Jump to content

Alcohol-related crime

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Share of crimes which are alcohol-related

Alcohol-related crime refers to criminal activities that involve alcohol use as well as violations of regulations covering the sale or use of alcohol; in other words, activities violating the alcohol laws.[1][2] Underage drinking and drunk driving are the most prevalent alcohol-specific offenses in the United States[1] and a major problem in many, if not most, countries worldwide.[3][4][5] Similarly, arrests for alcohol-related crimes constitute a high proportion of all arrests made by police in the U.S. and elsewhere.[6]

Crime perpetrators are much more likely to be intoxicated than crime victims. Alcohol availability and consumption rates and alcohol rates are positively associated with nuisance, loitering, panhandling, and disorderly conduct in open spaces; domestic violence; as well as violent crimes, though specifics differ between particular countries and cultures.[1] Research found that factors that increase the likelihood of alcohol-related violence include difficult temperament, hyperactivity, hostile beliefs, history of family violence, poor school performance, delinquent peers, criminogenic beliefs about alcohol's effects, impulsivity, and antisocial personality disorder.[1]

In the early 2000s, the monetary cost of alcohol-related crime in the United States alone has been estimated at over $205 billion, twice the economic cost of all other drug-related crimes.[7] In a similar period in the United Kingdom, the cost of crime and its antisocial effects was estimated at £7.3 billion.[8] Another estimate for the UK for yearly cost of alcohol-related crime suggested double that estimate, at between £8 and 13 billion.[9] Risky patterns of drinking are particularly problematic in and around Russia, Mexico and some parts of Africa.[10]

The relation between alcohol and violence is not yet fully understood, as its impact on different individual varies. While alcohol use correlates positively with crimes and violence, there is no simple, causal and direct relationship. Studies and theories of alcohol abuse suggest, among others, that use of alcohol likely reduces the offender's perception and awareness of consequences of their actions.[11][1][6][12] The World Health Organization has noted that out of social problems created by the harmful use of alcohol, "crime and violence related to alcohol consumption" are likely the most significant issue.[10]

Types

[edit]

Some crimes are uniquely tied to alcohol, such as public intoxication or underage drinking, while others are simply more likely to occur together with alcohol consumption.

Currency

[edit]

Alcohol has been used as a currency for transactional sex in South Africa, and Uganda.[13][14][15]

Public-order crimes

[edit]
See also: Passive drinking
Table from the 2010 DrugScience study ranking various drugs (legal and illegal) based on statements by drug-harm experts. This study rated alcohol the most harmful drug overall, and the only drug more harmful to others than to the users themselves.[16]

Public-order crimes caused by drinking include drunk driving, domestic violence, and alcohol-related sexual assaults.

Domestic violence and child abuse

[edit]
Main articles: Domestic violence and child abuse

Domestic violence typically co-occurs with alcohol abuse. Alcohol use has been reported as a factor by two-thirds of domestic abuse victims. Moderate drinkers are more frequently engaged in intimate violence than are light drinkers and abstainers, however generally it is heavy and/or binge drinkers who are involved in the most chronic and serious forms of aggression. The odds, frequency, and severity of physical attacks are all positively correlated with alcohol use. In turn, violence decreases after behavioral marital alcoholism treatment. Studies also suggest there may be links between alcohol abuse and child abuse.[1]

Driving under the influence

[edit]
Main article: Driving under the influence
An Estonian billboard warning against drunk driving

Driving under the influence (DUI) or driving while intoxicated (DWI), is the crime of driving a motor vehicle while impaired by alcohol or other drugs including those prescribed by physicians.[17]

With alcohol consumption, a drunk driver's level of intoxication is typically determined by a measurement of blood alcohol content or BAC; but this can also be expressed as a breath test measurement, often referred to as a BrAC. A BAC or BrAC measurement in excess of the specific threshold level, such as 0.08%, defines the criminal offense with no need to prove impairment.[18] In some jurisdictions, there is an aggravated category of the offense at a higher BAC level, such as 0.12%, 0.15% or 0.25%. In many jurisdictions, police officers can conduct field tests of suspects to look for signs of intoxication.

Football hooliganism

[edit]

Football hooliganism is driven by violence that often is alcohol-fueled. This can be a hard difference to notice as hooligans are regular citizens just like the other fans. Notably, game days can be seen by fans as an opportunity to get drunk, this is supported by a study from Michael Ostrowsky who draws on other research: [f]ans who have been plied with alcohol are more likely than their sober counterparts to engage in a variety of behaviors, some of which can be problematic.[clarification needed] Using this information, it is clear that alcohol and sports have a strong connection. However, restricted usage of alcohol as seen in events such as the 2022 Qatar World Cup, was effective in reducing the level of hooliganism that has been previously seen in other major tournaments.[citation needed]

Negligence

[edit]
Shards of broken beer bottles

Negligence in alcohol consumption can have a ripple effect on environmentally responsible behavior. For example, improper disposal of alcohol bottles is a common problem. Many are not recycled or left behind in public spaces. Discarded alcoholic beverage containers, especially broken glass shards that are difficult to remove, does not only create an eyesore but may also cause flat tires for cyclists, injure wildlife or kids. Also, people under the influence may forget to extinguish outdoor fireplaces, which may create a fire hazard since unchecked fires can escalate into wildfires.

Alcohol consumption can contribute to nighttime noise pollution, especially through loud music played by intoxicated individuals. This disrupts sleep and relaxation for nearby residents, impacting health and productivity. Municipal noise ordinances often establish quiet hours and penalties for violations.

Public drunkenness

[edit]
Main article: Public intoxication
See also: Drinking in public
Drunkard passed out on a bench

Public drunkenness or intoxication is a common problem in many jurisdictions. The offenders are often lower class individuals and this crime has a very high recidivism rate, with numerous instances of repeated instances of the arrest, jail, release without treatment cycle. The high number of arrests for public drunkenness often reflects rearrests of the same offenders.[6]

Robbery and violent crimes

[edit]
Main article: Violent crimes
A broken bottle for glassing.

Robbery and violent crimes often involve alcohol use, and there is a positive correlation between such crimes and alcohol use.[1] 15% of robberies, 63% of intimate partner violence incidents, 37% of sexual assaults, 45–46% of physical assaults and 40–45% of homicides in the United States involved use of alcohol.[19][7] A 1983 study for the United States found that 54% of violent crime perpetrators, arrested in that country, had been consuming alcohol before their offenses.[6] In the United Kingdom, in 2015/2016, 39% of those involved in violent crimes were under alcohol influence.[20] International studies are similar, with an estimate that 63% of violent crimes worldwide involves the use of alcohol.[7]

Glassing (or bottling in New Zealand) is a physical attack using a glass or bottle as a weapon. Glassings can occur at bars or pubs where alcoholic beverages is served and such items are readily available. The most common method of glassing involves the attacker smashing an intact glass vessel in the face of the victim, though it can also be smashed onto a surface, then gripped by the remaining base of the glass or neck of the bottle with the broken shards protruding outwards and used in a manner similar to a knife.

Sexual assaults

[edit]
Main articles: Alcohol and sex and Beer goggles

Rape is any sexual activity that occurs without the freely given consent of one of the parties involved. This includes alcohol-facilitated sexual assault which is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions,[21] or non-consensual condom removal which is criminalized in some countries (see the map below).

A 2008 study found that rapists typically consumed relatively high amounts of alcohol and infrequently used condoms during assaults, which was linked to a significant increase in STI transmission.[22] This also increase the risk of pregnancy from rape for female victims. Some people turn to drugs or alcohol to cope with emotional trauma after a rape; use of these during pregnancy can harm the fetus.[23]

Alcohol-facilitated sexual assault
[edit]
Most sexual assaults occur when the victim has consumed alcohol, rather than "spiked" drinks.[24]
See also: Campus sexual assault

One of the most common date rape drugs is alcohol,[25][26][11] administered either surreptitiously[27] or consumed voluntarily,[25] rendering the victim unable to make informed decisions or give consent. The perpetrator then facilitates sexual assault or rape, a crime known as alcohol- or drug-facilitated sexual assault (DFSA).[28][21][29] However, sex with an unconscious victim is considered rape in most if not all jurisdictions, and some assailants have committed "rapes of convenience" whereby they have assaulted a victim after he or she had become unconscious from drinking too much.[30] The risk of individuals either experiencing or perpetrating sexual violence and risky sexual behavior increases with alcohol abuse,[31] and by the consumption of caffeinated alcoholic drinks.[32][33]

Non-consensual condom removal
[edit]
  Court decision declaring stealthing as rape or sexual assault
  Law prohibiting stealthing

Non-consensual condom removal, or "stealthing",[34] is the practice of a person removing a condom during sexual intercourse without consent, when their sex partner has only consented to condom-protected sex.[35][36] Purposefully damaging a condom before or during intercourse may also be referred to as stealthing,[37] regardless of who damaged the condom.

Consuming alcohol can be risky in sexual situations. It can impair judgment and make it difficult for both people to give or receive informed sexual consent. However, a history of sexual aggression and alcohol intoxication are factors associated with an increased risk of men employing non-consensual condom removal and engaging in sexually aggressive behavior with female partners.[38][39]

Wartime sexual violence
[edit]

The use of alcohol is a documented factor in wartime sexual violence.

For example, rape during the liberation of Serbia was committed by Soviet Red Army soldiers against women during their advance to Berlin in late 1944 and early 1945 during World War II. Serbian journalist Vuk Perišić said about the rapes: "The rapes were extremely brutal, under the influence of alcohol and usually by a group of soldiers. The Soviet soldiers did not pay attention to the fact that Serbia was their ally, and there is no doubt that the Soviet high command tacitly approved the rape."[40]

While there wasn't a codified international law specifically prohibiting rape during World War II, customary international law principles already existed that condemned violence against civilians. These principles formed the basis for the development of more explicit laws after the war,[41] including the Nuremberg Principles established in 1950.

Street crimes

[edit]

Research suggests a link between alcohol use and involvement in street crime. Intoxication can impair judgment and lower inhibitions, increasing the likelihood of risky behavior like theft or violence. This can escalate situations and lead to more serious crimes.

Street fighting
[edit]

Street fighting is usually illegal due to its disruption of public order. Some fights are driven by alcohol. Alcohol itself does not directly lead to violence but it acts as a catalyst, allowing cheers from the crowds or provocation from opponents to ignite the fight between fighters.[42] Since the consumption of alcohol negatively impacts the brain function, drunk people fail to assess the situation which often results in overreacting and unpredictable fights.[42]

Vandalism
[edit]

Alcohol-fueled vandalism is a form of destructive behavior that occurs when individuals under the influence of alcohol damage or destroy property, often public or private, that doesn't belong to them. This vandalism can range from minor acts like spray-painting graffiti or breaking windows to more serious offenses like damaging vehicles or buildings.

Impaired judgment and impulse control are key factors. Alcohol intoxication weakens a person's ability to make sound decisions and control their urges, making them more likely to engage in risky or destructive behavior. Additionally, the disinhibition caused by alcohol can lead to a sense of anonymity or invincibility, further emboldening individuals to commit vandalism. Social settings where heavy alcohol consumption is present, particularly those with large groups, can create a sense of conformity or peer pressure, increasing the likelihood of vandalism.

The consequences of alcohol-fueled vandalism can be significant for both the victims and the perpetrators. Victims may face financial losses to repair or replace damaged property. Beyond the financial impact, vandalism can also create a sense of fear and insecurity within communities. For the perpetrators, vandalism can lead to criminal charges, fines, or even jail time.

Rum-running

[edit]
Main article: Rum-running

Rum-running, the illegal business of smuggling alcoholic beverages where such transportation is forbidden by law.

Sly-grog shop

[edit]
Main article: Sly-grog shop

In Australia, a sly-grog shop (or shanty is an unlicensed hotel, liquor-store or other vendor of alcoholic beverages, sometimes with the added suggestion of selling poor-quality products. From the time of the First World War until as late as the 1960s (in Victoria and South Australia), much of Australia had early closing of hotels and pubs serving alcoholic beverages. The term is also used to denote illegal sales in Indigenous areas where alcohol has been banned or restricted.

Straw purchase

[edit]
A photograph of a group of people standing outside at nighttime, two of whom are barechested and one of whom is balancing on a stone
In the United Kingdom, the police normally only enforce the laws against public intoxication if the intoxicated person is unable to act in a reasonable manner, as demonstrated by such activities as climbing on Stonehenge (pictured).
Main article: Straw purchase
See also: Shoulder tap (alcohol)

Straw purchases of alcohol are illegal in most jurisdictions when a person under the legal drinking age requests that a person above the legal age purchase alcohol for the underage person, and the straw purchaser knows or might reasonably assume based on the circumstances that the person is under the legal age.

In England and Wales, buying alcohol on behalf of a person under 18 is a summary offence under section 149 of the Licensing Act 2003, punishable by an unlimited fine (level 5 on the standard scale). There is an exception for beer, wine or cider served to a 16 or 17-year-old with a meal at a table.[43]

Manufacturing

[edit]

Moonshine

[edit]

Moonshine (bootleg liquor) is illegal to produce in most countries and territories.

Methanol laced alcohol
[edit]
Main article: List of methanol poisoning incidents

Outbreaks of methanol poisoning have occurred when methanol is used to adulterate moonshine.[44] Methanol has a high toxicity in humans. If as little as 10 mL of pure methanol is ingested, for example, it can break down into formic acid, which can cause permanent blindness by destruction of the optic nerve, and 30 mL is potentially fatal,[45] although the median lethal dose is typically 100 mL (3.4 fl oz) (i.e. 1–2 mL/kg body weight of pure methanol[46]). Reference dose for methanol is 0.5 mg/kg/day.[47] Toxic effects take hours to start, and effective antidotes can often prevent permanent damage.[45] Because of its similarities in both appearance and odor to ethanol (the alcohol in beverages), it is difficult to differentiate between the two.

[edit]
Pruno
[edit]
A one-US-gallon (3.8 L) jug of contraband prison wine made from oranges, confiscated from an inmate

Prison officials take a dim view of alcohol. Brewing any kind of prison hooch is strictly prohibited and comes with stiff penalties, from solitary confinement to extended sentences. It's a crime that disrupts the fragile order within prison walls.

Pruno, also known as prison hooch or prison wine, is a term used in the United States to describe an improvised alcoholic beverage. It is variously made from apples, oranges, fruit cocktail, fruit juices, hard candy, sugar, high fructose syrup, and possibly other ingredients, including crumbled bread.[48] Bread is incorrectly thought to contain yeast for the pruno to ferment. Pruno originated in US prisons, where it can be produced with the limited selection of equipment and ingredients available to inmates. It can be made using only a plastic bag, hot running water, and a towel or sock to conceal the pulp during fermentation. The end result has been colorfully described as a "bile-flavored wine cooler".[49] Depending on the time spent fermenting (always balanced against the risk of discovery by officers), the sugar content, and the quality of the ingredients and preparation, pruno's alcohol content by volume can range from as low as 2% (equivalent to a very weak beer) to as high as 14% (equivalent to a strong wine).

Wine fraud

[edit]

Wine fraud relates to the commercial aspects of wine. The most prevalent type of fraud is one where wines are adulterated, usually with the addition of cheaper products (e.g. juices) and sometimes with harmful chemicals and sweeteners (compensating for color or flavor).

Prevention and enforcement

[edit]
See also: Breathalyzer and Electronic tagging
Early 20th century Dutch poster about the dangers of alcoholism

Criminologist Hung-En Sung has concluded in 2016 that with regards to reducing drunk driving, law enforcement has not generally proven to be effective. Worldwide, the majority of those driving under the influence do not end up arrested. At least two-thirds of alcohol-involved fatalities involve repeat drinking drivers. Sung, commenting on measures for controlling drunk driving and alcohol-related accidents, noted that the ones that have proven effective include "lowering legal blood alcohol concentrations, controlling liquor outlets, nighttime driving curfews for minors, educational treatment programs combined with license suspension for offenders, and court monitoring of high-risk offenders."[1] In general, programs aimed at reducing society's consumption of alcohol, including education in schools, are seen as an effective long-term solution. Strategies aiming to reduce alcohol consumption among adult offenders have various estimates of effectiveness.[8]

Alcohol use is stereotypically associated with crime, and therefore policing alcohol-related street disorder and enforcing compliance checks of alcohol-dispensing businesses has proven successful in reducing public perception of and fear of criminal activities.[1]

Taxes

[edit]
  • Pigovian taxes, which are to pay for the damage to society caused by these goods.
  • Sin taxes are used to increase the price in an effort to lower their use, or failing that, to increase and find new sources of revenue.

History

[edit]
Gin Lane by William Hogarth, 1751

The Gin Craze was a period in the first half of the 18th century when the consumption of gin increased rapidly in Great Britain, especially in London. By 1743, England was drinking 2.2 gallons (10 litres) of gin per person per year. The Sale of Spirits Act 1750 (commonly known as the Gin Act 1751) was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain (24 Geo. 2. c. 40) which was enacted to reduce the consumption of gin and other distilled spirits, a popular pastime[50] that was regarded as one of the primary causes of crime in London.[51]

Gilbert Paul Jordan (aka The Boozing Barber) was a Canadian serial killer who is believed to have committed the so-called "alcohol murders" between 1965-c. 2004 in Vancouver, British Columbia.

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sung, Hung-En (2016), "Alcohol and Crime", The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, American Cancer Society, pp. 1–2, doi:10.1002/9781405165518.wbeosa039.pub2, ISBN 9781405165518
  2. ^ Trevor, Bennett; Katy, Holloway (1 April 2005). Understanding Drugs, Alcohol And Crime. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). p. 6. ISBN 9780335212576. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
  3. ^ "Drunk Driving Statistics in the US and Across the World". Law Office of Douglas Herring. 13 November 2017. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  4. ^ "Drunk Driving Increasing Concern Worldwide". Voice of America. Archived from the original on 22 September 2019. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  5. ^ Sweedler, Barry M.; Stewart, Kathryn (2009), Verster, Joris C.; Pandi-Perumal, S. R.; Ramaekers, Johannes G.; de Gier, Johan J. (eds.), "Worldwide trends in alcohol and drug impaired driving", Drugs, Driving and Traffic Safety, Birkhäuser Basel, pp. 23–41, doi:10.1007/978-3-7643-9923-8_2, ISBN 9783764399238
  6. ^ a b c d Clinard, Marshall; Meier, Robert (14 February 2007). Sociology of Deviant Behavior. Cengage Learning. p. 273. ISBN 9780495093350. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 20 September 2019.
  7. ^ a b c McMurran, Mary (3 October 2012). Alcohol-Related Violence: Prevention and Treatment. John Wiley & Sons. p. 37. ISBN 9781118411063. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 27 November 2021.
  8. ^ a b McMurran, Mary (3 October 2012). Alcohol-Related Violence: Prevention and Treatment. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 337–338. ISBN 9781118411063. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  9. ^ "WHO | Governments confront drunken violence". WHO. Archived from the original on 4 May 2014. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  10. ^ a b "Global status report on alcohol and health" (PDF). World Health Organization. 2011. Archived (PDF) from the original on 10 December 2021. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  11. ^ a b Holstege CP, Saathoff GB, Neer TM, Furbee RB, eds. (25 October 2010). Criminal poisoning: clinical and forensic perspectives. Sudbury, Mass.: Jones and Bartlett Publishers. pp. 232. ISBN 978-0-7637-4463-2.
  12. ^ Dingwall, Gavin (23 July 2013). Alcohol and Crime. Routledge. pp. 160–161. ISBN 9781134029709. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 1 January 2022.
  13. ^ Mihretie, GN; Kassa, BG; Ayele, AD; Liyeh, TM; Belay, HG; Miskr, AD; Minuye, B; Azanaw, MM; Worke, MD (2023). "Transactional sex among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis". PLOS ONE. 18 (6): e0286850. Bibcode:2023PLoSO..1886850M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0286850. PMC 10249834. PMID 37289839.
  14. ^ Miller, A. P.; Pitpitan, E. V.; Nabukalu, D.; Nalugoda, F.; Nakigozi, G.; Kigozi, G.; Grabowski, M. K.; Kennedy, C. E.; Wagman, J. A. (2021). "Transactional Sex, Alcohol Use and Intimate Partner Violence Against Women in the Rakai Region of Uganda". AIDS and Behavior. 25 (4): 1144–1158. doi:10.1007/s10461-020-03069-9. PMC 8807528. PMID 33128109.
  15. ^ Norris, AH; Kitali, AJ; Worby, E (October 2009). "Alcohol and transactional sex: how risky is the mix?". Social Science & Medicine. 69 (8): 1167–1176. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2009.07.015. PMID 19713023.
  16. ^ Nutt DJ, King LA, Phillips LD (November 2010). "Drug harms in the UK: a multicriteria decision analysis". Lancet. 376 (9752): 1558–1565. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.690.1283. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(10)61462-6. PMID 21036393. S2CID 5667719.
  17. ^ Driving Under the Influence: A Report to Congress on Alcohol Limits. U.S. Department of Transportation, National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. 1992. pp. 1–. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 18 September 2019.
  18. ^ Nelson, Bruce. "Nevada's Driving Under the Influence (DUI) laws". NVPAC. Advisory Council for Prosecuting Attorneys. Archived from the original on 22 April 2017. Retrieved 3 July 2017.
  19. ^ "Alcohol-Related Crimes: Statistics and Facts". Alcohol Rehab Guide. Archived from the original on 11 July 2022. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
  20. ^ "Alcohol statistics". Alcohol Change UK. Archived from the original on 5 June 2022. Retrieved 22 September 2019.
  21. ^ a b Hall JA, Moore CB (July 2008). "Drug facilitated sexual assault—a review". Journal of Forensic and Legal Medicine. 15 (5): 291–7. doi:10.1016/j.jflm.2007.12.005. PMID 18511003.
  22. ^ Davis KC, Schraufnagel TJ, George WH, Norris J (September 2008). "The use of alcohol and condoms during sexual assault". American Journal of Men's Health. 2 (3): 281–290. doi:10.1177/1557988308320008. PMC 4617377. PMID 19477791.
  23. ^ Price S (2007). Mental Health in Pregnancy and Childbirth. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 151–152. ISBN 978-0-443-10317-9. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 15 February 2013.
  24. ^ ElSohly MA, Salamone SJ (1999). "Prevalence of drugs used in cases of alleged sexual assault". Journal of Analytical Toxicology. 23 (3): 141–146. doi:10.1093/jat/23.3.141. PMID 10369321.
  25. ^ a b "Alcohol Is Most Common 'Date Rape' Drug". Medicalnewstoday.com. Archived from the original on 17 October 2007. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
  26. ^ Schwartz RH, Milteer R, LeBeau MA (June 2000). "Drug-facilitated sexual assault ('date rape')". Southern Medical Journal. 93 (6): 558–61. doi:10.1097/00007611-200093060-00002. PMID 10881768.
  27. ^ Lyman MD (2006). Practical drug enforcement (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Fla.: CRC. p. 70. ISBN 0849398088.
  28. ^ Thompson KM (January 2021). "Beyond roofies: Drug- and alcohol-facilitated sexual assault". JAAPA. 34 (1): 45–49. doi:10.1097/01.JAA.0000723940.92815.0b. PMID 33332834.
  29. ^ Beynon CM, McVeigh C, McVeigh J, Leavey C, Bellis MA (July 2008). "The involvement of drugs and alcohol in drug-facilitated sexual assault: a systematic review of the evidence". Trauma, Violence & Abuse. 9 (3): 178–88. doi:10.1177/1524838008320221. PMID 18541699. S2CID 27520472.
  30. ^ "Date Rape". Survive.org.uk. 20 March 2000. Archived from the original on 22 November 2020. Retrieved 1 June 2011.
  31. ^ Chersich MF, Rees HV (January 2010). "Causal links between binge drinking patterns, unsafe sex and HIV in South Africa: its time to intervene". International Journal of STD & AIDS. 21 (1): 2–7. doi:10.1258/ijsa.2000.009432. PMID 20029060. S2CID 3100905.
  32. ^ "Consumption of alcohol/energy drink mixes linked with casual, risky sex". ScienceDaily. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
  33. ^ Ball NJ, Miller KE, Quigley BM, Eliseo-Arras RK (April 2021). "Alcohol Mixed With Energy Drinks and Sexually Related Causes of Conflict in the Barroom". Journal of Interpersonal Violence. 36 (7–8): 3353–3373. doi:10.1177/0886260518774298. PMID 29779427. S2CID 29150434.
  34. ^ Hatch J (21 April 2017). "Inside The Online Community Of Men Who Preach Removing Condoms Without Consent". Huffington Post. Archived from the original on 6 March 2019. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
  35. ^ Chesser B, Zahra A (22 May 2019). "Stealthing: a criminal offence?". Current Issues in Criminal Justice. 31 (2). Sydney Law School: 217–235. doi:10.1080/10345329.2019.1604474. S2CID 182850828. Archived from the original on 12 May 2022. Retrieved 18 February 2021.
  36. ^ Brodsky A (2017). "'Rape-Adjacent': Imagining Legal Responses to Nonconsensual Condom Removal". Columbia Journal of Gender and Law. 32 (2). SSRN 2954726.
  37. ^ Michael N (27 April 2017). "Some call it 'stealthing,' others call it sexual assault". CNN. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 26 April 2024.
  38. ^ Davis KC, Danube CL, Neilson EC, Stappenbeck CA, Norris J, George WH, Kajumulo KF (January 2016). "Distal and Proximal Influences on Men's Intentions to Resist Condoms: Alcohol, Sexual Aggression History, Impulsivity, and Social-Cognitive Factors". AIDS and Behavior. 20 (Suppl 1): S147–S157. doi:10.1007/s10461-015-1132-9. PMC 4706816. PMID 26156881.
  39. ^ Davis KC (October 2010). "The influence of alcohol expectancies and intoxication on men's aggressive unprotected sexual intentions". Experimental and Clinical Psychopharmacology. 18 (5): 418–428. doi:10.1037/a0020510. PMC 3000798. PMID 20939645.
  40. ^ Welle (http://www.dw.com), Deutsche. "'Njemačke žene nisu silovali samo sovjetski vojnici' | DW | 02.03.2015". DW.COM (in Croatian). Archived from the original on 1 December 2023. Retrieved 2 July 2022.
  41. ^ "Archived copy". ihl-databases.icrc.org. Archived from the original on 27 May 2024. Retrieved 27 May 2024.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link)
  42. ^ a b Monico, Nicolle (4 June 2020). "Drinking Alcohol and The Risk of Violence". Alcohol.org. Archived from the original on 20 May 2024. Retrieved 17 May 2021.
  43. ^ "Licensing Act 2003: Section 149", legislation.gov.uk, The National Archives, 2003 c. 17 (s. 149)
  44. ^ "Application to Include Fomepizole on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines" (PDF). November 2012. p. 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 4 October 2020.
  45. ^ a b Vale A (2007). "Methanol". Medicine. 35 (12): 633–4. doi:10.1016/j.mpmed.2007.09.014.
  46. ^ "Methanol Poisoning Overview". Antizol. Archived from the original on 5 October 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2011. dead link
  47. ^ "Methanol (CASRN 67-56-1)". Archived from the original on 5 December 2012. Retrieved 3 September 2019.
  48. ^ B. Lance, Courtney (February 2015). Pruno, Ramen, and a Side of Hope. Post Hill Press. p. 266. ISBN 978-1618689252. Archived from the original on 5 September 2024. Retrieved 20 May 2024.
  49. ^ Hardesty, Greg (8 June 2011). "'Pruno' brew is the toast of the O.C. jail". The Orange County Register. Archived from the original on 3 May 2021. Retrieved 2 May 2021.
  50. ^ "History of Alcohol" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 August 2013. Retrieved 11 May 2015.
  51. ^ "Gin Act – Britannica Online Encyclopedia". Archived from the original on 18 May 2015. Retrieved 25 April 2024.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alcohol-related_crime&oldid=1249868489"