sapere | Fr. savoir, Occ. saber, Cat. saber, Sp. saber, Pt. saber, It. sapere | Meant 'taste' in CL, but with the secondary senses of 'understand' and 'be intelligent'. | ||
| lamb | agnus | Pt. anho | agnellus | Fr. agneau, Occ. anhèl, Cat. anyell, Rms. agnè, It. agnello, Sic. agneddu, Ro. miel | Originally simply the diminutive of agnus. | ||
| leg | crus | — | camba~gamba | Fr. jambe, Occ. camba, Cat. cama, OSp. cama, It. gamba, Ro. gambă | Late borrowing of Greek καμπή. | ||
| man | vir | — | homo | Fr. homme, Occ. òme, Cat. home, Sp. hombre, Pt. homem, It. uomo, Ro. om | Meant 'human being' in CL. | ||
| money | pecunia | ARo. picunj~piculj | denarii | Fr. deniers, Occ. dinèrs, Cat. diners, Sp. dineros, Pt. dinheiros, It. denari, Ro. dinari | Referred to a specific type of coin in CL, though was used as a metonym for 'money' in Cicero's letters. | ||
| mouth | os | — | bucca | Fr. bouche, Occ. boca, Cat. boca, Sp. boca, Pt. boca, It. bocca, Ro. bucă[ζ] | Meant 'cheek' in CL. Attested in the sense of 'mouth' already in the writings of Petronius.[9] | ||
| narrow | angustus | Sp. angosto, It. angusto, Ro. îngust | strictus | Fr. étroit, Occ. estreit, Cat. estret, Sp. estrecho, Pt. estreito, It. stretto, Ro. strâmt | Meant 'tightened' in CL. | ||
| now | nunc | — | ora | Sp. ora, Pt. hora, It. ora | CL hora 'hour, time'. | ||
| adora | Fr. or, Occ. aüra, Cat. ara | Composed of CL ad + hora(m). Attested in the writings of Anthimus.[10] | |||||
| acora | Sp. ahora, Pt. agora | Composed of CL hac 'this' + hora. | |||||
| old | vetus | OFr. viet, Sp. viedo, OPt. vedro, It. vieto | veclus | Fr. vieux, Occ. vièlh, Cat. vell, Sp. viejo, Pt. velho, It. vecchio, Ro. vechi | Alteration of CL vetulus, a diminutive of vetus. | ||
| right[η] | dexter | OFr. destre, OOcc. dèstre, Cat. destre, Sp. diestro, Pt. destro,[θ] It. destro | directus~drectus | Fr. droit, Occ. dreit, Cat. dret, Sp. derecho, Pt. direito, It. diritto, Ro. drept | Meant 'straight' or 'level' in CL. | ||
| rope | funis | It. fune, Ro. funie | corda | Occ. còrda, Cat. corda, Sp. cuerda, Pt. corda, It. corda, Ro. coardă | Borrowing of Greek χορδή. | ||
| Saturday | dies saturni | — | dies sabbati | Occ. dissabte, Cat. dissabte | Lit. 'day of the Sabbath'. | ||
| sambati dies | Fr. samedi, Rms. sonda | The same but reversed and with a nasal infix. | |||||
| sabbatu~sambatu | Sp. sábado, Pt. sábado, It. sabato, Ro. sâmbătă,[ι] Srd. sàpadau | Simply the word for 'Sabbath' on its own. | |||||
| shirt | tunica | Cat. tonga, Sp. tonga, It. tonaca | camisia | Fr. chemise, Occ. camisa, Cat. camisa, Sp. camisa, Pt. camisa, It. camicia, Ro. cămașă | Late borrowing from Gaulish. | ||
| short | brevis | Fr. bref, Occ. brèu, Cat. breu, It. breve, Sp. breve, Pt. breve | curtus | Fr. court, Occ. cort, Sp. corto, OPt. corto, It. corto, Ro. scurt[κ] | Meant 'cut short, mutilated' in CL. | ||
| sick | infirmus | OFr. enfer, OOcc. eferm, Sp. enfermo, Pt. enfermo, It. infermo | malabitus | Fr. malade, Occ. malaut, Cat. malalt, It. malato, Srd. malaidu | Contraction of LL male habitus 'in poor shape'. | ||
| skin | cutis | pellis | Fr. peau, Occ. pèl, Cat. pell, Sp. piel, Pt. pele, It. pelle, Ro. piele | Meant 'animal hide' in CL. | |||
| speak | loqui | — | fabulare | OOcc. faular, Vgl. favlur, OIt. favolare, Sp. hablar, Pt. falar | Regularization of the rare CL fabulari 'chat', originally 'tell stories', a verb based on fabula. | ||
| fabellare | Frl. fevelâ, OIt. favellare, Srd. faeddare | Verb based on CL fabella, the diminutive of fabula. | |||||
| parabolare | Fr. parler, Occ. parlar, Cat. parlar, It. parlare | Verb based on CL parabola 'parable', a borrowing of Greek παραβολή. | |||||
| stone | saxum | Pt. seixo,[λ] It. sasso | petra | Fr. pierre, Occ. pèira, Cat. pedra, Sp. piedra, Pt. pedra, It. pietra, Ro. piatră | Late borrowing of Greek πέτρα. | ||
| Sunday | dies solis | — | dies dominicus | Fr. dimanche, Occ. dimenge, Cat. diumenge, Sp. domingo, Srd. dominigu | Lit. 'day of the Lord'. Dies 'day' could be either masculine or feminine in Latin. | ||
| dies dominica | Vgl. domienca, It. domenica, Ro. duminică | ||||||
| swift | celer | rapidus | OFr. rade, OSp. raudo, OIt. ratto, Ro. repede | Meant 'hasty' in CL. | |||
| sword | gladius | OFr. glai,[μ] OOcc. glazi, OIt. ghiado | spatha | Fr. épée, Occ. espasa, Cat. espasa, Sp. espada, Pt. espada, It. spada, Ro. spată | Borrowing of Greek σπάθη. A long cavalry sword, which superseded gladius in the 3rd C. | ||
| teach | docere | OFr. duire | insignare | Fr. enseigner, Occ. ensenhar, Cat. ensenyar, Sp. enseñar, Pt. ensinar, It. insegnare | Prefixed version of CL signare 'note, indicate'. | ||
| thick | densus | Ro. des, Vgl. dais | grossus | Fr. gros, Occ. gròs, Cat. gros, Sp. grueso, Pt. grosso, It. grosso, Ro. gros | Of obscure origin. | ||
| spissus | Fr. épais, Occ. espés, Cat. espès, Sp. espeso, Pt. espesso, It. spesso | Generally meant 'slow', 'difficult', etc. in CL. | |||||
| think | cogitare | OFr. cuidier, Occ. cuidar, Cat. cuidar, Sp. cuidar, Pt. cuidar,[ν] OIt. coitare, Ro. cugetare | pensare | Fr. penser, Occ. pensar, Cat. pensar, Sp. pensar, Pt. pensar, It. pensare, Ro. păsare[ξ] | Generally meant 'weigh' in CL, along with the extended sense of 'consider'. | ||
| tomorrow | cras | OSp. cras, OPt. cras, OIt. crai, Sic. crai, Srd. cras | mane | Ro. mâine | Meant 'in the morning' in CL. | ||
| de mane | Fr. demain, Occ. deman, Cat. demà, Rms. damaun, It. domani | LL expression meaning 'early in the morning'. | |||||
| touch | tangere | OCat. tànyer, Sp. tañer,[ο] Pt. tanger | toccare | Fr. toucher, Occ. tocar, Cat. tocar, Sp. tocar, Pt. tocar, It. toccare, Ro. tocare | Borrowed from Germanic, with the original sense of 'hit, strike'. | ||
| understand | intellegere | Rms. encleger, Ro. înțelegere | intendere | Fr. entendre, Occ. entendre, Cat. entendre, Sp. entender, Pt. entender, It. intendere | Had various senses in CL, most relevantly 'direct one's attention (towards)'. | ||
| week | hebdomas | OFr. domée, Ct. doma, Rms. jamna, Vgl. jedma, OIt. edima and domada.[11] | septimana | Fr. semaine, Occ. setmana, Cat. setmana, Sp. semana, Pt. semana, Vgl. setimuon, It. settimana, Ro. săptămână | Attested in LL, from CL septem 'seven', referring to the number of days in a week. | ||
| wide | latus | Fr. lé, Ro. lat | largus | Fr. large, Occ. larg, Cat. llarg, OSp. largo,[π] Pt. largo, It. largo, Ro. larg | Meant 'abundant' in CL. | ||
| word | verbum | Fr. verve,[ρ] OSp. vierbo, Ast. vierbu, Ro. vorbă[σ] | parabola | Fr. parole, Occ. paraula, Cat. paraula, Sp. palabra, Pt. palavra, It. parola, Srd. paragula | Meant 'parable' in CL, a borrowing of Greek παραβολή. | ||
| work | laborare | Occ. laurar, Cat. llaurar, Sp. labrar,[τ] Pt. lavrar, Rms. luvrar, It. lavorare | tripaliare | Fr. travailler, Occ. trabalhar, Cat. treballar, Sp. trabajar, Pt. trabalhar, Srd. triballare | Verb based on LL tripalium, a sort of torture device made of three stakes. |
See also
[edit]- Appendix Probi
- Reichenau Glossary
- Proto-Romance language
- Phonological changes from Classical Latin to Proto-Romance
Explanatory notes
[edit]- ^ Clearly borrowed words are not counted as descendants. This excludes, for instance, the Italian word igne 'fire, which was taken from Latin.
List of abbreviations:
Fr. — French (central)
OOcc. — Old Occitan
Occ. — Occitan (central)
OCat. — Old Catalan
Cat. — Catalan (central)
Ara. — Aragonese
OSp. — Old Spanish
Sp. — Spanish (central)
Ast. — Asturian
OPt. — Old Portuguese
Pt. — Portuguese (central)
Lig. — Ligurian
Pie. — Piedmontese
Lmb. — Lombard (Milanese)
Rms. — Romansh
Frl. — Friulan
Vgl. — Vegliote
OIt. — Old Italian
It. — Italian
Srd. — Sardinian (Logudorese)
Sic. — Sicilian
Ro. — Romanian
ARo. — Aromanian - ^ With the specialized sense of 'forward', cf. the Portuguese cognate.
- ^ With the transferred sense of 'with', cf. the Catalan cognate. The original form in both languages, as attested in medieval texts, was ab.
- ^ With the specialized sense of 'cathedral'.
- ^ Survives in modern French as chez, a grammaticalized expression meaning 'at the house of', cf. Catalan ca and Italian ca'.
- ^ Only the Romanian word continues to mean 'cheek'.
- ^ In the directional sense.
- ^ Today mostly obsolete in the directional sense, cf. the Spanish and Catalan cognates.
- ^ Now a feminine word, likely influenced by zi (f.) 'day'.
- ^ Derived from *ex-curtus.
- ^ With the specialized sense of 'pebble'.
- ^ With the transferred sense of 'sword-lily'.
- ^ With the transferred sense of 'care (for)' and 'pay attention', cf. the Spanish and Catalan cognates.
- ^ With the transferred sense of 'care'.
- ^ Had the sense of 'touch' in medieval times but has since come to mean 'play (an instrument)', cf. the Portuguese cognate.
- ^ Modern Spanish largo has come to mean 'long' and has completed ousted the original luengo (=Lat. longus) from that role.
- ^ With the transferred sense of 'eloquence'.
- ^ Etymology remains disputed.
- ^ With the specialized sense of 'plough', cf. the Catalan, Occitan, and Portuguese cognates.
Citations
[edit]- ^ Herman 2000: 98
- ^ Harrington et al. 1997: 7–10
- ^ Clackson, James. 2016. Latin as a source for the Romance languages. In Ledgeway, Adam & Maiden, Martin (eds.), The Oxford guide to the Romance languages, 11. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
- ^ Herman 2000: 99–100
- ^ Harrington et al. 1997: 11
- ^ Löfstedt 1959: 163–171
- ^ Harrington et al. 1997: 12–13
- ^ Herman 2000: 106
- ^ Dworkin 2016: 584
- ^ Herman 2000: 96
- ^ Dworkin 2016: 585
General sources
[edit]- Dworkin, Steven Norman. 2016. Lexical stability and shared lexicon. In Ledgeway, Adam & Maiden, Martin (eds.), The Oxford guide to the Romance languages, 577–587. Oxford University Press.
- Elcock, William Dennis. 1975. The Romance languages. London: Faber and Faber.
- Herman, József. 2000. Vulgar Latin. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Translated by Wright, Roger.
- Lewis, Charlton; Short, Charles. 1879. A Latin Dictionary. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
- Löfstedt, Einar. 1959. Late Latin. Oslo: H. Aschehoug & Co. Translated by Willis, James.
- Meyer-Lübke, Wilhelm. 1911. Romanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch. Heidelberg: C. Winter.