Jump to content

Deep diving

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Depth blackout)
Wreck diver Trevor Jackson using a re­breather with open circuit bail­out cylinders returning from a 600-foot (180 m) dive.

Deep diving is underwater diving to a depth beyond the norm accepted by the associated community. In some cases this is a prescribed limit established by an authority, while in others it is associated with a level of certification or training, and it may vary depending on whether the diving is recreational, technical or commercial. Nitrogen narcosis becomes a hazard below 30 metres (98 ft) and hypoxic breathing gas is required below 60 metres (200 ft) to lessen the risk of oxygen toxicity. At much greater depths, breathing gases become supercritical fluids, making diving with conventional equipment effectively impossible regardless of the physiological effects on the human body. Air, for example, becomes a supercritical fluid below about 400 metres (1,300 ft).

For some recreational diving agencies, "Deep diving", or "Deep diver" may be a certification awarded to divers that have been trained to dive to a specified depth range, generally deeper than 30 metres (98 ft). However, the Professional Association of Diving Instructors (PADI) defines anything from 18 to 30 metres (59 to 98 ft) as a "deep dive" in the context of recreational diving (other diving organisations vary), and considers deep diving a form of technical diving.[1][page needed] In technical diving, a depth below about 60 metres (200 ft) where hypoxic breathing gas becomes necessary to avoid oxygen toxicity may be considered a deep dive. In professional diving, a depth that requires special equipment, procedures, or advanced training may be considered a deep dive.

Deep diving can mean something else in the commercial diving field. For instance early experiments carried out by COMEX using heliox and trimix attained far greater depths than any recreational technical diving. One example being its "Janus 4" open-sea dive to 501 metres (1,640 ft) in 1977.[2][3]

The open-sea diving depth record was achieved in 1988 by a team of COMEX and French Navy divers who performed pipeline connection exercises at a depth of 534 metres (1,750 ft) in the Mediterranean Sea as part of the "Hydra 8" programme employing heliox and hydrox. The latter avoids the high-pressure nervous syndrome (HPNS) caused by helium and eases breathing due to its lower density.[2][4][5] These divers needed to breathe special gas mixtures because they were exposed to very high ambient pressure (more than 54 times atmospheric pressure).

An atmospheric diving suit (ADS) allows very deep dives of up to 700 metres (2,300 ft).[6] These suits are capable of withstanding the pressure at great depth permitting the diver to remain at normal atmospheric pressure. This eliminates the problems associated with breathing pressurised gases. In 2006 Chief Navy Diver Daniel Jackson set a record of 610 metres (2,000 ft) in an ADS.[7][8]

On 20 November 1992 COMEX's "Hydra 10" experiment simulated a dive in an onshore hyperbaric chamber with hydreliox. Théo Mavrostomos spent two hours at a simulated depth of 701 metres (2,300 ft).[2][9][10][11][12]

Depth ranges in underwater diving

[edit]

Assumed is the surface of the waterbody to be at or near sea level and underlies atmospheric pressure.

Not included are the differing ranges of freediving – without breathing during a dive.

Depth[nb 1] Comments
12 m (39 ft) Recreational diving limit for divers aged under 12 years old and EN 14153-1 / ISO 24801-1 level 1 (Supervised Diver) standard.[13]
18 m (60 ft) Recreational diving limit for Open Water Divers (e.g. PADI, NAUI).
20 m (66 ft) Recreational diving limit for EN 14153-2  ISO 24801-2 level 2 "Autonomous Diver" standard.[14]
21 m (69 ft) GUE Recreational Diver Level 1.[15]
30 m (98 ft) Recommended recreational diving limit for PADI Advanced Open Water divers[1][page needed] and GUE Recreational Diver Level 2.[15] Average depth at which nitrogen narcosis symptoms begin to be noticeable in adults.
40 m (130 ft) Depth limit for divers specified by Recreational Scuba Training Council[1][page needed] and GUE Recreational Diver Level 3.[15] Depth limit for a French level 2 diver accompanied by an instructor (level 4 diver), breathing air.[citation needed]
50 m (160 ft) Depth limit for divers breathing air specified by the British Sub-Aqua Club and Sub-Aqua Association.[16]
60 m (200 ft) Depth limit for a group of 2 to 3 French Level 3 recreational divers, breathing air.[17]
66 m (217 ft) Depth at which breathing compressed air exposes the diver to an oxygen partial pressure of 1.6 bar (23 psi). Greater depth is considered to expose the diver to an unacceptable risk of oxygen toxicity.[nb 2]
100 m (330 ft) One of the recommended technical diving limits. Maximum depth authorised for divers who have completed Trimix Diver certification with IANTD[18] or Advanced Trimix Diver certification with TDI.[19]
156 m (512 ft) Deepest scuba dive on compressed air (July 1999 in Puerto Galera, Philippines).[20]
200 m (660 ft) Limit for surface light penetration sufficient for plant growth in clear water, though some visibility may be possible farther down.[nb 3]
230 m (750 ft) First dive on a hydrox-rebreather (14 February 2023 in the Pearse Resurgence, New Zealand).[21]
290 m (950 ft) Deepest ocean dive on a rebreather (23 March 2014 in Gili Trawangan, Indonesia).[22]
312 m (1,024 ft) Deepest cave diving on a rebreather (6 January 2024 in Font Estramar, France).
316 m (1,037 ft) Deepest dive on a rebreather (10 October 2018 in Lake Garda, Italy).[23]
332 m (1,089 ft) Deepest scuba dive, deepest dive on trimix (18 September 2014 in Dahab, Egypt).[24][25]
534 m (1,752 ft) COMEX Hydra 8 dives on hydreliox (February 1988 offshore Marseille, France).[2][4][10]

Particular problems associated with deep dives

[edit]

Deep diving has more hazards and greater risk than basic open-water diving.[26] Nitrogen narcosis, the "narks" or "rapture of the deep", starts with feelings of euphoria and over-confidence but then leads to numbness and memory impairment similar to alcohol intoxication.[1][page needed] Decompression sickness, or the "bends", can happen if a diver ascends too rapidly, when excess inert gas leaves solution in the blood and tissues and forms bubbles. These bubbles produce mechanical and biochemical effects that lead to the condition. The onset of symptoms depends on the severity of the tissue gas loading and may develop during ascent in severe cases, but is frequently delayed until after reaching the surface.[1][page needed] Bone degeneration (dysbaric osteonecrosis) is caused by the bubbles forming inside the bones; most commonly the upper arm and the thighs. Deep diving involves a much greater danger of all of these, and presents the additional risk of oxygen toxicity, which may lead to convulsions underwater. Very deep diving using a helium-oxygen mixture (heliox) or a hydrogen-helium-oxygen mixture (hydreliox) carries the risk of high-pressure nervous syndrome and hydrogen narcosis. Coping with the physical and physiological stresses of deep diving requires good physical conditioning.[27]

Using open-circuit scuba equipment, consumption of breathing gas is proportional to ambient pressure – so at 50 metres (164 ft), where the pressure is 6 bars (87 psi), a diver breathes six times as much as on the surface (1 bar, 14.5 psi). Heavy physical exertion makes the diver breathe even more gas, and gas becomes denser requiring increased effort to breathe with depth, leading to increased risk of hypercapnia – an excess of carbon dioxide in the blood. The need to do decompression stops increases with depth. A diver at 6 metres (20 ft) may be able to dive for many hours without needing to do decompression stops. At depths greater than 40 metres (131 ft), a diver may have only a few minutes at the deepest part of the dive before decompression stops are needed. In the event of an emergency, the diver cannot make an immediate ascent to the surface without risking decompression sickness. All of these considerations result in the amount of breathing gas required for deep diving being much greater than for shallow open water diving. The diver needs a disciplined approach to planning and conducting dives to minimise these additional risks.

Many of these problems are avoided by the use of surface supplied breathing gas, closed diving bells, and saturation diving, at the cost of logistical complexity, reduced maneuverability of the diver, and greater expense.

Dealing with depth

[edit]
Technical divers preparing for a mixed-gas decompression dive. Note the backplate and wing setup with side mounted stage tanks containing EAN50 (left side) and pure oxygen (right side).

Both equipment and procedures can be adapted to deal with the problems of greater depth. Usually the two are combined, as the procedures must be adapted to suit the equipment, and in some cases the equipment is needed to facilitate the procedures.

Equipment adaptations for deeper diving

[edit]

The equipment used for deep diving depends on both the depth and the type of diving. Scuba is limited to equipment that can be carried by the diver or is easily deployed by the dive team, while surface-supplied diving equipment can be more extensive, and much of it stays above the water where it is operated by the diving support team.[citation needed]

Procedural adaptations for deeper diving

[edit]

Procedural adaptations for deep diving can be classified as those procedures for operating specialized equipment, and those that apply directly to the problems caused by exposure to high ambient pressures.

  • The most important procedure for dealing with physiological problems of breathing at high ambient pressures associated with deep diving is decompression. This is necessary to prevent inert gas bubble formation in the body tissues of the diver, which can cause severe injury. Decompression procedures have been derived for a large range of pressure exposures, using a large range of gas mixtures. These basically entail a slow and controlled reduction in pressure during ascent by using a restricted ascent rate and decompression stops, so that the inert gases dissolved in the tissues of the diver can be eliminated harmlessly during normal respiration.
  • Gas management procedures are necessary to ensure that the diver has access to suitable and sufficient breathing gas at all times during the dive, both for the planned dive profile and for any reasonably foreseeable contingency. Scuba gas management is logistically more complex than surface supply, as the diver must either carry all the gas, must follow a route where previously arranged gas supply depots have been set up (stage cylinders). or must rely on a team of support divers who will provide additional gas at pre-arranged signals or points on the planned dive. On very deep scuba dives or on occasions where long decompression times are planned, it is a common practice for support divers to meet the primary team at decompression stops to check if they need assistance, and these support divers will often carry extra gas supplies in case of need.
Closed circuit rebreather
Closed circuit re­breather (AP Diving "In­spi­ra­tion").
  • Rebreather diving can reduce the bulk of the gas supplies for long and deep scuba dives, at the cost of more complex equipment with more potential failure modes, requiring more demanding procedures and higher procedural task loading.
  • Surface supplied diving distributes the task loading between the divers and the support team, who remain in the relative safety and comfort of the surface control position. Gas supplies are limited only by what is available at the control position, and the diver only needs to carry sufficient bailout capacity to reach the nearest place of safety, which may be a diving bell or lockout submersible.
  • Saturation diving is a procedure used to reduce the high-risk decompression a diver is exposed to during a long series of deep underwater exposures. By keeping the diver under high pressure for the whole job, and only decompressing at the end of several days to weeks of underwater work, a single decompression can be done at a slower rate without adding much overall time to the job. During the saturation period, the diver lives in a pressurized environment at the surface, and is transported under pressure to the underwater work site in a closed diving bell.

Ultra-deep diving

[edit]

Mixed gas

[edit]

Amongst technical divers, there are divers who participate in ultra-deep diving on scuba below 200 metres (656 ft). This practice requires high levels of training, experience, discipline, fitness and surface support. Only twenty-six people are known to have ever dived to at least 240 metres (790 ft) on self-contained breathing apparatus recreationally.[20][28][nb 4][nb 5] The "Holy Grail" of deep scuba diving was the 300 metres (980 ft) mark, first achieved by John Bennett in 2001, and has only been achieved five times since.[citation needed] Due to the short bottom times and long decompression, scuba dives to these depths are generally only done for deep cave exploration or as record attempts.

The difficulties involved in ultra-deep diving are numerous. Although commercial and military divers[citation needed] often operate at those depths, or even deeper, they are surface supplied. All of the complexities of ultra-deep diving are magnified by the requirement of the diver to carry (or provide for) their own gas underwater. These lead to rapid descents and "bounce dives". This has led to extremely high mortality rates amongst those who practice ultra-deep diving.[citation needed] Notable ultra-deep diving fatalities include Sheck Exley, John Bennett, Dave Shaw and Guy Garman. Mark Ellyatt, Don Shirley and Pascal Bernabé were involved in serious incidents and were fortunate to survive their dives. Despite the extremely high mortality rate, the Guinness World Records continues to maintain a record for scuba diving[25] (although the record for deep diving with compressed air has not been updated since 1999, given the high accident rate). Amongst those who do survive significant health issues are reported. Mark Ellyatt is reported to have suffered permanent lung damage; Pascal Bernabé (who was injured on his dive when a light on his mask imploded[29]) and Nuno Gomes reported short to medium term hearing loss.[30][unreliable source?]

Serious issues that confront divers engaging in ultra-deep diving on self-contained breathing apparatus include:

Compression arthralgia
Deep aching pain in the knees, shoulders, fingers, back, hips, neck, and ribs caused by exposure to high ambient pressure at a relatively high rate of descent (i.e., in "bounce dives").
High-pressure nervous syndrome (HPNS)
HPNS, brought on by breathing helium under extreme pressure causes tremors, myoclonic jerking, somnolence, EEG changes,[31] visual disturbance, nausea, dizziness, and decreased mental performance. Symptoms of HPNS are exacerbated by rapid compression, a feature common to ultra-deep "bounce" dives.
Isobaric counterdiffusion (ICD)
ICD is the diffusion of one inert gas into body tissues while another inert gas is diffusing out. It is a complication that can occur during decompression, and that can result in the formation or growth of bubbles without changes in the environmental pressure.
Decompression algorithm
There are no reliable decompression algorithms tested for such depths on the assumption of an immediate surfacing. Almost all decompression methodology for such depths is based upon saturation, and calculates ascent times in days rather than hours. Accordingly, ultra-deep dives are almost always a partly experimental basis.[citation needed]

In addition, "ordinary" risks like size of gas reserves, hypothermia, dehydration and oxygen toxicity are compounded by extreme depth and exposure and long in-water decompression times. Some technical diving equipment is simply not designed for the greater pressures at these depths, and reports of key equipment (including submersible pressure gauges) imploding are not uncommon.[citation needed]

Verified scuba dives to at least 240 metres (790 ft)
Name Location T A Depth Year
Ahmed Gabr[24][32][33] Dahab, Egypt OW OC 332 m (1,090 ft) 2014
Nuno Gomes[28][34][35] Dahab, Egypt OW OC 318 m (1,040 ft) 2005
Jarek Macedoński[23] Lake Garda, Italy OW CCR 316 m (1,040 ft) 2018
Mark Ellyatt[36] Phuket Island, Thailand OW OC 313 m (1,030 ft) 2003
Xavier Méniscus[37] Font Estramar, France C CCR 312 m (1,024 ft) 2024
John Bennett[38][nb 6] Puerto Galera, Philippines OW OC 308 m (1,010 ft) 2001
Frédéric Swierczynski[39] Font Estramar, France C CCR 308 m (1,010 ft) 2023
Krzysztof Starnawski[40] Lake Garda, Italy OW CCR 303 m (994 ft) 2018
Will Goodman[22] Gili Trawangan, Indonesia OW CCR 290 m (951 ft) 2014
Xavier Méniscus[41] Font Estramar, France C CCR 286 m (938 ft) 2019
Nuno Gomes[28][42] Boesmansgat, South Africa C OC 283 m (928 ft) 1996
Krzysztof Starnawski[43] Dahab, Egypt OW CCR 283 m (928 ft) 2011
Jim Bowden[44] Zacatón, Mexico C OC 282 m (925 ft) 1994
Krzysztof Starnawski[45][46] Lake Viroit, Albania C CCR 278 m (912 ft) 2016
Han Ting GuangXi, China C CCR 277 m (909 ft) 2023
Gilberto de Oliveira[28][47] Lagoa Misteriosa, Brazil C OC 274 m (899 ft) 2002
Nuno Gomes[28] Dahab, Egypt OW OC 271 m (889 ft) 2004
David Shaw[28][48][nb 6] Boesmansgat, South Africa C DR 271 m (889 ft) 2004
Frédéric Swierczynski Mescla, France C CCR 267 m (876 ft) 2016
Pascal Bernabé[28] Corsica, France OW OC 266 m (873 ft) 2005
Sheck Exley[28][49][nb 6] Nacimiento del Mante, Mexico C OC 265 m (869 ft) 1989
Krzysztof Starnawski[50][51] Hranice Abyss, Czechia C CCR 265 m (869 ft) 2015
Sheck Exley[28][44][nb 6] Zacatón, Mexico C OC 264 m (866 ft) 1989
Luca Pedrali[52] Lake Garda, Italy OW CCR 264 m (866 ft) 2017
Sheck Exley[28][44][nb 6] Boesmansgat, South Africa C SCUBA 263 m (863 ft) 1993
Xavier Méniscus[53] Font Estramar, France C CCR 262 m (860 ft) 2015
Mark Ellyatt[citation needed] Phuket Island (?), Thailand OW OC 260 m (853 ft) 2003
Qian Chen[54] Daxing Spring, China C CCR 258 m (846 ft) 2023
John Bennett[38][nb 6] Puerto Galera, Philippines OW OC 254 m (833 ft) 2000
Michele Geraci[55] Bordighera, Italy OW OC 253 m (830 ft) 2014
Jordi Yherla[56] Font Estramar, France C CCR 253 m (830 ft) 2014
Nuno Gomes[28] Boesmansgat, South Africa C OC 252 m (827 ft) 1994
Don Shirley[57] Boesmansgat, South Africa C CCR 250 m (820 ft) 2005
Wacław Lejko[58][59][nb 6] Lake Garda, Italy OW OC 249 m (817 ft) 2017
Xavier Méniscus[60] Font Estramar, France C CCR 248 m (814 ft) 2013
Karen van den Oever[61] Boesmansgat, South Africa C OC 246 m (807 ft) 2022
Xavier Méniscus Goul de la Tannerie, France C CCR 246 m (807 ft) 2023
C.J. Brossett[62] Gulf of Mexico OW OC 245 m (804 ft) 2019
Richard Harris, Craig Challen[63] Pearse Resurgence, New Zealand C CCR 245 m (804 ft) 2020
Frédéric Swierczynski[64][65] Red Lake, Croatia C CCR 245 m (804 ft) 2017
Guy Garman[66][nb 6] St. Croix, U.S. Virgin Islands OW OC 244 m (800 ft) 2015
Dariusz Wilamowski[67] Lake Garda, Italy OW OC 243 m (797 ft) 2012
Xavier Méniscus Goul de la Tannerie, France C CCR 243 m (797 ft) 2019
Alexandre Fox Goul de la Tannerie, France C CCR 242 m (794 ft) 2017
Jim Bowden[68] Zacatón, Mexico C OC 240 m (800 ft) 1993
Xavier Méniscus Goul de la Tannerie, France C CCR 240 m (787 ft) 2014
Pascal Bernabé[69] Fontaine de Vaucluse, France C OC 240 m (787 ft) 1997

Air

[edit]

A severe risk in ultra-deep air diving is deep water blackout, or depth blackout, a loss of consciousness at depths below 50 metres (160 ft) with no clear primary cause, associated with nitrogen narcosis, a neurological impairment with anaesthetic effects caused by high partial pressure of nitrogen dissolved in nerve tissue, and possibly acute oxygen toxicity.[70] The term is not in widespread use at present, as where the actual cause of blackout is known, a more specific term is preferred. The depth at which deep water blackout occurs is extremely variable and unpredictable.[71] Before the popular availability of trimix, attempts were made to set world record depths using air. The extreme risk of both narcosis and oxygen toxicity in the divers contributed to a high fatality rate in those attempting records. In his book, Deep Diving, Bret Gilliam chronicles the various fatal attempts to set records as well as the smaller number of successes.[72] From the comparatively few who survived extremely deep air dives:

Deep air dives
Depth[nb 7] Year Name Location E Comment
94 m (308 ft) 1947 Frédéric Dumas[72] Mediterranean Sea OW A member of the GRS (Groupement de Recherches Sous-marines, Underwater Research Group headed by Jacques Cousteau).
100 m (330 ft) 1957 Eduard Admetlla[73] Isla de Las Palomas OW Head of the Underwater Section of the «Submarine Research and Recovery Centre»
102 m (335 ft) 1969 Frank Salt[72] Chinhoyi Caves C
106 msw (345 fsw) 1988 Marty Dunwoody[72] Bimini OW Women's deep dive record
107 msw (350 fsw) 1961 Hal Watts[72] Florida OW
109 msw (355 fsw) 1961 Jean Clarke Samazen[72] Florida OW
110 msw (360 fsw) 1965 Tom Mount, Frank Martz[72] Florida OW
120 msw (390 fsw) 1965 Hal Watts, A.J. Muns[72] Florida OW
126 m (415 ft) 1970 Hal Watts[72] Mystery Sink C
131 m (430 ft) 1959 Ennio Falco, Alberto Novelli, Cesare Olgiai Gulf of Naples OW Employing the Pirelli Explorer, "Maior" model, a two-stage regulator (patented by Novelli and Buggiani) equipped with a lung bag and soda lime filter for CO2 removal, in order to reuse the exhaled air. Only two of the three divers managed to reach the depth in a certified way: Novelli, the organizer of the event and inventor of the regulator, forgot to punch the plate for proving the descent.[74]
134 msw (437 fsw) 1968 Neal Watson, John Gruener[72][75] Bimini OW
135 msw (440 fsw) 1971 Ann Gunderson[72][nb 6] Bahamas OW Women's deep dive record
139 msw (452 fsw) 1990 Bret Gilliam[72] Roatán OW Unusually, Gilliam remained largely functional at depth and was able to complete basic maths problems and answer simple questions written on a slate by his crew beforehand.
142 m (466 ft) 1971 Sheck Exley[76][nb 6] Andros Island OW Exley was only supposed to go down to 91 m (299 ft) in his capacity as a safety diver (although he had practised several dives to 120 m (390 ft) in preparation), but descended to search for the dive team after they failed to return on schedule. Exley almost made it to the divers, but was forced to turn back due to heavy narcosis and nearly blacking out.
146 msw (475 fsw) 1993 Bret Gilliam[72] EL Salvador OW Again, Gilliam reported no effects from narcosis or oxygen toxicity.
150 msw (490 fsw) 1994 Dan Manion[72] Nassau OW 155 msw (506 fsw) claimed, but not officially recognised.[77] Manion reported he was almost completely incapacitated by narcosis and has no recollection of time at depth.[28]
156 m (512 ft) 1999 Mark Andrews[20] Puerto Galera, Philippines OW At the maximum depth of 156.4 metres (513 ft) Andrews lost consciousness, his deep support diver John Bennett (on mixed gas), inflated his BC to initiate his ascent. While ascending he regained consciousness.

E Environment: OW = Open water, C = Cave

In deference to the high accident rate, the Guinness World Records have ceased to publish records for deep air dives, after Manion's dive.[28]

Fatalities during depth record attempts

[edit]
  • Maurice Fargues, a member of the GRS (Groupement de Recherches Sous-marines, Underwater Research Group headed by Jacques Cousteau), died in 1947 after losing consciousness at depth in an experiment to see how deep a scuba diver could go. He reached 120 m (394 ft) before failing to return line signals. He became the first diver to perish using an Aqua-Lung.[78][79][80]
  • Hope Root died on 3 December 1953 off the coast of Miami Beach trying set a deep diving record of 125 m (410 ft) with an Aqua-Lung; he passed 152 m (500 ft) and was not seen again.[81]
  • Archie Forfar and Ann Gunderson died on 11 December 1971 off the coast of Andros Island, while attempting to dive to 146 m (479 ft), which would have been the world record at the time. Their third team member, Jim Lockwood, only survived due to his use of a safety weight that dropped when he lost consciousness at 122 m (400 ft), causing him to start an uncontrolled ascent before being intercepted by a safety diver at a depth of around 91 m (300 ft). Sheck Exley, who was acting as another safety diver at 300 feet, inadvertently managed to set the depth record when he descended towards Forfar and Gunderson, who were both still alive at the 480-foot level, although completely incapacitated by narcosis. Exley was forced to give up his attempt at around 142 m (465 ft) when the narcosis very nearly overcame him as well. The bodies of Forfar and Gunderson were never recovered.[28]
  • Sheck Exley died in 1994 at 268 m (879 ft) in an attempt to reach the bottom of Zacatón in a dive that would have extended his own world record (at the time) for deep diving.[44]
  • Dave Shaw died in 2005 in an attempt at the deepest ever body recovery and deepest ever dive on a rebreather at 270 m (886 ft).[82][83]
  • Brigitte Lenoir, planning to attempt the deepest dive ever made by a woman with a rebreather to 230 m (750 ft), died on 14 May 2010 in Dahab while ascending from a training dive at 147 m (482 ft).[84]
  • Guy Garman died on 15 August 2015 in an unsuccessful attempt to dive to 370 m (1,200 ft).[85][86] The Virgin Island Police Department confirmed that Guy Garman's body was recovered on 18 August 2015.[87]
  • Theodora Balabanova died at Toroneos Bay, Greece, in September 2017 attempting to break the women's deep dive record with 231 m (758 ft). She did not complete the decompression stops and surfaced too early.[88]
  • Wacław Lejko attempting 275 m (902 ft) in Lake Garda, died in September 2017. His body was recovered with an ROV at 230 m (750 ft).[88]
  • Adam Krzysztof Pawlik, attempting to break the deep-diving world record of 316 m (1,037 ft) by Jarek Macedoński in Lake Garda, died on 13 October 2018. His body was located at 284 m (932 ft).[89]
  • Sebastian Marczewski was attempting to break the deep-diving world record going below 333 m (1,093 ft) in Lake Garda. He died on 6 July 2019 at 150 m (490 ft).[90]
  • Han Ting, having renewed his own 234 m (768 ft) deepest Asian cave dive record to 277 m (909 ft) in April 2023 in Tianchuang, planned to set a world record for deepest cave dive there, aiming at 300 m (980 ft) on 12 October 2023.[91] He failed to return from a preparatory dive on 7 October.[91][92] His body was recovered by an ROV on 25 October 2023.[92]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e Brylske, A. (2006). Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving, 3rd edition. Santa Ana, CA: PADI. ISBN 1-878663-01-1.
  2. ^ a b c d "«1965-2000» 36 years of deep diving and submarine techniques development" (PDF). Hyperbaric Experimental Centre. COMEX. Archived from the original on 2007-10-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  3. ^ Gardette, B.; Ciesielski, T.; Fructus, X.; Gortan, C.; Imbert, J.P. (1987-11-10). Hydra 8: Pre-commercial Hydrogen Diving Project. 'SUBTECH' 87-Adapting to Change. Aberdeen, UK. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  4. ^ a b "Extreme Environment Engineering Departement Hyperbaric Experimental Centre - History". Archived from the original on 2008-10-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  5. ^ Ciesielski, T.; Imbert, J-P. (1989-05-01). Hydrogen Offshore Diving to a Depth of 530 m: Hydra VIII. Offshore Technology. Houston, TX. doi:10.4043/6073-MS.
  6. ^ "WASP Specifications" (PDF). Oceaneering International, Inc. Archived from the original on 2014-12-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  7. ^ Logico, Mark G. (2006-08-07). "Navy Diver Sets Record with 2,000 foot Dive". Navy News. Archived from the original on 2011-08-21.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  8. ^ Guinness World Records. "Deepest dive using an atmospheric diving suit". Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  9. ^ Gardette B, Massimelli JY, Comet M, Gortan C, Delauze HG (1993). HYDRA 10: A 701 MSW ONSHORE RECORD DIVE USING 'HYDRELIOX' (PDF). XIXth Annual Meeting of EUPS. Trondheim, Norway: Comex S.A. Archived from the original on 2015-12-08.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  10. ^ a b "Technology: Dry run for deepest dive". New Scientist. 1992-11-28. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  11. ^ Lafay V, Barthelemy P, Comet B, Frances Y, Jammes Y (1995). "ECG changes during the experimental human dive HYDRA 10 (71 atm/7,200 kPa)". Undersea and Hyperbaric Medicine. 22 (1): 51–60. PMID 7742710. Archived from the original on 2009-01-16.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  12. ^ Guinness World Records. "Deepest "dive" in a hyperbaric chamber". Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  13. ^ "EN 14153-1 / ISO 24801-1 Recreational diving services – Safety related minimum requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers – Part 1: Level 1 "Supervised Diver"". EUF Certification International. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  14. ^ "EN 14153-2 / ISO 24801-2 Recreational diving services – Safety related minimum requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers – Part 2: Level 2 "Autonomous Diver"". EUF Certification International. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  15. ^ a b c Berglund, Jesper (2009). Beginning With the End in Mind – the Fundamentals of Recreational Diving (1 ed.). Stockholm, Sweden: Global Underwater Explorers.
  16. ^ Cole, Bob (March 2008). The SAA BUhlmann DeeP-Stop System Handbook. Sub-Aqua Association. ISBN 978-0-9532904-8-2.
  17. ^ "Code du sport: Sous-section 2: Dispositions relatives aux établissements organisant la pratique de la plongée subaquatique à l'air" [Sport code: Sub-section 2: Provisions relating to establishments organising the practice of underwater air diving]. Légifrance (in French). 2012-01-05. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  18. ^ "Trimix Diver". IANTD. 2021-02-24. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  19. ^ "TDI Advanced Trimix Diver". www.tdisdi.com. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  20. ^ a b c Gomes, Nuno (2009-10-07). "A Brief History of Deep Technical Diving in the last 20 Years". Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  21. ^ Stewart, Ashley (2023-05-13). "N=1: The Inside Story of the First-Ever Hydrogen CCR Dive". Global Underwater Explorers. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  22. ^ a b "British diver breaks rebreather World Record for depth – to 290m". The Scuba News. 2004-04-03. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
  23. ^ a b "Welt-Tiefenrekord für CCR und Scooter" [World depth record for CCR and Scooter] (in German). Seacraft. 7 July 2020. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  24. ^ a b Liang, John (19 September 2014). "Ahmed Gabr Breaks Scuba Diving World Record". DeeperBlue.com. Retrieved 19 September 2014.
  25. ^ a b Guinness World Records. "Deepest scuba dive (male)". Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  26. ^ Egstrom, GH (2006). Lang, MA; Smith, NE (eds.). Historic Perspective: Scientific Deep Diving and the Management of the Risk. Advanced Scientific Diving Workshop. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2008-09-21.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  27. ^ Southerland, DG (2006). Lang, MA; Smith, NE (eds.). Medical Fitness at 300 FSW. Advanced Scientific Diving Workshop. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. Archived from the original on 2008-08-20.{{cite conference}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  28. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Gomes, Nuno (2014). "Beyond Blue Autobiography" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-06-18.
  29. ^ "Profile - Pascal Bernabé" (PDF). X-Ray Mag. Retrieved 8 September 2015.
  30. ^ "Doc Deep plans 1200' Dive". scubaboard.com. 13 July 2015. Retrieved 18 June 2023.
  31. ^ Brauer, R.W.; Dimov, S.; Fructus, X.; Gosset, A.; Naquet, R. (1969). "Syndrome neurologique et electrographique des hautes pressions" [Neurologic and encephalographic syndrome of hyperbarism]. Revue Neurologique. 121 (3). Paris: 264–5. PMID 5378824.
  32. ^ Janela, Mike (2014-09-22). "Ahmed Gabr breaks record for deepest SCUBA dive at more than 1,000 feet". Guinness World Records. Retrieved 2023-06-18.
  33. ^ Guan Sang, Lua; Ismail, Nora (2021-02-19). "No Foul Play – Ahmed Gabr is legitimately still the Guinness World Records holder for the Deepest Scuba Dive (Male)". Underwater360. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  34. ^ Lowndes, Gareth J. (July 2005). "World Record Sea Dive". Archived from the original on 2018-09-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  35. ^ "Nuno Gomes". Sterling divers. Archived from the original on 2018-12-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  36. ^ Ellyatt, Mark. "A dive to 313m…successfully". Inspired-Training. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
  37. ^ "Xavier Meniscus stabilisce il nuovo straordinario record mondiale di immersione in grotta alla Font Estramar : -312,10 mètres". scintilena (in Italian). 2024-01-07. Retrieved 2024-01-07.
  38. ^ a b "A Journey To 308 Metres". Tech Dive Academy. Archived from the original on 2008-07-20.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  39. ^ Swierczynski, Frédéric; Le Guen, Patrick (2023-11-16). "Record du monde de plongée souterraine à Font Estramar !" (in French). Retrieved 2023-11-28.
  40. ^ Jędrzejowski, Rafał (2018-09-13). "Krzysztof Starnawski z rekordem świata CCR!" [Krzysztof Starnawski with a CCR world record!] (in Polish). DIVERS24. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  41. ^ Gallanth, Jeffrey (2020-03-23). "Deepest cave dive (Men)". Almanac Book of Records. Archived from the original on January 14, 2019.
  42. ^ Farr, Martyn. "Guinness World Record". Retrieved 2023-06-17. In: The Darkness Beckons, 2017 (ISBN 978-1910240748)
  43. ^ "Egipt. Krzysztof Starnawski zanurkował na... 283 metry!" [Egypt. Krzysztof Starnawski dived to... 283 metres!] (in Polish). 2011-12-05. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  44. ^ a b c d Gilliam, Bret (2013). "ZACATON: The tragic death of Sheck Exley". Tech Diving Magazine. No. 12. pp. 16–20. Archived from the original on 2013-12-29.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  45. ^ Starnawski, Krzysztof (2016-07-24). 2016 / Albania / exploration in Viroit cave / 278m deep. Vimeo (Video). Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  46. ^ "Polak pobił rekord świata w nurkowaniu jaskiniowym. Krzysztof Starnawski zszedł na 278 metrów" [Pole breaks world record in cave diving. Krzysztof Starnawski descended to 278 metres] (in Polish). National Geographic Polska. 2016-07-25. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  47. ^ Menezes de Oliveira, Gilberto (2001). "Lagoa Misteriosa". In Auler, Augusto; Rubbioli, Ezio; Brandi, Roberto (eds.). As Grandes Cavernas do Brasil (in Brazilian Portuguese). Grupo Bambuí de Pesquisas Espeleológicas. ISBN 978-85-902206-1-9. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  48. ^ Shaw, Dave (2005-04-13). "World Record Rebreather Dive Oct 28th 2004" (PDF). Retrieved 2023-06-19.
  49. ^ "A Page Out of History: Sheck Exley's 1989 Mante Table (867 ft/265m)". InDepth. GUE. 2021-05-01. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  50. ^ Pałahicki, Maciej (2015-08-22). "Krzysztof Starnawski ustanowił nowy rekord Polski w nurkowaniu jaskiniowym" [Krzysztof Starnawski sets new Polish record in cave diving]. RMF24 (in Polish). Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  51. ^ Synnott, Mark (2015). "Have These Divers Found the World's Deepest Underwater Cave?". National Geographic. Archived from the original on 2017-01-29.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  52. ^ "Luca Pedrali re degli abissi, immersione record a -264,8" [Luca Pedrali king of the abyss, record dive at -264.8]. GardaPost (in Italian). 2017-09-17. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  53. ^ Goutorbe, Christian (2015-07-15). "Record du monde de plongée dans les Corbières" [World diving record in the Corbières]. La Dépêche (in French). Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  54. ^ Indepth (2023-03-06). "in-depth" [Homegrown China Tech]. In depth. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
  55. ^ Geraci, Michele (2016-01-24). "An interview with Michele Geraci". AlertDiver (Interview). Interviewed by Claudio Di Manao. DAN. Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  56. ^ Yherla, Jordi (July 2015). "La Font d'Estramar -253 m de profunditat" [Spring of Estramar -253 m of depth]. Bibliografia Espeleologia (in Spanish). Retrieved 2023-06-22.
  57. ^ Berger, Sebastian (2008-03-06). "Ghosts of the abyss: the story of Don Shirley and Dave Shaw". The Telegraph. London. Retrieved 2023-06-17.
  58. ^ Dydymska, Basia (4 August 2017). "Rekord Polski w nurkowaniu służb mundurowych" [Polish uniformed services diving record] (in Polish).
  59. ^ Rapa, Rafal. REKORD SŁUŻB MUNDUROWYCH WACŁAW LEJKO 249 METRÓW [UNIFORMED SERVICES RECORD WACŁAW LEJKO 249 METRES]. YouTube (Video) (in Polish). Archived from the original on 2021-11-17.{{cite AV media}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  60. ^ Méniscus, Xavier (24 September 2013). "Exploration de la résurgence de Font Estramar à -248m caméra Gopro" [Exploring the Font Estramar resurgence at -248m with a Gopro camera]. YouTube (in French). Retrieved 29 August 2014.
  61. ^ Guinness World Records. "Deepest scuba dive (female)". Retrieved 2023-07-01.
  62. ^ "Dive Files". The Hydrox Files. 2019. Archived from the original on 2019-04-30.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  63. ^ Harris, Richard (2020). "The Pearce Resurgence". Explorations. Seacraft. Retrieved 2023-06-18.
  64. ^ Vrsalović, Adrijana; Andrić, Ivo; Bonacci, Ognjen (June 2022). Recession processes in Red Lake, Imotski. The European Karst conference (EUROKARST 2022). Málaga, Spain.
  65. ^ admin (2022-09-28). "Crveno jezero: Biološka istraživanja i jedinstven živi svijet" [Red Lake: biological research and unique living world] (in Croatian). Retrieved 2023-07-14.
  66. ^ Kieren, Jon (2023-02-01). "I Trained "Doc Deep"". InDepth. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  67. ^ Wilamowski, Dariusz. "The result – 20 September 2012 – Summary". Archived from the original on 2013-07-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  68. ^ Bowden, Jim (1998-03-07). "Thoughts on Diving To Great Depths". GUE. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  69. ^ Menduno, Michael; Gomes, Nuno (30 March 2021). "Diving Beyond 250 Meters: The Deepest Cave Dives Today Compared to the Nineties". GUE. Retrieved 2023-06-20.
  70. ^ Exley, Sheck (1986). Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival (PDF) (5th ed.). Lake City, Florida: National Speleological Society Cave Diving Section.
  71. ^ Eliott, David (1996). "Deep water blackout" (PDF). SPUMS Journal. 26 (3): 205–208. Archived from the original on 2012-09-26.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  72. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n Gilliam, Bret; Webb, Darren; von Maier, Robert (25 January 1995). "1: History of Deep Diving". Deep Diving, an advanced guide to physiology, procedures and systems (2nd revised ed.). San Diego, CA.: Watersport publishing. ISBN 978-0-922769-31-5. Retrieved 19 November 2009.
  73. ^ Vidal Sola, Clemente (1957-10-03). "España conquista la marca mundial de profundidad con escafandra autonoma" [Spain sets world record for scuba diving depths]. La Vanguardia Espanola (in Spanish). p. 20. Archived from the original on 2016-10-18.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  74. ^ Falangola, Renata (1959). "Il nuovo record mondiale di profondità. 130 metri... ma Novelli non lascia il segno" [The new world record for depth. 130 metres... but Novelli doesn't leave a mark]. Mondo Sommerso (in Italian). Vol. 3. pp. 1–3. Retrieved 2023-05-25. About Pirelli Explorer, Patent of Novelli and Buggiani.
  75. ^ "Neal Watson". International Scuba Dive Hall of Fame. Cayman Islands Department of Tourism. 2023. Retrieved 2023-07-02.
  76. ^ Exley, Sheck (2009). Caverns Measureless To Man. Cave Books. ISBN 978-0-939748-25-9.
  77. ^ The record is not officially recognised; Marion's second dive computer registered a depth of 150 msw (490 fsw). See generally Deep Diving by Bret Gilliam, ISBN 0-922769-31-1, at pages 35 and following.[1]
  78. ^ Matsen, Brad (2009). Jacques Cousteau: The Sea King. New York: Pantheon Books. pp. 73, 76–79, 85. ISBN 978-0-375-42413-7.
  79. ^ Cousteau, J. Y.; Dumas, Frédéric (1953). The Silent World. New York: Harper & Brothers Publishers. LCCN 52-5431.
  80. ^ Ecott, Tim (2001). Neutral Buoyancy: Adventures in a Liquid World. New York: Atlantic Monthly Press. pp. 124–125. ISBN 0-87113-794-1. LCCN 2001018840.
  81. ^ "Diver lost After 500 Ft. Descent". The Decatur Daily Review. Decatur, IL. 1953-12-04. p. 1. Retrieved 2023-06-25.
  82. ^ Mitchell SJ, Cronjé FJ, Meintjes WA, Britz HC (February 2007). "Fatal respiratory failure during a "technical" rebreather dive at extreme pressure". Aviat Space Environ Med. 78 (2): 81–6. PMID 17310877. Retrieved 15 June 2008.
  83. ^ "The Last Dive of David Shaw". YouTube. Archived from the original on 2007-02-25.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  84. ^ Jeffrey, Gallant (2017-08-26). "Deepest rebreather dive [CCR – Freshwater – Women]". Diving Almanac. Archived from the original on 2019-04-26.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  85. ^ Dumas, Daisy (18 August 2015). "'Doc Deep' Guy Garman dies in attempt to break world record scuba dive". The Sydney Morning Herald. Fairfax Media. Retrieved 18 August 2015.
  86. ^ Staff (16 August 2015). "St. Croix's 'Dr. Deep' Guy Garman Dies in World Record Attempt". St Croix Source. St Croix, Virgin Islands.: V.I. Source Publications, Inc. Archived from the original on 2015-08-19. Retrieved 18 August 2015.{{cite news}}: CS1 maint: unfit URL (link)
  87. ^ "Searchers find body of former Maryville Dr. killed in diving accident". WBIR.COM. Retrieved 19 August 2015.[permanent dead link]
  88. ^ a b Helmy, Sam (27 September 2017). "Tragedy Strikes Multiple Scuba Record Attempts". www.deeperblue.com. Retrieved 26 July 2019.
  89. ^ "Body of missing Polish diver found in Italy". TVPWorld. 2018-10-18. Archived from the original on 2023-06-22. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  90. ^ "Afghanistan veteran dies attempting to break deep diving record". TVPWorld. Warsaw. 2019-07-08. Archived from the original on 2023-06-21. Retrieved 2023-06-21.
  91. ^ a b Evans, Mark (2023-10-26). "Body of Chinese cave diver Han Ting recovered". Scuba Diver Mag. Retrieved 2024-07-22.
  92. ^ a b Weinman, Steve (2023-10-27). "Body found in search for Chinese cave-diver". Divernet. Retrieved 2024-07-22.

Footnotes

[edit]
  1. ^ All depths specified for sea water. Fractionally deeper depths may apply in relation to freshwater due to its lower density.
  2. ^ Oxygen toxicity depends upon a combination of partial pressure and time of exposure, individual physiology, and other factors not fully understood. NOAA recommends that divers do not expose themselves to breathing oxygen at greater than 1.6 bar pO2, which occurs at 66 metres (217 ft) when breathing air.
  3. ^ Assuming crystal clear water; surface light may disappear completely at much shallower depths in murky conditions. Minimal visibility is still possible far deeper. Deep sea explorer William Beebe reported seeing blueness, not blackness, at 1400 feet (424 metres). "I peered down and again I felt the old longing to go farther, although it looked like the black pit-mouth of hell itself—yet still showed blue." (William Beebe, "A Round Trip to Davey Jones's Locker", The National Geographic Magazine, June 1931, p. 660.)
  4. ^ Statistics exclude military divers (classified), and commercial divers (commercial diving to those depths on scuba is not permitted by occupational health and safety legislation). In 1989, the US Navy Experimental Diving Unit published a paper that included a section on results from tests on the use of rebreathers at 850 ft (259 m).
  5. ^ In 2007 a Turkish Navy[clarification needed] diver dived with a closed-circuit rebreather to a depth of 998 feet (304 m) off the coast of Cyprus, but that dive has not been independently verified. His dive was aborted due to equipment failure. It was a Turkish Navy experimental dive.[citation needed]
  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Subsequently died during diving accident.
  7. ^ As given in the references. Metre sea water and feet sea water, as well as metre/feet fresh water are actually units of pressure. A conversion to the true depth would require information about the water's density (dependent on temperature and – if applicable – salinity). Depth in metres and feet if measured by a shot line.

Further reading

[edit]
  • Gilliam, Bret (1995). Deep Diving: An Advanced Guide to Physiology, Procedures & Systems (2nd ed.). Watersports Books. ISBN 0-922769-31-1.
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deep_diving&oldid=1251046080#Air"