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Vahika also referred to as Bahika was an ancient region of Punjab centered between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers.[1] It was inhabited by various Indo-aryan tribes and kingdoms such as the Madra and Uśīnara with multiple capitals including Multan, Sagala and Taxila.[2] The region has been attested to by numerous authors such as Pāṇini and Patanjali in the late Iron Age and further by Greek writers. Vahika is not to be confused with the similar sounding Bahlika also known as Vahlika which referred to Bactria, located in modern-day Northern Afghanistan and Tajikistan.[3][4]

Vahika (Bahika)
6th century BCE
Location of Vahika
CapitalSagala
Taxila
Multan
GovernmentRepublic
History 
• Established
6th century BCE

The history of the Vahika region begins in the Vedic era, where the sons of Yayati established prominent kingdoms and tribes that participated in significant events such as the Battle of the Ten Kings and the Kurukshetra War. Vahika is mentioned during this period by writers such as Pāṇini. The region is further documented during Alexander the Great's invasion in the 5th century BCE, when various tribes, including those led by Porus and the Cathaean tribe, offered substantial resistance to the Greek conquest. In the first century CE, additional details emerge from the visit of Apollonius of Tyana to Vahika, where he encountered Phraotes, the king of Taxila, who ruled over the former territory of Porus. Following the decline of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century CE, coinage from the Shilada and Gadahara tribes are discovered, and numerous texts from the Hunnic era dated to between the 4th-7th centuries CE attest to numerous tribal republics of the region. In the 7th century CE the region came under the control of the Taank Kingdom.

Etymology

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Multiple names have been used in ancient times to refer to the region of Punjab, such as Pentapotamia, in Greek, and Panchanada, in Sanskrit; however, the definition of Vahika has been understood to mean 'the outsiders' in which the Mahabharata speaks of the region with contempt.[5] They were further referred to as Arattas, which translates to 'Kingless', denoting the republican form of governments that dominated the region.[6][7]

Geography

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During the creation of the Mahabharata, according to the Karna Parva, Vahika was referred to the area between the Indus and the Sutlej rivers and is referred to by Patanjali as Vahikagrama, located in modern-day Punjab. The core Janapadas of the region included the Madra, Kekaya and Uśīnara in which a further tribal republic noted as the Savasa were also located in the area. The Savasa were described as residing between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers in the north with their capital in Taxila as noted in the Divyavadana whilst the Kekaya resided in the South. The nearby Madras resided between the Chenab and Ravi Rivers in the north whilst the Usinaras were located in the south and are stated to have been associated with the neighbouring Sivi Kingdom whose capital was centred in Shorkot.[8] Patanjali also makes reference to the Audumbara capital, Pathankot, residing in the Vahika region whom were closely associated to the Trigarta kingdom based on ancient texts.[9]

During Apollonius of Tyana's travels to the region in the 1st century CE, he describes the old territory of Porus being under the control of Phraotes, the King of Taxila, which reached the Chenab River of Punjab[10] and Xuanzang's visit in the 7th century CE, states that the Taank Kingdom was located south of Kashmir and north of Sindh extending from the Indus river in the west to the Beas river in the east, centred in Sagala, modern day Sialkot.[11]

The Udichya region was another region mentioned in ancient texts and is noted by Pāṇini as comprising both the regions of Vahika and Gandhara.[12]

History

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The first mention of the Vahikas comes from the Gandharan grammarian Pāṇini based in the 6th century CE in which he describes the region as a territory of Sanghas which denotes a republic form of government. He then further describes the ruling class of the Vahika republics with some dominated by Brahmins and others of ‘Rajanyas’ otherwise known as Kshatriyas.[13] In some Sutras they are recounted as a cradle of martial tribes who's way of life consisted of the military arts.[14] Numerous cities lying in the Vahika country are mentioned by Panini including: Kastira, Sagala, Saubhuta, Kaukudivaha, Svavidgarta, Srigalagarta and Vrikagarta.[15]

Vedic era

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According to Rigvedic tradition, Yayati was the progenitor of the prominent Udichya tribes and had numerous sons, including Anu, Puru, and Druhyu. The lineage of Anu gave rise to the Madra, Kekaya, Sivi and Uśīnara kingdoms, while the Druhyu tribe has been associated with the Gandhara kingdom.[16][17]

An important event of the Rig Vedic era was the "Battle of Ten Kings" which was fought on the banks of the Ravi river in central Punjab, c. 14th century BCE, between the Bharata clan led by Sudas on the one hand and a confederation of ten tribes on the other. The ten tribes were the Purus, Druhyus, Anus, Turvasas and the Yadus in addition to five minor ones. Sudas was supported by the sage Rishi Vasishtha, while his former Purohita(family priest) Viswamitra, sided with the confederation of ten tribes.[18] A second battle, referred to as the Mahabharat in ancient texts, was fought in Punjab on a battlefield known as Kurukshetra.

Alexander's invasion

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Taxiles

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In the 5th century BCE, the sovereign of Taxila, Omphis, formed an alliance with Alexander, motivated by a longstanding animosity towards Porus who governed the region encompassed by the Chenab and Jhelum River.[19] Omphis, in a gesture of goodwill, presented Alexander the great with significant gifts, esteemed among the Indian populace, and subsequently accompanied him on the expedition crossing the Indus.[20] His territory stretched from between the Indus and Jhelum Rivers.[21]

Porus

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Porus ruled over the tracts between the Hydaspes (Jhelum) river and Chenab River and Strabo noted his territory to contain almost three hundred cities whilst also describing his land as fertile and extensive.[22] He is most notable for opposing Alexander in the Battle of the Hydaspes which proved to be one of Alexander the Great's most challenging battles. After his defeat, when asked by Alexander how he wished to be treated, Porus replied "Treat me as a king would treat another king".[23] Impressed, Alexander indeed treated him like a king, allowing him to retain his lands. Following the battle, Alexander founded two cities called Boukephala and Nikaia, the latter at the site of the battle and named after the Greek for Victory, in commemoration of his success, and the former on the opposite bank to honour his faithful steed Bucephalus, who died during or after the battle.

Cathaeans

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Following Alexander's battle with Porus, the Greeks had received information of a tribe known as the Cathaeans preparing for war alongside neighbouring tribes and who were considering taking battle in Sagala, modern day Sialkot. Arrian states that the Cathaeans were skillfull in war and were known to Porus after having successfully defeated him previously.[24] Arrian further states that the Cathaeans and other allied tribes had prepared themselves in front of the city upon a hill and after having been defeated encamped themselves in the city leading to a siege and later their eventual defeat.[25]

Strabo describes the culture of the Cathaeans in which they were prized for having beautiful horses and dogs and for choosing the 'handsomest person' as king. The marriage customs were also noted as peculiar to the Cathaeans in that the bride and groom chose their spouse, recounted as the law of the land.[26]

Mauryan Empire

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During the formation of the Maurya Empire in the 3rd century BCE numerous mentions of the Vahika republics are stated, most notably in the Arthashastra, written by Chanakya in which he describes the horses coming from the Aratta as of the highest quality of the South Asian nations.[27] He also states that the Madra republic among others lived by the title of Raja.[28] According to Buddhist texts, Chanakya was born in the city of Taxila in which he had brought Chandragupta Maurya to educate him in numerous arts such as military strategy.[29] This is also confirmed by Plutarch in which he states that Alexander the Great had met with Chandragupta during his invasions.[30]

According to J. W. McCrindle and the Mudrarakshasa, the army that initially partook in the invasion of the Nanda Empire consisted of tribes and kingdoms of the North-Western region of South Asia in which Justin, a Greek writer from the 2nd century BCE, states that the army of Chandragupta consisted of 'robbers'.[31] McCrindle, hypothesises that these robbers mentioned by Justin to be the republican tribes of the Vahika region and Chanakya even notes that the source of the army were 'Choras' or 'robbers' and described them as the most heroic.[32]

The first century

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Phraotes

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In the 1st century CE, Phraotes, a Greek-speaking king of the city of Taxila, was met by the philosopher Apollonius of Tyana dated approximately to 46 CE, according to the Life of Apollonius Tyana written by Philostratus. The king who fits this date is Sases who is also the nephew of the Apracharaja, Aspavarma, and whose coinage has been dated to between 40 and 78 CE.[33] Apollionus describes the king as an Indian.[34]

He describe Phraotes' residence, Taxila, as being the same size as Nineveh, being walled like a Greek city whilst also being shaped with Narrow roads,[35][36] and further describe Phraotes kingdom as containing the old territory of Porus which spanned between the Jhelum and Chenab Rivers.[10] Following an exchange with the king, Phraotes is reported to have subsidized both barbarians and neighboring states, with the objective of averting incursions into his kingdom.[37] Phraotes also recounts that his father, being the son of a king, had become an orphan from a young age. In accordance with Indian customs, two of his relatives assumed responsibility for his upbringing until they were killed by rebellious nobles during a ritualistic ceremony along the Indus River.[38] This event led to the usurpation of the throne, compelling Phraotes' father to seek refuge with the king situated beyond the Hydaspes (Jhelum) River, in modern-day Punjab, a ruler esteemed greater than Phraotes' father. Moreover, Phraotes states that his father, received an education facilitated by the Brahmins upon request to the king and married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, whilst having one son that was Phraotes himself.[39] Phraotes proceeds to narrate the opportune moment he seized to reclaim his ancestral kingdom, sparked by a rebellion of the citizens of Taxila against the usurpers. With fervent support from the populace, Phraotes led a triumphant entry into the residence of the usurpers, whilst the citizens brandished torches, swords, and bows in a display of unified resistance.[40]

Tribes mentioned by Pliny

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During this period in the 1st century CE, Pliny the Elder notes a list of tribes in the Punjab region spanning from the lower Indus to the mountain tribes near the Hindu Kush.

After passing this island, the other side of the Indus is occupied, as we know by clear and undoubted proofs, by the Athoae, the Bolingae, the Gallitalutae, the Dimuri, the Megari, the Ardabae, the Mesae, and after them, the Uri and the Silae; beyond which last there are desert tracts, extending a distance of two hundred and fifty miles. After passing these nations, we come to the Organagae, the Abortae, the Bassuertae, and, after these last, deserts similar to those previously 'mentioned. We then come to the peoples of the Sorofages, the Arbae, the Marogomatrae, the Umbrittae, of whom there are twelve nations, each with two cities, and the Asini, a people who dwell in three cities, their capital being Bucephala, which was founded around the tomb of the horse belonging to king Alexander, which bore that name. Above these peoples there are some mountain tribes, which lie at the foot of Caucasus, the Soseadae and the Sondrae, and, after passing the Indus and going down its stream, the Samarabriae, the Sambraceni, the Bisambritae, the Orsi, the Anixeni, and the Taxilae, with a famous city, which lies on a low but level plain, the general name of the district being Amenda: there are four nations here, the Peucolaitae, the Arsagalitae, the Geretae, and the Assoi.

— Pliny the elder, Natural history

The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea dated to the late 1st century CE mentions that the country inland from Bharuch, in modern-day Gujarat, was inhabited by numerous tribes and proceeds to name the Poclais who resided in Boukephala (Jhelum), and the Aratti of Vahika whilst also naming the Gandaraei of Gandhara.[41] The book also describes that Spikenard came through the Poclais to reach Bharuch.[42]

Kulutas of Taxila

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In ancient times, the Kuluta formed a tribal republic situated around the Vahika region with coinage that displays notable similarities to that of the Audumbara and Kuninda tribes, this numismatic resemblance suggests close geographic proximity among the republics, typically associated with the Eastern Punjab.[43]

In Taxila, however, excavated coinage reflects a succession of Kuluta rulers following the Apracharajas in the 1st century CE, with the most significant being the silver coin of Virayasa disputed to have been dated between the 1st century CE and the 3rd century CE due to the coinage series produced in the Brahmi script with some Kharosthi remnants.[44] The coinage finds display the names of multiple other rulers such as Vijayamitra, Arya and Satyamitra, whilst also containing the Swastika and Nandipada symbols.[45] The Varāhamihira notes the North-West, situated around Taxila, and the North-East in the Kulu valley as two regions named as Kuluta strongholds,[46] though it is also noted that after the Kushan Empire advance, the coinage of the Taxila Kulutas ceised to exist and the coinage of Virayasa continued in the North-East Punjab.[47]

Shiladas and Gadaharas

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Following the downfall of the Kushan Empire in the 3rd century CE, numerous dynasties regained power in the Punjab such as that of the Shiladas and Gadaharas who ruled in central Punjab based on numesmatic evidence. They appear to have ruled successively for nearly a century before being subdued by the Kidarite Huns.[48] Of their coinage, numerous kings have been named, for instance, the Shilada coinage notes the kings Bhadra, Bacharna and Pasana whilst the Gadaharas name Peraya and Kirada.[49] These dynasties origins are not known however the Puranas note that after the fall of the Satavahana dynasty 'eight Yavana, fourteen Tushara and thirteen Murunda (Saka) chiefs ruled' though the lack of credibility of the Yavana chiefs rule has been acknowledged by scholars such as R. C. Majumdar.[50] These Tushara chiefs may also refer to the Little Kushans of the later Kushan empire whilst the Murunda may refer to the Western Satraps who are accredited with regaining power after the fall of the Satavahanas beginning with Rudrasena II.

Hunnic era

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In the 4th century CE various Mahajanapadas in the former territories of the Kushans emerged and it was during this time the Kidarites initiated incursions into South Asia, beginning with the conquest of Gandhara. Concurrently, the Gupta Empire, under the leadership of Samudragupta, annexed several northern kingdoms, resulting in various north-western republics paying tribute to him such as the Madra of Vahika based on the Allahabad Pillar inscription. His successful military campaigns in the region of Āryāvarta greatly enhanced his reputation and it is believed that his conquests and the resulting fame were significant factors in persuading frontier rulers and tribes to submit to his authority willingly, without engaging in any hostilities.[51]

(Lines 22–23) (Samudragupta, whose) formidable rule was propitiated with the payment of all tributes, execution of orders and visits (to his court) for obeisance by such frontier rulers as those of Samataṭa, Ḍavāka, Kāmarūpa, Nēpāla, and Kartṛipura, and, by the Mālavas, Ārjunāyanas, Yaudhēyas, Mādrakas, Ābhīras, Prārjunas, Sanakānīkas, Kākas, Kharaparikas and other (tribes)."

— Lines 22–23 of the Allahabad pillar inscription of Samudragupta (r.c.350-375 CE)[52]

The Vishnu Purana dated to between the 5th and 7th century CE during the Hunnic period mentions numerous kingdoms of Vahika such as that of the Madra, the people of Sagala, the Salwa and the Hunas, describing them as enhabiting their borders happy and properous.[53] It was during this era that many notable Chinese Buddhists visited the region such as Faxian c. 399 CE and Xuanzang c. 627 CE who documented their travels. In the travels of Faxian he describes crossing the Indus and entering a country named as ‘Bida’ in the Punjab in which Buddhism was flourishing.[54] The region of Bhida has been described as residing near the Jhelum River.[55]

Song Yun was another Chinese Buddhist monk who was contemporary to the Alchon Hunnic rule of Mihirakula and describes his visit with the king c. 520 CE. He states that Mihirakula's rule was cruel and vindictive with barborous atrocities taking place.[56] He further explains that Mihirakula abode with his troops on his frontier and never returned to his kingdom in which the old had to labour and the common people were oppressed.[57] His capital was also stated to have been at Sagala in Sialkot in which he struck his coins. Kalhana in his Rajatarangini describes how Mihirakula oppressed the local Brahmins of South Asia and imported Gandharan Brahmins into Kashmir and India whilst stating that he had given thousands of villages to these Brahmins in Kashmir.[58][59]

Taank kingdom

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The Taank Kingdom was a kingdom based in Punjab, between the 7th and 9th centuries ruled by the Takkas who are identified as ancient inhabitants of Punjab.[60] The main source regarding the kingdom are the chronicles of Xuanzang as well as other Arab writers. The kingdom was located south of Kashmir and north of Sindh extending from the Indus river in the west to the Beas river in the east, centred in Sagala based on Xuanzang's description of the region.[11]

The earliest Muslim author who mentions the kingdom is a merchant named Sulaiman. He visited the area before 851 AD. In his account, the kingdom is mentioned as Táfak. In 915 AD, the Arab historian Al-Masudi mentions it as at-Tákin, referring to the hills of the Punjab region. The name is read as Tákin by Sir Henry Elliott, and also as Táfan based on Masudi.[61] The account of Sulaimān the merchant calls its king malik at-taqa and further notes that he was in good terms with the Arabs and the Rashtrakuta Empire of the Deccan.[62] Ibn Khordadbeh mentions the king of the confederacy as next in eminence to the Balhara, and Kazwini mentions a fort named Taifand, the location of which agrees with the account of the hill of Sangala.[63]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Vishnu Varrier. India In Time Of Patanjali Baij Nath Puri BVB. According to the Mahabarat it denoted the people of the Punjab and Indus...according to the karnaparva they lived between the Sutlej and the Indus.
  2. ^ Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. p. 38. and Vahika, the latter comprising Madra and Usinara.
  3. ^ Vishnu Varrier. India In Time Of Patanjali Baij Nath Puri BVB. p. 77.
  4. ^ Tarn, William Woodthorpe (2010-06-24). The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press. p. 125. ISBN 978-1-108-00941-6.
  5. ^ Hutchison, John (1994). History of the Panjab Hill States. Asian Educational Services. p. 103. ISBN 978-81-206-0942-6. Bahika or Vahika is the name found in the epics to indicate the people of the Punjab. The word really means 'the outsiders', 'the aliens' and was evidently a term of contempt used by the inhabitants of the Gangetic plains to indicate the Punjabis.
  6. ^ Vishnu Varrier. India In Time Of Patanjali Baij Nath Puri BVB. p. 77. Mentioned by Patanjali as Vahikagrama and were also known as Jarttikas and Arattas.
  7. ^ Balfour, Edward (1885). Cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia: Commercial, Industrial and Scientific, Products of the Mineral, Vegetable, and Animal Kingdoms, Useful Arts and Manufactures. Bernard Quaritch. p. 1250.
  8. ^ Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. p. 53. Thus Panini names three divisions of the Vahika country, viz, Kekaya, Usinara and Madra to which is to be added the fourth division Savasa. Of these Kekaya and Savasa may be located between the Jhelum and the Chenab, the first in the south and the second in the north respectively and Madra and Usinara between the Chenab and the Ravi in the north and south respectively...In literature the Usinaras are often associated with the Sibi whose chief town Sibipura has been identified with Shorkot.
  9. ^ Law, Narendra Nath Ed (1953). The Indian Historical Quarterly,vol.29. p. 18. Patanjali mentions Patanaprastha as a Vahikagrama. It may be identified with Paithan or Pathankot situated at the entrance of the Kangra Valley and at one time the capital of the Audumbaras,
  10. ^ a b De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 76. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. and was the residence of a sovereign who ruled over what of old was the kingdom of Porus.
  11. ^ a b CUNNINGHAM, Sir Alexander (1871). The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, Including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang ... With Thirteen Maps. Trübner&Company. p. 149.
  12. ^ Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. p. 38. Udichya and Prachya are the two broad divisions of the country mentioned by Panini, and these terms occur in connection with the linguistic forms known to the eastern and northern grammarians. The Udichya country included Gandhara and Vahika, the latter comprising Madra and Usinara.
  13. ^ Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. p. 77. Panini specially mentions the Vahika sanghas, some dominated by Brahmanas as ruling caste, others by Rajanyas, and called Rajanyaka
  14. ^ Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. p. 443. The chapter opens with a reference to such saghas in the Vahika country, the cradle-land of martial tribes who cultivated military art as a way of life.
  15. ^ Agrawala, V. S. (1953). India as known to Panini. pp. 63–73.
  16. ^ Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. University Press. 1889. p. 212.
  17. ^ Sircar, Dineschandra (1971). Studies in the Geography of Ancient and Medieval India. Motilal Banarsidass Publ. p. 200. ISBN 978-81-208-0690-0. Gandhara and Mleccha peoples were descendants respectively of Yayati's sons, Turvasu, Druhyu and Anu. Gandhara after whom the Gandhara-visaya was named is represented as the great grandson of Druhyu.
  18. ^ Frawley 2000, p. 118.
  19. ^ "Alexander and His Successors in Central Asia" (PDF). p. 72. The ruler of Taxila wanted to satisfy his own grudge against Porus
  20. ^ "Alexander and His Successors in Central Asia" (PDF). p. 72. Taxiles and the others came to meet him, bringing gifts reckoned of value among the Indians. They presented him with the twenty-five elephants....and when they reached the Indus, they were to make all necessary preparations for the passage of the army. Taxiles and the other chiefs marched with them.
  21. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 1. Here he had to depend upon and appoint Indians as his satraps, viz., Ambhi, king of Taxila, to rule from the Indus to the Hydaspes (Jhelum).
  22. ^ "Alexander and His Successors in Central Asia" (PDF). p. 81.
  23. ^ Rogers, p.200
  24. ^ Arrian, Chinnock (1884). The Anabasis Of Alexander. p. 301. Meantime he received information that the tribe called Cathaeans and some other tribes of the independent Indians were preparing for battle...He was also informed that the city, Sangala by name,' near which they were thinking of having the struggle... The Cathaeans themselves were considered very daring and skilful in war... For a short time before it happened that Porus and Abisares had marched against them with their own forces and had roused many other tribes of the independent Indians to arms, but were forced to retreat without effecting anything worthy of the preparations they had made.
  25. ^ Arrian, Chinnock (1884). The Anabasis Of Alexander. pp. 301–304.
  26. ^ "The Geography of Strabo". As for Cathaea, a most novel regard for beauty there is reported; I mean that it is prized in an exceptional manner, as, for example, for the beauty of its horses and dogs; and, in fact, Onesicritus says that they choose the handsomest person as king... The following too is reported as a custom peculiar to the Cathaeans: the groom and bride choose one another themselves, and wives are burned up with their deceased husbands for a reason of this kind
  27. ^ Shamasastry, R. (1951). Kautilya’S Arthasastra. p. 148. The breed of Kamboja Sindhu Aratta and Vanayu countries the best; those of Bahlika, Papaye, Sauvira, and Taitala are of middle quality and the rest ordinary (avarah),
  28. ^ Shamasastry, R. (1951). Kautilya’S Arthasastra. p. 408. The corporations of Lichchhivika, Vrjika, Mallaka, Madraka, Kukura, Kuru, Panchala and others lived by the title of a raja.
  29. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 2. We owe to Buddhist texts and traditions some details of the early life of Chandragupta and the circumstances which led Kautilya to discover Chandragupta in a village as the adopted son of a cowherd, from whom, seeing in him the sure promise of his future greatness, he bought the boy by paying on the spot 1000 kdrshapanas. Kautilya then took the boy with him to his native city of Takshasila (Taxila), then the most renowned seat of learning in India, and had him educated there for a period of seven or eight years in the humanities and the practical arts and crafts of the time {silpa) including the military arts.
  30. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 2. This tradition is curiously confirmed by Plutarch's statement that Chandragupta as a youth had met Alexander during his campaigns in the Panjab. This was possible because Chandragupta was already living in that locality with Kautilya.
  31. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 3. ...that he organised an army of liberation out of the lawless and violent elements of society whom Justin calls 'robbers'; that his strategy was first to dispose of Alexander's generals who, as already stated, had been appointed satraps
  32. ^ Sastri, K. a Nilakanta (1957). Comprehensive History Of India Vol.2 (mauryas And Satavahanas). p. 3. Now who were these 'robbers' whom Chandragupta considered lit for enlistment in his army They were, as pointed out by McCrindle, the republican peoples of the Panjab who played such a prominent part in resisting Alexander's invasion. They were the Arattas or Arashtrakas, i.e., kingless peoples, not living under a rashtra or state, of which the normal type was the kingship. Baudhayana in liis Dharmasutra^ {c. 400 b.c.) describes the Panjab as the country of Arattas. The Mahabharata calls the Panjab the Panchanadas, 'natives of the land of five rivers', and also Vahikas, 'people of the land of rivers'... It is also interesting to note that Kautilya mentions as the sources of recruitment for the army ; the choras, or pratirodhakas of the day, robbers and outlaws; the Chora-ganas, organised gangs of brigands; the mlechchha tribes like the kirata highlanders; the atavakas, foresters ; and the warrior clans called sastropajmsrenis. Kautilya* counts the soldiery recruited from these clans as most heroic (prama).
  33. ^ Rienjang, Wannaporn; Stewart, Peter (2018-03-14). Problems of Chronology in Gandhāran Art: Proceedings of the First International Workshop of the Gandhāra Connections Project, University of Oxford, 23rd-24th March, 2017. Archaeopress. pp. 16–17. ISBN 978-1-78491-855-2.
  34. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 76. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. Tho Indus passed, their new guide led them straight to Taxila, where was the palace of the Indian king.
  35. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 76. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. Taxila was about the size of Ninovoh, walled like a Greek city
  36. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 77. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. They are taken to the palace. They found the city divided by narrow streets, well-arranged, and reminding them of Athens.
  37. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 78. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. Phraotes, in answer, said that he was moderate because his wants were few, and that as he was wealthy, he employed his wealth in doing good to his friends, and in subsidizing the barbarians, his neighbours, to prevent them from themselves ravaging, or allowing other barbarians to ravage his territories.
  38. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 81. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. The king then told how his father, the son of a king, had been left very young an orphan; and how during his minority two of his relatives according to Indian custom acted as regents, but with so little regard to law, that some nobles conspired against them, and slow them as they were sacrificing to the Indus, and seized upon the government
  39. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 81. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. How on this his father, then sixteen years of age, fled to the king beyond the Hydaspes, a greater king than himself, who received him kindly... he requested to be sent to the Brahmans; and how the Brahmans educated him; and how in time he married the daughter of the Hydaspian king, and received with her seven villages as pin-money, and had issue one son, himself, Phraotes.
  40. ^ De Beauvoir Priaulx, Osmond (1860). "The Indian Travels of Apollonius of Tyana". Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland. 17: 81. ISSN 0035-869X. JSTOR 25581224. When I crossed the Hydraotis, I heard that, of the usurpers, one was already dead, and the other besieged in this very palace; so I hurried on, proclaiming to the villages I passed through who I was, and what were my rights : and the people received me gladly; and declaring I was tho very picture of my father and grandfather, they accompanied me, many of them armed with swords and bows, and our numbers increased daily ; and when we reached this city, the inhabitants, with torches lit at the altar of the Sun, and singing the praises of my father and grandfather, came out and welcomed me, and brought me hither.
  41. ^ "The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : travel and trade in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). p. 41. The country inland from Barygaza is inhabited In numerous tribes such as the Arattii the Arachosii the Gandaraei and the people of Poclais in which is Bucephalus Alexandria.
  42. ^ "The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea : travel and trade in the Indian Ocean" (PDF). p. 42. Through this same region and from the upper country is brought spikenard that comes through Poclais
  43. ^ Lahiri, Bela (1964). "The Kulutas as Known from Coins". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 26: 74–78. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44133091. The similarity of the silver coins of the Audumbaras, Kulutas, and the Kunindas also suggests that their territories were not far separated from one another
  44. ^ Lahiri, Bela (1964). "The Kulutas as Known from Coins". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 26: 74–78. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44133091. As to the date of the silver coin of Virayasas, it has been pointed out by Allan that the Brahmi legend "is practically Sanskrit, which shows that the coin is not early ; the survival of the Prakrit rana in Kharoshthi on the reverse shows that it cannot be very late." A date about 100 A.D. is, therefore, suggested by him. D. C. Sircar, on the other hand, proposes a date about the latter half of the third century A. D. for Virayasa.
  45. ^ Lahiri, Bela (1964). "The Kulutas as Known from Coins". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 26: 74–78. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44133091. Four rulers, viz. Arya (?), Satyamitra (?) Vijayamitra and Virayasas seem to be represented by the following sets of legends, as restored by Allan... The coins of Class I are of purely Indian types, consisting of groups of symbols on either side. The symbols on the obverse are the nandipada-standard-in-railing or tree-in-railing, circlet surrounded by four nandipadas, conventionalized lotus, and taurine, while those on the reverse are the six-tiered mountain surmounted by standard, svastika.
  46. ^ Lahiri, Bela (1964). "The Kulutas as Known from Coins". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 26: 74–78. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44133091. It may be recalled here that Varahamihira refers to two peoples of this name, one in the North-West Division, another in the North East Division, the latter of which is identified with the Kulutas of the Kulu valley. It is not unlikely that Varahamihira's Kulutas of the North-West Division refer to a section of the tribe who remained in its original home near Taxila even after the migration of its another section under Virayasa.
  47. ^ Lahiri, Bela (1964). "The Kulutas as Known from Coins". Proceedings of the Indian History Congress. 26: 74–78. ISSN 2249-1937. JSTOR 44133091. Virayasas whose coins alone are found both at Taxila and in the north-eastern Punjab, appears to be the latest of the rulers represented by the Taxila pieces. It may possibly be suggested, therefore, that the predecessors of Virayasas began to rule somewhere near Taxila in the north-western Punjab about the beginning of the first century A.D. Since the Taxila coins were buried during the period of Kadphises II, it appears that the Kulutas were driven from their original home near Taxila by the pressure of Kushana conquest about the latter part of the first century A.D, when Virayasas probably shifted his capital to the later and better-known settlement of the Kulutas, the Kulu valley. But since the coin of no other Kuluta ruler is found in this region, it seems that Virayasas could not hold long against the Kushana onslaughts and was probably the last independent ruler of the Kuluta.
  48. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1954). Vakataka Gupta age (Circa 200-550 A.D.). pp. 18–19. The numismatic evidence shows that the Shlladas and the Gadaharas were holding sway over line Central Punjab at this time.
  49. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1954). Vakataka Gupta age (Circa 200-550 A.D.). p. 21. Kings Bhadra Bacharna and Pasana of the former dynasty and Peraya and Kirada of the latter are known from coins. There may have been other rulers as well, Whose coins may not have come down to us. Both these dynasties were ruling in the Central Punjab down to the days of Samudragupta
  50. ^ Majumdar, Ramesh Chandra; Altekar, Anant Sadashiv (1954). Vakataka Gupta age (Circa 200-550 A.D.). p. 21. From dthe Puranas we learn that 8 Yavana 14 Tushara and 13 Murundu chiefs ruled, presumably in the Punjab, after the fall of the Andhras. It would appear that tlie Puranik writers had the Shaka, Shilada and Gadahara dynasties in view when they wrote this account. It appears strange that the Puranas should have described one of these dynasties as Yavana; Greek rule bad become extinct long ago. It is however likely that the term may be referring to the tribe Jouan-Jouan of the Chinese writers who were threatening the Kushans in c. 320 AD.
  51. ^ A Comprehensive History of India: pt. 1. A.D. 300-985. People's Publishing House. 1981. p. 25.
  52. ^ Cite error: The named reference archive.org was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  53. ^ Veda Vyasa. Vishnu Purana English Translation with Sanskrit Text. p. 152. Dwelling along the Paripatra mountains: the Sauviras, the Saindhavas, the Hunas. the Salwas, the people of Sakala, the Madras, the Ramas, the Ambashthas. and the Parasikas, and others. These nations drink of the water of the rivers above enumerated, and inhabit their borders, happy and prosperous.
  54. ^ Giles, H. A. (1923). The Travels Of FA Hsien. p. 19. Fnom this point they journeyed eastward for three days and again crossed the Indus, on both banks of which the land is flat. Across the river the pilgrims were in a country called Bida (in the Punjab), where the Faith is very flouring under both the Greater and Lesser Vehicles.
  55. ^ Faxian (1869). Travels of Fah-Hian and Sung-Yun, Buddhist Pilgrims: From China to India (400 A.D. and 518 A.D.). Trübner. p. 51. ISBN 978-0-524-01437-0. ...but more probably it indicates Bhida or Bhira on the Jhelum which was for a short time the capital of the Brahman kings of Punjab
  56. ^ "Modi_History of the Huns.pdf" (PDF). p. 337. The disposition of this king (or dynasty) was cruel and vindictive , and he practised the most barbarous atrocities
  57. ^ "Modi_History of the Huns.pdf" (PDF). p. 337. The king continuously abode with his troops on the frontier, and never returned to his kingdom in consequence of which the old men had to labour and the common people were oppressed
  58. ^ "Modi_History of the Huns.pdf" (PDF). p. 342. It is the same Mihirkula who is referred to in the Rajatarangini, the History of Kashmir, by Kalhana, as a wicked king who was opposed to the local Brahmins and·who imported Gandhara Brahmins into Kashmir and India.
  59. ^ Kalhana, Jogesh Chunder Dutt. Rajatarangini of Kalhana - English - Jogesh Chunder Dutt Volumes 1 & 2. p. 21. He gave thousands of villages in Vijayeahvara to the Brahmanas of Gandhara.
  60. ^ The Panjab Past and Present. Department of Punjab Historical Studies, Punjabi University. 1977. p. 9. Aurel Stein and Cunningham both agree in identifying Takkas with Madras or Bahikas of Mahabharata - both being the ancient inhabitants of the Punjab. In the lexicon of Hemacandra also, the Bahikas are said to be the same as Takkas.
  61. ^ CUNNINGHAM, Sir Alexander (1871). The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, Including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang ... With Thirteen Maps. Trübner&Company. p. 150.
  62. ^ Wink, André (2002), "The Mahārājas of India", Al-Hind: Early medieval India and the expansion of Islam, 7th-11th centuries, vol. 1, Brill, pp. 219–358, doi:10.1163/9789004483002_009, ISBN 978-90-04-48300-2
  63. ^ CUNNINGHAM, Sir Alexander (1871). The Ancient Geography of India. I. The Buddhist Period, Including the Campaigns of Alexander, and the Travels of Hwen-Thsang ... With Thirteen Maps. Trübner&Company. p. 152.

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