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Zouxian (phenomenon)

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For the Shandong city formerly known as Zouxian, see Zoucheng.
Zouxian
Simplified Chinese走线
Traditional Chinese走線
Transcriptions
Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyinzǒuxiàn

Zouxian (Chinese: 走线; pinyin: zǒuxiàn; lit. 'walk the route') is the phenomenon of Mainland Chinese migrants entering the United States through its southwestern border with Mexico.[1][2] The phenomenon became more prominent in the early 2020s.[3] In 2021, at the Darién gap, the Panamanian police counted 200 Mainland Chinese migrants; in contrast, in the first half of 2022, close to 9,000 Mainland Chinese migrants made the crossing.[2]

Historical context

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Chinese immigration to the United States first emerged in the mid-19th century, largely in the Western United States, brought on by domestic political and economic instability.[4] As of 2004, over four million ethnic Chinese citizens were living in Canada and the United States, comprising the largest and third largest minority groups, respectively.[5] This early wave of immigration contributed significantly to the growth of Chinese ethnic enclaves and the establishment of 'Chinatown' communities within Los Angeles and New York,[6] which has led to the United States emerging as the preferred destination for Chinese immigrants.[7]

Relations between the United States and the People's Republic of China were only normalised in 1979.[8] While this subsequently granted a legal entry point for those emigrating from the mainland of China, the number of immigrants allowed to enter the U.S. is subject to immigration quotas.[9] These quotas prioritize Mainland Chinese citizens with financial and familial ties to the United States and are still restrictive, leaving many with no legal opportunity to enter the country.[10] This first became an issue in the 1980s, with political and economic liberalisation in the mainland of China leading to a sharp increase in chain migration as Mainland Chinese families sought to reunite.[11]

People smuggling in Latin America

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The Chinese diaspora in Latin and South America, like the United States, has existed since the 19th century owing to labour shortages in the Americas.[12] Mexico, in particular, encouraged Chinese immigration, signing a commercial treaty in 1899 that allowed Chinese citizens to run enterprises in Mexico, some of which would become involved in people smuggling.[13] Chinese shell companies in Mexico can issue fake work visas for immigrants to allow access to the United States border.[14]

Mainland Chinese people smuggling developed mainly from a decentralized platform utilizing intermediaries and independent businesses to engage in their operations.[15] Mexican people smugglers and human traffickers are the subcontractors used to guide Mainland Chinese immigrants through the United States border.[16] Where payment through coyotes has often manifested in indentured servitude, Mainland Chinese people smuggling has historically adopted a system utilizing family located in the United States to ensure full payment.[17]

Development

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Since the COVID-19 outbreak, Mainland Chinese citizens have more frequently discussed leaving the mainland of China on social media.[18]

Even after Beijing lifted its COVID restrictions, the inclination towards zouxian has persisted. According to the United States Border Patrol, between January and September 2023, there were 21,870 Mainland Chinese illegal immigration reports, which was 13% higher than in 2022.[19] Whether the phenomenon of zouxian will form a new pattern for Mainland Chinese undocumented immigration to the United States largely depends on the further estimation of the effect of returning to the Title 8 of the United States Code on the rate of approval for Mainland Chinese asylum seekers and more precise disclosure of the life risk of jungle crossing.[20][according to whom?]

Route

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The difficulty in reaching the United States legally by obtaining a visa has meant that some Mainland Chinese migrants have attempted to get there through other means. For most, flying to Ecuador, where Mainland Chinese citizens are not required to acquire a tourist visa, has been the only option.[2][dubious – discuss] The inflated costs from Ecuador to the United States indicate that whilst some migrants come from working-class backgrounds, many are middle-class migrants hoping to leave the mainland of China.[21]

Upon reaching Ecuador, migrants usually cross eight countries in Latin and Central America.[21] The past decade has witnessed an increase in Mainland Chinese criminal groups operating in Latin America, specializing in four activities: trafficking fentanyl, laundering money, illegal wildlife trade, and migrant smuggling.[20] For most Mainland Chinese migrants, contacting a snakehead (people smuggler) within these criminal organizations has become a part of attempting the journey. Snakeheads employ local guides to assist migrants where hazards are present.[2] There is a risk of the snakehead abandoning them or demanding more money midway through the journey.[2] Migrants use social media platforms such as Telegram to share information with each other.[22] Some do not survive the journey[18] as they encounter hunger and robbery or kidnapping by local gangs.[23]

Entering the United States

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Once reaching the border, the immigrants face little opposition to seeking asylum, with the refusal rate of asylum seekers from the mainland of China into the United States being 12%.[24] This is contrasted by the level of Visa application refusals being approximately 30%, contributing to the statistic that United States visa refusals are 90% below pre-pandemic levels.[25] When in the United States, many move to Mainland Chinese districts in large cities such as San Francisco and New York.[18] Through the use of social media, friends, and family connections, many are able to find jobs that are cash-in-hand, forgoing the need for a green card or an employment authorization document.[26]

Causes

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The increasing asylum-seeking through zouxian is linked closely with the repercussions of the COVID-19 pandemic. Economic frustrations over Beijing's political reform have eroded the social confidence of some Mainland Chinese people, particularly in the lower-class hierarchy.

Political factors

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A key driver of zouxian resulted from people's dissatisfaction with Beijing's authoritarian governance. Due to the implementation of the "Zero-COVID" policy, Mainland Chinese households experienced widespread lockdowns, compulsory mass testing, and concentrated treatment of patients, which resulted in social problems like food shortages, family separations, and unequal healthcare access.[27] Ultimately, following the catastrophic fire in Urumqi, accumulated public resentment outburst on October 25, 2022, in the form of street protests, calling for an end to COVID restrictions, free elections and the resignation of Xi Jinping.[28] A common expression among the runners was their discontent toward the absence of free speech and religion, which intensified due to the COVID-19 pandemic's constraints.[27] Some runners claimed to face different degrees of governmental oppression for their speeches during COVID regulation, including university expulsion,[29] police interrogation[18] and imprisonment.[30] Many runners attributed their determination to zouxian based on their COVID-19 political witness and experiences.[31] 

Economic factors

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Data from June 2023 suggest that real income growth remained below the inflation rate, with the youth unemployment rate reaching a new high of 20.4%. Subdued private investment continued in 2022, and the property market overall has depressed.[32] The runners expressed their despair of an economic recovery.[33] Young runners complained about the asymmetrically heavy workload versus poor salary.[34] Another recurring demographic is small business owners, who incurred a high revenue deduction from COVID restrictions and thus became pessimistic about future business opportunities in the mainland of China.[25] Most of the runners are aware that they are unlikely to obtain well-paying positions in the short run as asylum seekers. However, they believe the current toil will be worth paying if the next generation can grow with greater prosperity.[29][35]

Social media

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In recent years, social media has played a pivotal role in various movements in the mainland of China.[36] Mainland Chinese undocumented immigration through the Southwestern United States border is not a COVID-exclusive phenomenon.[37] Traversing the Darién Gap to reach Panama has been a COVID-inspired expedient. The China-Ecuador visa-free agreement gave rise to the rationale of making Ecuador the landing area for the runners.[38] Sharing and instruction transmission on media platforms, namely Telegram, TikTok, Twitter and YouTube, played a crucial role in alleviating the public's anxiety.[25]

References

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  1. ^ "Fleeing China's Covid lockdowns for the US - through a Central American jungle". BBC News. December 21, 2022. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  2. ^ a b c d e "Return to China? Xing would rather die in the jungle". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  3. ^ Castañeda, C.B. and Rivas, N.T., (2021) 'Central American Caravans: A New Model of Migration?' in C.C. González and J.E. Ocampo Human Displacement from a Global South Perspective: Migration Dynamics in Latin America, Africa and the Middle East. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, pp.13-39. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-64819-0
  4. ^ Hooper, K. and Batalova, J., 2015. Chinese immigrants in the United States. Migration Policy Institute, 28, pp.1-13.
  5. ^ Holland, K.M., 2007. A history of Chinese immigration in the United States and Canada. American Review of Canadian Studies, 37(2), pp.150-160.
  6. ^ Zhou, M. and Lee, R., 2013. Transnationalism and community building: Chinese immigrant organizations in the United States. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 647(1), pp.22-49.
  7. ^ Zhou, M. and Liu, H., 2016. Homeland engagement and host-society integration: A comparative study of new Chinese immigrants in the United States and Singapore. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 57(1-2), pp.30-52.
  8. ^ Salvini, G., 2017. The Relations Between the People's Republic of China (PRC) and the United States (US). Understanding China Today: An Exploration of Politics, Economics, Society, and International Relations, pp.95-113.
  9. ^ Zhang, S. and Chin, K.L., 2001, December. Chinese human smuggling in the United States of America. In Forum on Crime and Society (Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 31-52).
  10. ^ Hsin, A. and Aptekar, S., 2022. The violence of asylum: The case of undocumented Chinese migration to the United States. Social Forces, 100(3), pp.1195-1217.
  11. ^ Wang, J.Z., 2001. Illegal Mainland Chinese immigration into the United States: A preliminary factor analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(3), pp.345-355
  12. ^ Chang-Rodríguez, E., 1958. Chinese labor migration into Latin America in the nineteenth century. Revista de Historia de América, (46), pp.375-397.
  13. ^ Romero, R.C., 2003. The dragon in Big Lusong: Chinese immigration and settlement in Mexico, 1882–1940. University of California, Los Angeles.
  14. ^ Martin, P. and Miller, M., 2000. Smuggling and trafficking: a conference report.
  15. ^ Keefe, P.R., 2009. Snakeheads and smuggling: The dynamics of illegal Chinese immigration. World Policy Journal, 26(1), pp.33-44.
  16. ^ Kyle, D. and Liang, Z., 2001. Migration merchants: human smuggling from Ecuador and China.
  17. ^ Wang, J.Z., 2001. Illegal Mainland Chinese immigration into the United States: A preliminary factor analysis. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45(3), pp.345-355 ibid
  18. ^ a b c d "雨林、抢匪以及"美国梦"：90后中国人偷渡"润美"的新路线". BBC News 中文 (in Simplified Chinese). January 19, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  19. ^ "中国人偷渡美国猛增 暴翻13倍". RFI - 法国国际广播电台 (in Simplified Chinese). November 1, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  20. ^ a b "Triads, Snakeheads, and Flying Money: The Underworld of Chinese Criminal Networks in Latin America and the Caribbean". Diálogo Américas. September 27, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  21. ^ a b "Why Are More and More Chinese Migrants Risking Their Lives to Cross the US Southern Border?". thediplomat.com. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  22. ^ Chen, Alicia (March 9, 2023). "Growing numbers of Chinese citizens set their sights on the US – via the deadly Darién Gap". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  23. ^ Zhang, T. (2023) 'Why Are More and More Chinese Migrants Risking Their Lives to Cross the US Southern Border?'. Available at: https://thediplomat.com/2023/06/why-are-more-and-more-chinese-migrants-risking-their-lives-to-cross-the-us-southern-border/ (Accessed 03/11/23)
  24. ^ EXECUTIVE OFFICE FOR IMMIGRATION REVIEW ADJUDICATION STATISTICS. Available at: https://www.justice.gov/eoir/page/file/1107366/download (Accessed 06/11/23)
  25. ^ a b c "Migrants use Chinese version of TikTok for tips on long trek to U.S." Reuters. April 28, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  26. ^ "More Chinese migrants are crossing Panama's jungle to come to the U.S." NBC News. October 30, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  27. ^ a b Cafruny, A.W. and Talani, L.S. (2023) '9 Authoritarian Crisis Response to COVID-19 in China', in The political economy of global responses to covid-19. Cham, Switzerland: Palgrave Macmillan, an imprint of Springer Nature Switzerland AG, pp. 183–201.
  28. ^ Dyer, O. (2022) Covid-19: Protests against lockdowns in China reignite amid crackdown. BMJ (Online). [Online] 379o2896–o2896.
  29. ^ a b "暗中兴起的 "走线"潮，为谋生他们冒死穿越雨林、偷渡美国". 歪脑 WHYNOT. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  30. ^ "As economy falters, more Chinese migrants take a perilous journey to the US border to seek asylum". AP News. October 30, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  31. ^ "世界难民日专题：去国离乡，寻找希望的中国走线移民". 美国之音 (in Chinese). June 17, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  32. ^ Chowdhury, I. and Li, Y. (2023) China Economic Update - June 2023 - world bank, China Economic Update - June 2023. Available at: https://thedocs.worldbank.org/en/doc/a9fcfb131b5dc335abe8d283998fd9f6-0070012023/original/CEU-June-2023-EN.pdf (Accessed 06/11/2023). 
  33. ^ Spagat, Elliot; Bull, Greg; Tang, Didi; Garcia, Eugene. "AP out front on flow of Chinese asylum-seekers entering U.S. from…". AP Beats. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  34. ^ "More Chinese Migrants Are Journeying to the U.S. Border to Seek Asylum". TIME. October 30, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  35. ^ "世界难民日专题：去国离乡，寻找希望的中国走线移民". 美国之音 (in Chinese). June 17, 2023. Retrieved November 27, 2023.
  36. ^ Chan, K. (2023) Unwritten Endings: Revolutionary Potential of China's A4 Protest. Sociologica (Bologna). [Online] 17 (1), 57–66
  37. ^ Hsin, A. & Aptekar, S. (2022) The Violence of Asylum: The Case of Undocumented Mainland Chinese Migration to the United States. Social forces. [Online] 100 (3), 1195–1217.
  38. ^ LAZARUS, L. (2023) Triads, snakeheads, and flying money: The underworld of Chinese ...LELAND LAZARUS, TRIADS, SNAKEHEADS, AND FLYING MONEY THE UNDERWORLD OF CHINESE CRIMINAL NETWORKS IN LATIN AMERICA AND THE CARIBBEAN. Available at: https://digitalcommons.fiu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1057&context=jgi_research (Accessed 06/11/2023). 
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