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LGBTQ rights in Ghana

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LGBTQ rights in Ghana
Ghana
Status
PenaltyUp to 3 years imprisonment
Gender identityNo
MilitaryNo
Discrimination protectionsNo
Family rights
Recognition of relationshipsNo recognition of same-sex unions
AdoptionNo

Lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBTQ) people in Ghana face severe challenges not experienced by non-LGBTQ residents.[5] Sexual acts between males have been illegal as "unnatural carnal knowledge" in Ghana since the colonial era. The majority of Ghana's population hold anti-LGBTQ sentiments.[6][5] Physical and violent homophobic attacks against LGBTQ people occur, and are often encouraged by the media and religious and political leaders.[7] At times, government officials, such as police, engage in such acts of violence.[8] Young gay people are known to be disowned by their families and communities and evicted from their homes. Families often seek conversion therapy from religious groups when same-sex orientation or non-conforming gender identity is disclosed; such "therapy" is reported to be commonly administered in abusive and inhumane settings.[9][8][10]

Despite the constitution guaranteeing a right to freedom of speech, expression and assembly to Ghanaian citizens, these fundamental rights are actively denied to LGBTQ people.[11] Pro-LGBTQ activism exists in Ghana, but such efforts are often thwarted by the Ghanaian government.[12] Despite this, by 2016 attitudes in Ghana towards homosexuality were evolving and becoming more tolerant and accepting of LGBTQ rights. This situation deteriorated sharply in 2021.

In February 2024, with the support of the country's two major political parties, the Parliament of Ghana passed the Human Sexual Rights and Family Values Bill to make it a crime to identify as LGBTQ in Ghana, with penalties of up to three years in prison. Funding or forming a LGBT-related group would be punished by up to five years in prison. The bill was forwarded to president Nana Akufo-Addo, who may now sign into law or veto it. Akufo-Addo previously said that if most Ghanians wanted the legislation, he would not oppose it.[13]

History

[edit]

In the 18th and 19th century Asante courts, male slaves served as concubines and were killed when their master died.[14]

The Nzema people had a tradition of adult men marrying each other, usually with a 10-year age difference.[15] These marriage were called agyale,[16] "friendship marriages". The couple would observe all the social equivalents of heterosexual marriage, a bride price was paid and a traditional wedding ceremony was held.[17] Among the Nankani, female marriages were observed for the continuous perpetuation of the lineage. Rose Mary Amenga-Etego states that these non-sexual woman to woman marriages were "the last desperate religio-cultural practice employed to reclaim and reinstate the male genealogical descent structure of the people".[18]

The Fante people would believe that those, of either sex, with "heavy souls" were attracted to women, whereas those with "light souls" were attracted to men.[19][page needed]

Homosexuality in Ghana was criminalised in 1892.[1] During this time, Ghana was a British colony. The Offences Against the Person Act 1861, a British law which criminalised sodomy, was implemented in all British colonies.

[edit]

Section 104(1)(b) of the Ghanaian Criminal Code of 1960, criminalizes "unnatural carnal knowledge" (with consent and between adults), as a misdemeanor. Section 104(2) defines "unnatural carnal knowledge" as "sexual intercourse with a person in an unnatural manner or with an animal". Due to the definition contained in Section 99 of the code, which stipulates "penetration", an "unnatural manner" is taken to refer to sex acts between men–not between women–and oral and anal sex between people of different sexes. Misdemeanours carry a penalty of up to three years imprisonment under Article 296(4) of the Criminal Procedural Code.[20][21][22][23]

By the early 21st century, these 1960 provisions were rarely enforced.[24] However, while the law may not lead to prosecutions before local courts, persecution of LGBTQ people is nevertheless widespread and common.[25]

Application to women

[edit]

Section 99 of the Criminal Code of 1960 ("Evidence of Carnal Knowledge") says: "... carnal knowledge or unnatural carnal knowledge shall be deemed complete upon proof of the least degree of penetration".[26] In consequence, Section 104 "covers only persons engaged in same-sex male relationships and those in heterosexual relationships".[27] In a 2013 story published by MyJoyOnline, a local lawyer, John Ndebugri, argued against the common interpretation of Section 104 as prohibiting sex acts by same-sex participants. He also highlighted that lesbianism, despite being "homosexuality", does not involve penetration with a penis and therefore cannot be described as either sexual intercourse based on Section 99, and does not qualify as "unnatural carnal knowledge", based on Section 104 of the Criminal Code.[28]

Women are nevertheless arrested for same-sex sexual acts or related activities.[citation needed]

Application to heterosexuals

[edit]

The law also applies to acts of anal or oral sex engaged in by individuals of different sexes. The state, however, "does not concern itself with this" because it is their private life, prompting allegations of hypocrisy.[29]

Relationship and family policy

[edit]

Ghana does not recognise same-sex marriage or same-sex civil unions. A single person may be able to adopt a child if that person is a citizen of Ghana, except that a single male may adopt only if the child to be adopted is his biological child. Same-sex couples are not allowed to adopt children.[30]

Discrimination protections

[edit]

Section 12(2) of Chapter 5 of the Constitution of Ghana provides that, "Every person in Ghana, whatever his race, place of origin, political opinion, colour, religion, creed or gender shall be entitled to the fundamental human rights and freedoms of the individual contained in this Chapter but subject to respect for the rights and freedoms of others and for the public interest."[31]

Although there is no law against discrimination based on sexual orientation or gender identity, any person in Ghana who believes they has experienced discrimination on the basis of HIV status, gender identity or sexual orientation may report an incident through the Commission on Human Rights and Administrative Justice (CHRAJ) stigma and discrimination reporting portal.[32]

In 2013, the United States offered to help Ghana develop legislation to protect the rights of LGBTQ persons.[33]

Living conditions

[edit]

LGBT-identifying Ghanaians face a lot of discriminations in Ghanaian society. At the Kotoka International Airport, a sign states, "Ghana does not welcome paedophiles and sexual deviants."[34] While not explicitly referencing the LGBTQ community, Ghanaians associate sexual deviance with the LGBTQ community.[34] The situation for LGBTQ people deteriorated in 2021. In February, religious and political leaders forced an LGBTQ Centre to close in Accra. In May 2021, police arrested 21 people attending a human rights workshop in Ho city, Volta region. Later that same year, lawmakers proposed a bill containing extreme measures including prohibitions on any expression of non-binary gender or non-heterosexual identity. These could be liable to criminal penalties under the provisions. Human Rights Watch reported an increase in anti-LGBTQ rhetoric associated with the publicity surrounding the proposed laws, in a "climate in which discrimination and violence is already rife". As of June 2023, results of parliament's consideration of the bill were not yet known.[35][36]

According to a 19 August 2004 Afrol News report, Prince MacDonald‚ the leader of an organisation for gays, lesbians, bisexuals, and transsexuals in Ghana, commented that "there are lots and lots of people in our prison home who have been caught by this unfriendly law". He said that the "police beat and punish people who are found to be gays".[37]

Harassment and abuse

[edit]

On 21 July 2011, Paul Evans Aidoo, the Western Region Minister, ordered all gay people in the west of the country to be rounded up and arrested and called on landlords and tenants to inform on people they suspected of being gay.[38] Statements made by public leaders and officials have impact, and are often followed with violent acts towards the LGBTQ community.

Pearl, a 30-year old lesbian woman from Ghana, shares that Ghanaians take action into their own hands when dealing with the LGBTQ community. Pearl shares that in September 2009, she was taken to a conference room in her village, amongst 50 other villagers.[8] In this room, Pearl was repeatedly asked if she was lesbian, and when she stated that she was not, village members beat her.[8] Amongst these villagers was a young boy who wanted to burn her alive.[8]

Similar experiences are shared by other LGBTQ Ghanaians. It is viewed as shameful and as a disgrace for people to have family members that identify as LGBTQ. Emelia, a thirty-year-old woman, shared that when her father discovered that she was lesbian, he beat her with his fists and a broken beer bottle.[39] Similarly, Agnes, a 26-year-old, shared that when her father discovered her sexuality, he chased her out of her house with a machete, and threatened to murder her if she returned.[8] The type of violence LGBT-identifying peoples face in Ghana is found not only in community settings, but also in familiar settings, such as one's family.

Violent mob attacks directed against LGBTQ people occur in Ghana. In 2012, a birthday party was violently interrupted by a mob, who claimed the party was a same-sex wedding. The police refused to arrest the attackers, and arrested some of the victims. In 2013, a gay man was subject to a manhunt, after Muslim officials threatened to burn or bury him alive because he was gay. In 2015, a group of lesbian women were "shit-bombed" and "pelted with stones" because they were gay.[11]

On top of facing violence within their communities and homes, there are anti-gay vigilante groups that actively aim at discovering LGBTQ identifying peoples in their communities. A 10-person vigilante group had been monitoring a man, Ebenezer Okang, and one night visited his home to beat him, with the intentions of burning him alive.[40] When asked if he had reported the event, Okang shared that it is difficult to seek protection in such situations, given Ghana's anti-LGBTQ laws and the police attitudes.[40] According to Human Rights Watch, discrimination towards LGBTQ individuals is common in public and private, making it difficult for them to seek help.[40][8]

In a rare incident in April 2017, police in Accra arrested two men who had blackmailed, extorted and abused a gay man, and who had threatened to post nude pictures of him. The police arrested the men and cooperated with the victim in finding them.[41] Erasing 76 Crimes, an LGBTQ website, labeled the arrest a "rare exception" as police seldom intervene to protect LGBTQ people from violence, discrimination, and abuse.

Reports emerged in August 2018 of conversion therapy programmers run by religious leaders to "cure" LGBTQ people of their homosexuality.[9] There is no reliable evidence that sexual orientation can be changed, and medical bodies warn that conversion therapy practices are ineffective and potentially harmful.[8]

Police action

[edit]

Ghana's police force sometimes protects members of the LGBTQ community. For example, in the town of Tamale, they aided gay men who were being blackmailed.[8] On the other hand, police violence against LGBT-identifying individuals has been documented. One woman reported that, not only did her community members beat her when they discovered her sexuality, but she was also kicked in her mouth by a police officer.[8]

Ghana's anti-gay laws may legally require the police to persecute LGBTQ citizens. In 2016, a lesbian couple, accused of having a wedding, was arrested by the police.[42] Some LGBTQ groups, such as the Solace Initiative, provide LGBTQ citizens with human rights trained paralegals who can help defend them in court.[43][42]

2021 arrests

[edit]

On May 20, 2021, Ghanaian police in Ho, in the Volta region, assisted by security forces, raided and unlawfully arrested 21 people, including a technician, during a paralegal training workshop about how to document and report human rights violations against LGBTQ people. They were detained for 22 days, then released on bail, and charged with unlawful assembly, a misdemeanor. The case was later dismissed for lack of evidence of a crime.[44] The activists said that eight police officers, accompanied by three journalists, forced their way into the conference room, and physically assaulted some participants.

Human rights reports

[edit]

The U.S. Department of State's 2011 Human Rights Report found that,[45]

LGBT persons face widespread discrimination [in 2010], as well as police harassment and extortion attempts. Gay men in prison were often subjected to sexual and other physical abuse. In June 2010 ... more than 1,000 protesters in Takoradi, Western Region, participated in a peaceful rally against reports of gay and lesbian activities in their city. This was reportedly the first of such protest in the country. In May 2010 ... an HIV/AIDS training workshop was held in Takoradi for health- care workers. After the workshop, The Daily Graphic announced that 8,000 gay persons had been "registered" in the Western and Central Regions. However, experts in the field denied that there had been any such "registration". After the workshop ... there was significant negative reporting in the media about homosexuality. In a June 2010 interview with The Daily Graphic, the Western Region minister called on the government to take steps to combat homosexuality. He included the possibility of police raids on locales frequented by gay men and lesbians, efforts by community leaders to "wean young people" away from homosexuality, and a public condemnation by the government. However, no arrests of persons were made in connection with his comments by year's end, and he did not repeat his call. It was reported that four men who worked within the community of gay men were arrested in May 2010 in connection with an alleged sexual assault and were later charged with sodomy. The case was first brought to the Takoradi Circuit Court on 24 August; however, it had not been heard by year's end.

The U.S. Department of State's 2012 Human Rights Report found that,[46]

LGBT persons faced widespread discrimination, as well as police harassment and extortion attempts. Gay men in prison were often subjected to sexual and other physical abuse. In March a gang of men assaulted nine people they believed to be LGBT individuals in Jamestown, a neighborhood of Accra, forcing them from their homes and attacking them with canes and sticks. The victims filed a complaint with a legal human rights organization. They said their homes were burgled while they were chased out. No arrests had been made in the case by year's end. In May a peer educator employed by an NGO to instruct sexual health education workshops was assaulted by a group of boys at a school in the Volta Region. The assault occurred after they discovered he was carrying safe-sex presentation materials such as condoms, wooden sex organ replicas, lubricant, and pamphlets. The peer educator was detained by police but later released. The boys were not charged.

The United Nations Rapporteur's 2018 Human Rights Report found that,[7]

While Ghana is meeting democracy and development goals, a quarter of the population lives in poverty with LGBT-identifying individuals being most subjected to this type of poverty. Given their sexual orientation, it is difficult for them to find jobs. Additionally, since many families disown their LGBT family members, this can leave them homeless. The rapporteur recommended that Ghana repeal its legislation on adult consensual same-sexual activities, and that the government launch a public campaign to educate on the rights and legal and social services of those who are victims of sexual discrimination.

United Nations recommendations

[edit]

The United Nations Human Rights Committee in October 2012 completed a Universal Periodic Review of the human rights situation in Ghana. The following recommendations were made to Ghana (the countries that initiated the recommendation are listed in brackets):[47]

Ghana rejected all of these recommendations.[47]

Public opinion

[edit]

According to a 2017 poll carried out by International Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Trans and Intersex Association (ILGA), 60 percent of Ghanaians agreed that gay, lesbian and bisexual people should enjoy the same rights as straight people, while 30 percent disagreed. Additionally, 59 percent agreed that they should be protected from workplace discrimination. 51 percent of Ghanaians, however, said that people who are in same-sex relationships should be charged as criminals, while 34 percent disagreed. As for transgender people, 64 percent agreed that they should have the same rights, 62 percent believed they should be protected from employment discrimination and 55 percent believed they should be allowed to change their legal gender.[48]

According to the Afro-barometer, Ghana places amongst the twenty least tolerable countries.[6] When asked if they would care if they were neighbors to homosexual(s), only 11 per cent of respondents in Ghana reported that they would be fine with this.[6] The continental average for African countries is 21 per cent.

When compared to other minority groups, such as people of a different ethnicity, different religion, foreign workers, or people infected with HIV/AIDS, Ghanaian citizens still reported having the most unfavorable feelings towards those who identify as a part of the LGBTQ community.[49] With 89 percent of Ghanaians sharing that they strongly/somewhat dislike LGBTQ individuals, this makes them the most disliked group in the country of Ghana. Additionally, when examined as to who is being polled, all different demographics—those of a different age, education, religion, living style (rural or urban,) gender—reported having a dislike towards homosexuals of 80 percent or more.[49] However, when individuals are more in contact with those of an LGBTQ identity, they are prone to be more tolerant.[49]

The Director of Interfaith Diversity Network of West Africa (IDNOWA), Davis Mac-Iyalla has said in a public hearing for the far reaching Anti-LGBTQ bill proposed in Ghana that the passing of the Anti-LGBTQI bill into law will codify the spirit of mob action, violence and vigilantism that exist in many parts of the country.[50]

Nearly 90 percent of Ghanaians shared that they would report a daughter, relative, friend, or co-worker to the police if they knew that they were engaging in such behavior.[49] Additionally, 86 percent of Ghanaians stated they would support legislation to criminalise those who are in same-sex relationships.[49]

Comments by public officials

[edit]

Religious leaders and government officials view LGBTQ rights and advocacy as a new manifestation of Western colonialism.[51] Religious leaders have used passages from the Bible, such as Leviticus 18:22 and Leviticus 20:13, to justify why they condemn homosexuality.[51]

While serving as president of Ghana, the late John Evans Atta Mills vowed in 2011 not to legalise homosexuality despite UK Prime Minister David Cameron's threat to cut aid to Ghana because of its record on human rights for its gay population.[52] In February 2017, the Speaker of the Parliament, Aaron Mike Oquaye called for amending the laws of Ghana to ban homosexuality entirely.[53]

In November 2017, President Nana Akufo-Addo suggested that the legalisation of homosexuality in Ghana is inevitable and said he can foresee a change in the law.[54] Akufo-Addo, who grew up in England, said that LGBTQ rights will evolve in Ghana as they have in the United Kingdom, but affirmed that LGBTQ rights were not part of the government agenda at the moment. In response, LGBTQ activists announced they would hold a peaceful march in Accra in December.[55]

In August 2018, President Akufo-Addo stated that the Government of Ghana would not legalise same-sex marriage or decriminalise homosexuality.[56][57]

Many officials from government and church organizations are publicly against the LGBTQ community. In March 2020, the National Women's Organiser of the National Democratic Congress stated that homosexuals should be killed.[34] Many pastors speak out against the LGBTQ community, such as Kofi Tawiah, Head Pastor of the Osu Church of Christ, who called on Ghanaian Christians to violently attack LGBTQ people. In his statement, Tawiah also stated that homosexuality should be treated with capital punishment.[18]

The 2018 Human Rights Watch report noted that these types of comments made by government and public officials embolden homophobic acts of violence and discrimination towards the LGBTQ community.[8]

Activism

[edit]

LGBTQ activism had largely been anonymous in Ghana. However, in the year 1998, a young man named Cobbina MacDarling, who uses the pseudonym Prince Kweku MacDonald, became one of its voices. Prince works with the Gay and Lesbian Association of Ghana (GALAG) which was later transformed into a human rights organization known as the Centre for Popular Education and Human Rights (CEPEHRG). In recent years, there have been several grassroot LGBTQ groups which have come together to form a bigger movement under the name Coalition Against Homophobia, Transphobia and Biphobia in Ghana. These groups operate underground. There are a few LGBTQ groups in Ghana, most of whom operate secretly online. One such group is FOTHA-Ghana (Friends of the Heart Alliance - Ghana).[58] Members of the group operate through the dark web. To be seen supporting the views and interest of gays, lesbians and bisexuals can easily result in the attack or probable lynching of its members. One of the groups that is public in its advocacy efforts is the Gay and Lesbian Association of Ghana (GLAG). Some of their work involves demystifying issues with the HIV/AIDS crisis.[59] Despite Ghana having a low infection rate, the government's public campaign efforts on this health crisis typically present it as an issue for straight individuals.[59] Most gay men acknowledged that they understood that HIV can be transmitted sexually, but they were unaware that it can be transmitted through anal sex as well.[59] Ghana receives funding to combat HIV/AIDS, but they discount the health risk presented for LGBTQ individuals.[59] The Gay and Lesbian Association of Ghana, along with other LGBTQ advocacy groups, counteract the government's misinformation by specifically addressing it to the LGBTQ community, and by distributing and teaching of the usefulness of condoms and lube in preventing infection.[59] In January 2021, LGBT+ Rights Ghana, a Pro-LGBTQ rights organization opened its office in Accra amidst opposition from anti-LGBTQ rights groups.[60] The office was raided and closed by National Security in late February 2021 due to opposition from locals, religions institutions, and politicians.[61]

An issue with many activist groups is that their work is directly thwarted by the government. In September 2006, the BBC reported that the Ghanaian Government had banned an LGBTQ rights conference that was alleged to be taking place on September 4 at the Accra International Conference Centre.[12] Minister of Information and National Origin Kwamena Bartels said, "The government does not condone any such activity which violently offends the culture, morality ... and heritage of the entire people of Ghana."[62]

In March 2020, a historic conference was to be held in Accra. The Pan Africa ILGA was aiming to hold its first conference in West Africa to develop strategies to improve LGBTQ rights, increase awareness of LGBTQ issues, and to protect queer youth in Africa.[63] After Ghana faced backlash from religious organizations, President Nana Akufo-Addo banned the event, citing that it would be considered illegal for such an event to be held in Ghana, since they legally condemn and criminalise same-sex acts amongst adults.[63]

In June 2022, Ghanaian LGBTQ rights activists filed lawsuits against the government for the government's current stance on LGBTQ rights and over allegations of abuse.[64]

Anti-activism

[edit]

LGBTQ advocacy efforts are often opposed and made illegal by the government, but anti-LGBTQ groups are embraced. In October 2019, the World Congress of Families, a US-based anti-LGBTQ group, held a conference in Accra,[65] during which they encouraged Africans to adopt the practice of conversion therapy.[65] These types of conferences are not the only types of anti-LGBTQ sentiments being shared and embraced in Ghana. It is also documented that vigilante groups go after the LGBTQ community in Ghana. Such groups spy, blackmail, and plan attacks on LGBTQ citizens, or those they suspect to be LGBT. Safety Empire is one of these vigilante groups, and in August 2015, they beat a young man they suspected to be gay in a town near the capital.[8]

On an international front, many external entities, such as the United Nations and other individual countries, speak in favor of LGBTQ rights. Groups that are pro-LGBTQ rights view these international statements unfavorably, since they are often viewed as statements that do not support their advocacy or efforts, and only reignite the hate and discrimination towards LGBTQ individuals.[66] An example of this is former President Atta Mills vowing to never legalize homosexuality when urged by the United Kingdom.[66] This brought the issue of homosexuality back to a national front, but not in a favorable position.

2021 Anti-LGBTQ Bill

[edit]

A few months after the opening of the center, and the backlash from both the government and citizens that followed, a draft for a new bill was leaked on the internet in July 2021.[67] It is formally known as the "Promotion of Proper Human Sexual Rights and Ghanaian Family Values Bill".[36] As of September 2023, the bill is still advancing.[68]

MP's said the bill was drafted in response to the opening of Ghana's first LGBTQ+ community center in the capital, Accra, in January of 2021. However, police shut down the center after there had been many public protests, and pressure from religious groups, parties, and traditional leaders mainly in the Christianity faith.[69]

Under this bill, public displays of same-sex affection and crossdressing would be punished with jail,[24] it would be illegal to form LGBTQ organizations[70] or to disseminate information perceived as supporting LGBTQ people or rights,[24] certain kinds of healthcare would be banned,[24] and "conversion therapy" could be mandated.[70] It would be illegal even to identify as LGBTQ,[70] and advocacy for LGBTQ rights could result in 5–10 years in prison.[71] Same-sex marriage and adoption by same-sex couples would also be banned.[70]

The memorandum of the bill claims that Ghana, its government, the majority of its citizens, its culture, and history completely disapprove of the LGBTQ community.[70] The bill was presented before parliament in early August 2021.[72] Ghana's parliament is scheduled to reopen in late October 2021, after which a vote may be held.[24]

The Presbyterian Church of Ghana have been very vocal about their support for the new proposed Anti-LGBTQ+ bill that is currently before the Parliament of Ghana.[73]

In February 2023, the Attorney-General and Minister of Justice approved the bill and stated that both the bill and an accompanying report would be formally sent to the House for debate "hopefully before the end of March."[74]

In March 2023, Ghana's President Nana Akufo-Addo announced that "substantial elements" of the Anti-LGBTQ+ bill being considered by parliament "have been modified" following an intervention by the government.[75]

Summary table

[edit]
Same-sex sexual activity legal No (Penalty: up to 3 years in jail)[21][27]
Equal age of consent No
Anti-discrimination laws in employment only No
Anti-discrimination laws in the provision of goods and services No
Anti-discrimination laws in all other areas (Incl. indirect discrimination, hate speech) No
Same-sex marriages No
Recognition of same-sex couples No
Stepchild adoption by same-sex couples No
Joint adoption by same-sex couples No
LGBTQ people allowed to serve openly in the military No
Right to change legal gender No
Access to IVF for lesbians No
Conversion therapy made illegal No
Commercial surrogacy for gay male couples No
MSMs allowed to donate blood No

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Han, Enze (3 May 2018). British Colonialism and the Criminalization of Homosexuality. Routledge. p. 34. ISBN 9781351256186.
  2. ^
  3. ^ Darkwa, Jacqueline. "Ghana's anti-LGBTIQ bill: Activists are preparing to fight". openDemocracy. Retrieved 10 January 2023.
  4. ^ Zane, Damian. "Ghana Cardinal Peter Turkson: It's time to understand homosexuality". BBC News. Retrieved 27 November 2023.
  5. ^ a b "Ghana". Human Dignity Trust. Archived from the original on 14 February 2024. Retrieved 14 February 2024.
  6. ^ a b c Dionne, Kim Yi; Dulani, Boniface; Sambo, Gift (1 March 2016). "Good neighbours? Africans express high levels of tolerance for many, but not for all" (PDF). Afrobarometer. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2 June 2021. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  7. ^ a b "Statement on Visit to Ghana, by Professor Philip Alston, United Nations Special Rapporteur on extreme poverty and human rights". www.ohchr.org. Archived from the original on 14 May 2020. Retrieved 6 April 2020.
  8. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l
  9. ^ a b Morgan, Joe (22 August 2018). "400 people to be tortured for being gay at a 'therapy conference' in Ghana". Gay Star News. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  10. ^ Acquah, Francis; Botchwey, Charles Owusu-Aduomi; Adoma, Prince Owusu; Kumah, Emmanuel (7 July 2023). "Lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, and its legalisation in Africa: Insights from tertiary-level students in Ghana". PLOS ONE. 18 (7): e0287726. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1887726A. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0287726. PMC 10328334. PMID 37418361.
  11. ^ a b Human Rights Violations Against Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender (LGBT) People in Ghana: A Shadow Report (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 18 November 2017, retrieved 28 November 2017
  12. ^ a b "Ghanaian gay conference banned". BBC News. 1 September 2006. Archived from the original on 8 May 2019. Retrieved 3 May 2021.
  13. ^ "Ghana passes bill making identifying as LGBTQ+ illegal". 28 February 2024. Archived from the original on 28 February 2024. Retrieved 28 February 2024.
  14. ^ africanactivities (11 February 2021). "Ghana's Hidden History Explored for LGBTQ+ History Month". African Activities for Schools workshops, Events and Team Building. Archived from the original on 11 June 2021. Retrieved 22 January 2022.
  15. ^ Evaristo, Bernardine (8 March 2014). "The idea that African homosexuality was a colonial import is a myth". The Guardian. Archived from the original on 15 September 2018. Retrieved 14 September 2018.
  16. ^ Signorini, Italo (1973). "Agɔnwole agyalɛ : The marriage between two persons of the same sex among the Nzema of southwestern Ghana" (PDF). Journal des Africanistes. 43 (2): 221–234. doi:10.3406/jafr.1973.1713.[permanent dead link‍]
  17. ^ "Boy-Wives and Female Husbands". www.willsworld.org. Archived from the original on 14 October 2018. Retrieved 16 September 2018.
  18. ^ a b Amenga-Etego, Rosemary (4 December 2012). "Marriage without Sex? Same-Sex Marriages and Female Identity among the Nakani of Northern Ghana". Ghana Bulletin of Theology. 4: 12. Archived from the original on 16 October 2021. Retrieved 2 August 2023.
  19. ^ Upchurch, Charles J. (16 May 2014). "No, Homosexuality Isn't Some Western Invention". Advocate. Archived from the original on 20 July 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
  20. ^ "Ghana LGBTI Resources", Rights in Exile Programme – www.frlan.org, archived from the original on 27 April 2020, retrieved 20 May 2020
  21. ^ a b ILGA World; Lucas Ramon Mendos; Kellyn Botha; Rafael Carrano Lelis; Enrique López de la Peña; Ilia Savelev; Daron Tan (14 December 2020). State-Sponsored Homophobia report: 2020 global legislation overview update (PDF) (Report) (14th ed.). Geneva: ILGA. p. 117. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 December 2020.
  22. ^ Mendos, Lucas Ramón (2019). State-Sponsored Homophobia (PDF) (Report). Geneva: ILGA. p. 328. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 13 August 2019.
  23. ^ Unnatural Carnal Knowledge (PDF) (Section 104(1)(b); 104(2)). Parliament of Ghana. 2003. p. 63. Criminal Code, 1960 [ACT 29 Consolidated up to 1999. As amended by The Criminal Code (Amendment) Act, 2003 (ACT 646)]. Archived 18 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine

    "Unnatural Carnal Knowledge
    (1) Whoever has unnatural carnal knowledge—
     (a) [not relevant: concerns children under 16 years of age]
     (b) of any person of sixteen years or over with his consent is guilty of a misdemeanour; or
     (c) ... [not relevant: concerns bestiality]
    (2) Unnatural carnal knowledge is sexual intercourse with a person in an unnatural manner or with an animal."

  24. ^ a b c d e McKenzie, David; Princewill, Nimi (8 October 2021). "How a US group with links to the far-right may have influenced a crackdown on Ghana's LGBTQ community". CNN. Archived from the original on 21 June 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2021.
  25. ^ Human Dignity Trust (25 October 2015), Ghana Report (PDF), archived from the original (PDF) on 5 October 2018, retrieved 24 September 2016
  26. ^ Evidence of Carnal Knowledge (PDF) (Section 99). Parliament of Ghana. 2003. p. 62. Criminal Code, 1960 [ACT 29 Consolidated up to 1999. As amended by The Criminal Code (Amendment) Act, 2003 (ACT 646)]. Archived 18 October 2020 at the Wayback Machine
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