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THE PERSISTING FACTORS ENCOURAGING POLYGAMY IN GHANA AND THEIR CONSEQUENCES  

By Betty Baba INTRODUCTION

Polygamy is still widespread in sub-Saharan countries especially in the French speaking countries as compared to the former British colonies. In the case of countries like Senegal, Ivory Coast, Benin and Cameroon, the rate of polygamous marriages as compared to monogamous marriages remains constant. A good example of an English speaking country where polygamy is rather declining is Ghana. It is not proved that the evolution of polygamy is closely related to the colonial history of West African countries.As a form of marriage, polygamy has been considered to be morally wrong by Christian missionaries and from the dominant view point of Eurasian societies(Goody 1976). Even some well-educated Christianized African elites in sub-Saharan modern society. Some people refer to polygamy as shameful and label it as “backward” or “bush” behaviour.

POLYGAMY IN THE HISTORICAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT OF SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA Due to high infant mortality, deadly diseases and wars, population density remained very low for many centuries. African families have always desired to have many children in order to cope with prevailing dangers and calamities through multiple marriages. In black African culture, the number of children is maximized by the system of polygamy. Polygamy is also designed to ensure no shortage of potential husbands and to maximize a woman’s chances of pregnancy. The custom of long female postpartum sexual abstinence that is believed to be able to reduce infant mortality (Caldwell and Caldwell 1987). The main features of polygamy in this culture reveals first marriage, at an early age which ensures their early exposure to pregnancy, quick remarriage of separated, divorced, or widow women. The bride-price originally took the form of tangible goods like livestock but of late it has increasingly been replaced by cash. In Africa there are different sorts of remarriages: e.g. levirate or sororal but the dominant remarriage is usually the levirate (i.e., to inherit a deceased male relatives wife, usually one of his younger or elder brother’s wife). The main goal of the cult is to have many descendants so that the family line is strengthened. The deceased ancestors are given the opportunities of rebirth within the family.Polygamy serves as a means to maintaining the endless line of births and rebirths and to strengthen the power of the family as well as the status of the old patriarch through the growth in family size and to foster the family linage.

AGRICULTURAL VISION In many African countries some relate polygamy to religious belief, prestige, cultural, social and agricultural values. Studies disproved this hypothesis because relative to other African countries polygamy, has long coexisted with a primitive system of agriculture in which women do most of the farm work. (Boserup 1970).In other parts of African countries, men are motivated to have two or more wives and many children, because their wives and children serve as a form of cheap labour and as a means to expand their ownership of farmland cleared from communally owned land (Boserup 1985).Apart from farming women always have in addition many domestic chores to do (e.g., fetching water and firewood, cleaning, cooking, and nursing). In certain circumstances or situations, a woman may even encourage her husband to take in a co-wife to share her heavy workload.Since, the first wife is usually vested with the authority to assign and distribute domestic chores to her co-wives; the existence of co-wives also helps to enhance her status.In the polygamy system of sub-Saharan countries, women have much lower status than men and are especially vulnerable when they become spouseless or childless (Boserup 1970). Without the right to inherit the property of her husband, a wife in this system is motivated to maintain high fertility, hoping that at least one of the surviving children is a son on whose inheritance she can continue farming after her field or represent the family as the head of the house hold .after her husband’s death. Her greatest fear is the inability to bear children, which is not only a valid reason for her husband to divorce her but also a cause for her community to make her an out cast in the society.Since the bride price is basically given in exchange for the labour and reproductive capacity of the bride, a divorce is accompanied by the return of the bride price to the husband’s family. In a matrilineal system, the repayment can be partial, if the wife has given birth to a son who will remain with the husband.

THE INCONVIENCES AMONG THE CO-WIFES The co-wife or sisters as they are called are compelled to share the husband, make schedules for rooster, to cook and share the marital bed with her co-wife.Jealousy between co-wives is a rampant problem that threatens the harmony in a polygamous family (Wilson 1962). Before the colonial era, divorces were initiated by husbands, usually on the ground that their wives were infertile or unable to bear enough sons. After the colonial administrators permitted females to initiate divorce. It became quite common for a woman to get a divorce in order to marry a man with greater wealth or higher status. What is certain is that where there is economic and social development people tend to have less wives and children. Polygamy is still rampant in spite of the increasing economic problems faced by the population in West Africa due to the globalisation and economic competitiveness. The social and cultural changes in West Africa have certainly not affected polygamy. Islam, traditional and agricultural factors seem to be the most important reasons for polygamy.

CULTURAL SPHERE Polygamy is also practised by non Muslims especially within the traditional idol worshippers who neither belong to the Islamic nor Christian religion Even though polygamy is often related to the need for sufficient manpower to work in farms, having many women is still considered as prestigious in traditional societies. Having many children is a synonymous to prosperity. Some people say that having many children increases the chance of being cared for in ones old age in a society where there is no social security. It is not surprising that some countries recognise polygamy and even legalize it e.g. Mali. The fact remains clear .whether the economic and social problem in this modern era will play a major role in the evolution of polygamy or not, only time will tell.

SOCIAL SPHERE Discreet sexual relationship with pre-marital girls is in generally tolerated, as long as it does not result in pregnancy. Separated or divorced women who are not yet remarried. Single males, many married males, especially those in monogamous polygamous unions also look for female sexual partners, mainly because of the long (traditional custom) postpartum female sexual abstinence (Caldwell, Orubuloye, and Caldwell 1991). Thus, pre-marital, extra-marital, and inter-marital sexual relationships involving multiple and overlapping partners, are an integral part of the polygamy system in sub-Saharan Africa.Polygamy is declining in some societies like in Ghana. The southern regions are increasingly adopting the plough cultivation and commercial livestock raising, as the basic economic activity. This has reduced the importance of the participation of female labourers and hence has reduced the incentive to have multiple wives (Boserup 1970; Kuper 1985; Timaeus and Graham1989). The persistency of these values, and the decline in polygamous unions in the urban areas of sub-Saharan Africa has been accompanied by the growth of various forms of multiple and/or serial informal marriages which involve rather irregular “girl friends” and somehow regular “outside wives”.The cultural vision of polygamy also helps to maintain a very high fertility level. Polygamy is a highly significant aspect of sub-Saharan African societies. It has thus contributed to a high demographic birth rate in sub-Saharan African countries since the 1950s. The high fertility rates between 6 and 8 children to a woman and the substantial reduction of high mortality level in modern era due to medical facilities.

MARRIAGE IN THE AFRICAN TRADITION Polygamy is acceptable in sub-Saharan societies, because marriage is often arranged by the groom’s and bride’s families. The bride price is paid by the groom’s family for the use of the bride’s family. A token is known as the dowry. It’s understood implicitly that the bride has the obligation to satisfy the sexual needs of both her husband. In sub-Saharan Africa, an adultery that is indiscreet or results in pregnancy is taken as an offence on the woman’s husband and his family The penalty usually involves the beating of the female and a fine on the male. When the female happens to be the wife of a person with high status such as a chief, the penalty can be as severe as death. However, since the fear of being known as impotent is much greater than the anger over the wife’s adultery, the husband may choose to be complacent or even secretly invite a trusted young man to satisfy his wife’s sexual needs between the two sexes (Boserup 1970). Many well-educated and wealthy men are not ashamed of enjoying the advantages of having several wives. It has also become rather common for Christianized monogamous men to have one or more “outside wives” or “girl friends,” provided that they are wealthy enough to afford the luxury. Actually, many sub-Saharan African men in urban areas consider the possession of outside wives as a reflection of high status and achievement (Karanja 1994). So the spirit of polygamy still remains very strong. In the remaining part of this paper, we will attempt to gain some insights into the factors on married women’s propensities of being in polygamous unions, based on the micro data of the DHS.

THE STATISTICAL METHOD. The micro data used in this paper are from the DHS (phase 1) conducted in the late1980s on women aged 15 to 49 in rural and urban regions (Ghana:1988) The survey questionnaires used were different variables to distinguish the status of monogamy and polygamy in Ghana.The selection of potentially useful socio-demographic factors to explain the polygamous tendencies is based on preference for having them “predetermined” (i.e., not affected by whether the women became polygamous or monogamous). The levels of educational attainment of women and their husbands, as well as women’s ideas about their influence on religious belief which is misinterpretation of the Coran that “Men are entitled to 4 wives» is important. The clause in the Coran which stipulates that “if only these women are treated equally” is not respected after marriage. However, we have to be careful in interpreting the estimated coefficient of this factor. Although it is highly desirable to have a household’s income and wealth included in the set of explanatory factors.The DHS does not collect data on such economic attributes. The survey does yield information on a husband’s occupation analysis focuses on the effects of socio-demographic factors. In interpreting our findings, we will assume that educational attainment is positively correlated with income and wealth with respect to the selection of observations; we first restrict our samples to currently married women, including those in the “married” and “living together” categories. This restriction results in nearly the same proportions of women in polygamy.

ESTIMATION RESULTS The sizes of our samples range between married women. Although our statistical analysis is focused on the variations it is useful to point out some of the explanations for the differences obtained.Some of these differences are probably due to the different modes of production in the rural economy. The extensive involvement of rural women in the hoe cultivation of root crops and in trading at local markets in West African countries like Senegal and Ghana enhances the importance of female labour and hence provides a stronger incentive for males to form polygamous unions. However, in plough cultivation and livestock-raising, widely practiced in the Southern African countries like Zimbabwe, the importance of rural female labour is lowered and is a factor in making multiple wives an economic burden for potentially polygamous husbands (Boserup 1970; Moyo 1995).The prevalence of their choice for polygamy could be either religion educational background of either the women or the men. Ghanaians, who are Muslim, have tended to be polygamous minded as compared to Christians. In order to get qualitative results we have to analyse the table in order to get a concrete and comprehensive explanation.

ANALYSTIC CONTEXTE: The single-factor Analysis Effects of women’s formal educationRooted in the tradition of missionary schools, the formal education systems of most African countries introduce to children and young adults Western values, including the preference for monogamy and the recognition of women as individual human beings rather than family properties. We may thus hypothesize that women with better education are less likely to be in polygamous unions. The observed proportions of polygamy computed for four levels of education (no education, primary, secondary, and higher) in all four countries generally support this hypothesis. From no education to secondary, the proportions drop monotonically in the southern part of Ghana as compared to the North. Tendency is reduced further with an increase in a woman’s education from secondary to a higher level.2. Effects of men’s formal educationSince a man with more formal education is in general subject to be more greatly influenced by Western values and hence is more willing to be monogamous, we may hypothesize that a woman’s propensity of being in a polygamous union is a decreasing function of her husband’s level of education. However, the perceived advantages of polygamy (e.g., greater kinship network, more descendants, and the sense of achievement) can counter the imported values against polygamy. Further more, the males with higher education are more likely to be rich enough to pay for an additional bride and the cost of maintaining a larger family. We may thus further hypothesize that unlike the effect of women’s education, an increase in their husbands‘education from secondary to a higher level may result in very little reduction or even some increase in the tendency for polygamy. For the women in the urban region, as compared to the rural, we observed that polygamy declines sharply and significantly with an increase in the husbands’ education. From no education to secondary education remains the same. In short, we found that an increase in education up to secondary level for either females or males, tended to reduce the females’ propensities of being in polygamous. Educated females continued to show a strong negative effect, whereas an increase for males had no practical effect a positive effect on their polygamous tendencies 3. Effects of religionChristian authorities prohibit or discourage polygamy, whereas Islamic authorities permit it, up to a maximum of four wives in principle. Thus, we may hypothesize that Christian women are less likely to be in polygamous unions, whereas Muslim women would have an opposite tendency.It is, however, important to point out that in other regions of the world (e.g., theMiddle East and South Asia), where women are not expected to support themselves through such activities as farming, Muslim men have a rather low tendency of forming polygamous unions, around 5% or less (Chamie 1986). Islam stipulates that a polygamous man must treat all his wives equally and has the duty to support all of them (Boserup 1970). Although a woman who has no choice but to be a higher-rank wife in a polygamous union, would probably prefer a Muslim husband so that she could avoid being treated as a servant to the first wife. An orthodox Muslim man is unlikely to take in more than one wife, unless he has the means to support more. In sub-Saharan Africa where most women are traditionally expected to support themselves to a large extent, it may be expected that Muslims would be more prone to be polygamous than Christians but not more likely than the followers of traditional religions.The culture of polygamy is so well-established in sub-Saharan Africa before the arrival of Islam. In African countries where both Christian and Muslim religions are identifiable in the survey data, we found that Muslim women were significantly and substantially more prone to be in polygamous unions than Christian women. 4. Effects of urbanization In urban as compared to rural areas, the difficulties in forming and maintaining traditional polygamous unions can be increased by housing shortages, the high cost of living, the high risk of unemployment, low wages in the informal sector, the high cost of raising and educating children, and the high sex ratio Thus, we may hypothesize that proportions of polygamy are lower in urban areas than in rural areas .In the region studied, we found that the observed proportions of polygamy are indeed lower in urban areas than in rural areas 5. Effects of current age (young girls & Boys))Given that the different age groups among the youths are more subject to the ongoing process of modernization, we may hypothesize that the proportions of polygamy tend to be lower for more recent (younger age groups). Another reason for this hypothesized relationship is that a married woman of an older age group has a longer exposure to the risk that her husband acquires an additional wife. The observed proportions of polygamy indeed show declining trends towards younger ages between the 15–19 and 40–49 age. It is interesting to note that a substantial drop in the proportion of polygamy from the 40–49 to the 30–39 age group is observed in Ghana. 6. Effects of age at first marriageThe sub-Saharan countries are characterized by early ages at first marriage. According to our samples, the mean age at first marriage for women is 18 in Ghana. It may be hypothesized that the women who get married at excessively late ages, say beyond 29, are more likely to be from poor or problematic families so that they have a greater chance of being in polygamous unions. It may also be hypothesized that a woman who marries too early (in or even before the early teens) has more years to be at risk of seeing her husband acquiring an additional wife so that her chance of being in a polygamous union in the later part of her life is increased. The hypothesis clarifies the data of proportions polygamy with respect to the age at first marriage. For Ghana, the proportions of polygamy remain about the same (30%) from the early teens to the late twenties and then jump to 53% in the 30–41 age interval. For both Senegal and Ghana, the jump to a very high level in the thirties is statistically insignificant, because extremely few females remain single in their thirties. 7. Effects of ethnicityIn many Africa countries, where there are distinct ethnic groups with different traditions and values these indigenes are trying to be influenced by European model; their life style and the religious belief due to modernization may differ substantially. Therefore, proportions of polygamy may differ significantly among the ethnic group women.

ABORTION CONTROVERSY SINCE 1973

By Betty Baba

The issue of abortion is a debate that divides the nation over fundamental choice between two competing rights: The right of the foetus as a human life and a woman’s right to choice.In America today, some people see abortion as an essential right some consider it as an evil and criminal practice or an offence, even though abortion has been legalized for more than twenty years since 1973.

BACKGROUND The legalization of abortion came about during the Roe versus Wade case. It is therefore important to note that the abortion controversy which haunts the American nation encompasses the legal, religious and the cultural heritage of the American society as a whole.Since the legalization of abortion by the Supreme Court, it's still difficult to have an abortion. In fact the abortion law, although it finally gave American women the right to keep or end their pregnancy is still difficult to be executed.The difficulty to have an abortion exists not only in the governmental hospitals, but also in the private clinics. Worse of all the execution of the 1973 abortion law varies between states, although the law is supposed to be obeyed equally all over the United States. What one has to note also is that these variations in the enforcement of the abortion law are legal according to state law.In fact the abortion controversy in America is a big problem for women with unwanted pregnancies who sometimes have contraceptive failure of 3 or 4 %. The unwanted pregnancy can be due to several reasons:Ø FinancialØ SocialØ Religious belief. Abortion in America encompasses a legal battle, on moral values which divides Americans. Each year more than 6 million American women (11% of all women of reproductive age) become pregnant .More than half of these pregnancies are accidental pregnancies and 1.6 million are terminated by an abortion. A radical solution for women confronted with unwanted pregnancy is to have an abortion regardless of laws, morals and ethics.Abortion is considered today, as a safe method of putting an end to unwanted pregnancy but it’s still hard to get done. For instance, the risk of abortion complications is minimal: less than 1% of all abortion patients in 1996 experienced complications. Almost half of the women having an abortion beyond 15 weeks of gestation said that they were delayed because of problem in obtaining abortion services. This shows to a certain level that abortion still remains difficult in spite of its legalisation.

THE ASPECTS OF THE NEW LAW AND ITS CONSEQUENCES:

The difficulty to get an abortion in spite of its legalisation is not only due to the ambiguity of the law but it also seems to hail from several factors. The puritanical and historical American heritage has for centuries before the legalisation of abortion in America considered abortion an immoral act although it was practised in hide outs.The evolution of the American society has however showed that a growing number of people need abortion due to the changing society, to protect and to promote their career or for social reasons, especially in the case of teenagers, and the poor. Those who need abortion are not necessarily unbelievers or immoral people.The court decision that established the concept of foetal viability was divided into 3 parts and corresponds to the three trimesters in a normal pregnancy for medical and legal reasons:During the first trimester of a pregnancy the states cannot limit abortion in any way. The decision is left for the woman and her doctor; therefore the states cannot limit abortion under any pretext.In the second trimester, it was ruled that states can restrict abortion only by status aimed at protecting the mother’s health these measures were to protect the life of a pregnant woman in danger. A qualified doctor was asked to practice the abortion.In the third trimester, (that is from the point of viability to birth), the states interest in preserving the life of the unborn become compelling, and they may limit or even ban abortion, except when necessary to save the mother’s life. Since the foetus is not able to live independently and unprotected by civil law. Under what circumstances, if any, may life be determined, prior to the time it becomes conscious? In this controversy does the foetus have a conscious awareness in order to declare that life has begun? In the complexity of the new law, does life really begin at conception?Whatever the degree, or lack, of perception of the foetus in the controversy over abortion, these question remains, unanswered even by doctors. Each woman has a fundamental right to privacy mentioned in the 14th Amendment (concept of personal liberty).No man can deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law), and in the 9th Amendment (The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed, denied, disparage or restrained by the people. As a matter of fact this right was limited by any state wishing to impose a legal restriction in the interest of the foetus (third trimester).A landmark decision was made as it legalized first trimester abortion but it limited women’s freedom on the base that a doctor should intervene concerning procreation. It was seen as a violation of state’s rights. The feminist and the pro –choice groups expected that abortion should be available to all women and requested the restrictive abortion law to be totally repealed. Public opinion was extremely divided because 46% favoured the decision and 45% opposed it. It is quiet clear that in spite of the legalisation of abortion Americans are divided on this issue. Somehow one is not surprised that abortion is hard to get done since anti-abortionists are likely to oppose it.Since 1973, efforts to overturn Roe through a constitutional amendment and state legislature with repeated challenges to the principle of reproductive freedom have failed by the pro-life movement. The vagueness of the 1973 decision, in failing to deal with rights of the unborn till today is the main target of the pro-life activists in their fight to out law abortion. The pro-life mobilized against Roe and backed a successful legislative effort of representative of Henry Hyde of Illinois in 1976. This was a federal medical aid abortion funding restriction. It prohibits the use of most medical aid funds for abortion. The period between 1973-1989 was the toughest battle ever held. It was a period of political reaction to the abortion controversy. Pro-lifers attempt to influence congress to enact bills to Counter check the Supreme Court’s new decisions.The attack on the 1973 abortion law lead to several controversies like the 1976 Planned Parenthood of central Missouri vs Danforth. So many others influenced the Supreme Court to instruct that the government will not interfere with the husband and wife decision concerning pregnancy.The Supreme Court also ruled that a state can attack certain requirements to abort this meant that the woman has to write before abortion that, she gave her approval. The state legislature was meant to encourage a third person (such as husbands or parents) to prevent an abortion.The Supreme Court claimed before these contradictions that it didn’t interfere with the 1973 decision. All the same all the states except thirteen prohibited medical aid coverage under almost all circumstances. This decision was meant to hinder the poor and minority and to make abortion inaccessible.The complexity of these rules was another way to time back Roe with out reversing it, because even for a strict conservative court, reversing Roe would only lead to blunders and would alter millions of lives. A decade after the Roe case, the Supreme Court consistently upheld a woman’s fundamental right to decide with regards to abortion.Despite t0he court reaffirmation of Roe, abortion has remained one of the most volatile issues in the American society. States continued to legislate on the abortion issue, and the endless measures of the Supreme Court to strike down any attempt to restrict abortion was in consistent with Roe.In the abortion controversy there are realities: The changing role of women in the American society and the challenges they present for men. Women’s professional and economic aspiration coupled with the gender inequalities remain an unattainable goal for them. This is because motherhood means a loss of social and economic freedom and it forces these women to stay at home instead of embracing a career.During the sixties, the role of women in the American society changed drastically. Women entered the paid labour force. More and more women worked because couples cannot pay their bills with just a salary. They cannot afford to have children because the United States is still among the few industrialised nations with no national policy on adequate maternity. Hence part time jobs, child care, and inadequate “social welfare” are quite common and do not favour.

CHANGES IN RECENT YEARS

Recently, more than 54 % women were in the labour force. It’s however difficult to combine motherhood and work.As a result, unwanted pregnancies became a threat to woman’s goals. They are also confronted with disparity between their salaries and that of men. This gap still exists today. As a result, women chose to delay marriage and child rearing in order to achieve advancement and promotion. About 11% of married couples prefer not to have children at all because they want to promote their careers and enjoy life. Children are considered as a burden. These organisations call themselves “child free” or “childless”.Some men seem to refuse the responsibility of reproduction. The demand for abortion is now linked to women’s demand for equality, particularly at work. Unfortunately it was not recognised by the Supreme Court in the 1973 decision. Even if the law was meant to protect their lives, this means that men have a reproductive freedom which the women don’t have.The arguments for women now are whether a young girl can continue her education and compete for advancement? In the United States, the number of employed married women rose from 28 .8% to 60 % in recent years and the number of employed mothers of pre-schoolers rose from 18.5% to 51.3%.The changes in the status of women and income have led to changes in family size: An average of two children spaced 2 years. The restriction on abortion in spite of the legalisation affects the minors a lot today.

CONCLUSION The Abortion controversy is a national debate in the united state that still divides the nation between pro-life and pro-choice since the last 30 years. Some favour the women’s right to chose, and others oppose it and want the 1973 law to be abandoned. No level of the American political life has escaped a confrontation with the abortion law.As a matter of fact, few of the Supreme Court decisions have created more hostility than the 1973 decision, due to the fact that the abortion controversy cannot be definitely eradicated by subsequent federal and state laws, as long as the constitution is not amended or reshuffled.I therefore believe that the American constitution has failed to provide clear and concise recommendations pertaining to the rights to the unborn. The attempt to out law abortion will probably impose on desperate American women “Back –alley” and public health problem as it was years back —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.48.169.58 (talk) 17:30, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

ABORTION CONTROVERSY SINCE 1973

By Betty Baba

The issue of abortion is a debate that divides the nation over fundamental choice between two competing rights: The right of the foetus as a human life and a woman’s right to choice.In America today, some people see abortion as an essential right some consider it as an evil and criminal practice or an offence, even though abortion has been legalized for more than twenty years since 1973.

BACKGROUND The legalization of abortion came about during the Roe versus Wade case. It is therefore important to note that the abortion controversy which haunts the American nation encompasses the legal, religious and the cultural heritage of the American society as a whole.Since the legalization of abortion by the Supreme Court, it's still difficult to have an abortion. In fact the abortion law, although it finally gave American women the right to keep or end their pregnancy is still difficult to be executed.The difficulty to have an abortion exists not only in the governmental hospitals, but also in the private clinics. Worse of all the execution of the 1973 abortion law varies between states, although the law is supposed to be obeyed equally all over the United States. What one has to note also is that these variations in the enforcement of the abortion law are legal according to state law.In fact the abortion controversy in America is a big problem for women with unwanted pregnancies who sometimes have contraceptive failure of 3 or 4 %. The unwanted pregnancy can be due to several reasons:Ø FinancialØ SocialØ Religious belief. Abortion in America encompasses a legal battle, on moral values which divides Americans. Each year more than 6 million American women (11% of all women of reproductive age) become pregnant .More than half of these pregnancies are accidental pregnancies and 1.6 million are terminated by an abortion. A radical solution for women confronted with unwanted pregnancy is to have an abortion regardless of laws, morals and ethics.Abortion is considered today, as a safe method of putting an end to unwanted pregnancy but it’s still hard to get done. For instance, the risk of abortion complications is minimal: less than 1% of all abortion patients in 1996 experienced complications. Almost half of the women having an abortion beyond 15 weeks of gestation said that they were delayed because of problem in obtaining abortion services. This shows to a certain level that abortion still remains difficult in spite of its legalisation.

THE ASPECTS OF THE NEW LAW AND ITS CONSEQUENCES:

The difficulty to get an abortion in spite of its legalisation is not only due to the ambiguity of the law but it also seems to hail from several factors. The puritanical and historical American heritage has for centuries before the legalisation of abortion in America considered abortion an immoral act although it was practised in hide outs.The evolution of the American society has however showed that a growing number of people need abortion due to the changing society, to protect and to promote their career or for social reasons, especially in the case of teenagers, and the poor. Those who need abortion are not necessarily unbelievers or immoral people.The court decision that established the concept of foetal viability was divided into 3 parts and corresponds to the three trimesters in a normal pregnancy for medical and legal reasons:During the first trimester of a pregnancy the states cannot limit abortion in any way. The decision is left for the woman and her doctor; therefore the states cannot limit abortion under any pretext.In the second trimester, it was ruled that states can restrict abortion only by status aimed at protecting the mother’s health these measures were to protect the life of a pregnant woman in danger. A qualified doctor was asked to practice the abortion.In the third trimester, (that is from the point of viability to birth), the states interest in preserving the life of the unborn become compelling, and they may limit or even ban abortion, except when necessary to save the mother’s life. Since the foetus is not able to live independently and unprotected by civil law. Under what circumstances, if any, may life be determined, prior to the time it becomes conscious? In this controversy does the foetus have a conscious awareness in order to declare that life has begun? In the complexity of the new law, does life really begin at conception?Whatever the degree, or lack, of perception of the foetus in the controversy over abortion, these question remains, unanswered even by doctors. Each woman has a fundamental right to privacy mentioned in the 14th Amendment (concept of personal liberty).No man can deprive any person of life, liberty or property, without due process of law), and in the 9th Amendment (The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be construed, denied, disparage or restrained by the people. As a matter of fact this right was limited by any state wishing to impose a legal restriction in the interest of the foetus (third trimester).A landmark decision was made as it legalized first trimester abortion but it limited women’s freedom on the base that a doctor should intervene concerning procreation. It was seen as a violation of state’s rights. The feminist and the pro –choice groups expected that abortion should be available to all women and requested the restrictive abortion law to be totally repealed. Public opinion was extremely divided because 46% favoured the decision and 45% opposed it. It is quiet clear that in spite of the legalisation of abortion Americans are divided on this issue. Somehow one is not surprised that abortion is hard to get done since anti-abortionists are likely to oppose it.Since 1973, efforts to overturn Roe through a constitutional amendment and state legislature with repeated challenges to the principle of reproductive freedom have failed by the pro-life movement. The vagueness of the 1973 decision, in failing to deal with rights of the unborn till today is the main target of the pro-life activists in their fight to out law abortion. The pro-life mobilized against Roe and backed a successful legislative effort of representative of Henry Hyde of Illinois in 1976. This was a federal medical aid abortion funding restriction. It prohibits the use of most medical aid funds for abortion. The period between 1973-1989 was the toughest battle ever held. It was a period of political reaction to the abortion controversy. Pro-lifers attempt to influence congress to enact bills to Counter check the Supreme Court’s new decisions.The attack on the 1973 abortion law lead to several controversies like the 1976 Planned Parenthood of central Missouri vs Danforth. So many others influenced the Supreme Court to instruct that the government will not interfere with the husband and wife decision concerning pregnancy.The Supreme Court also ruled that a state can attack certain requirements to abort this meant that the woman has to write before abortion that, she gave her approval. The state legislature was meant to encourage a third person (such as husbands or parents) to prevent an abortion.The Supreme Court claimed before these contradictions that it didn’t interfere with the 1973 decision. All the same all the states except thirteen prohibited medical aid coverage under almost all circumstances. This decision was meant to hinder the poor and minority and to make abortion inaccessible.The complexity of these rules was another way to time back Roe with out reversing it, because even for a strict conservative court, reversing Roe would only lead to blunders and would alter millions of lives. A decade after the Roe case, the Supreme Court consistently upheld a woman’s fundamental right to decide with regards to abortion.Despite t0he court reaffirmation of Roe, abortion has remained one of the most volatile issues in the American society. States continued to legislate on the abortion issue, and the endless measures of the Supreme Court to strike down any attempt to restrict abortion was in consistent with Roe.In the abortion controversy there are realities: The changing role of women in the American society and the challenges they present for men. Women’s professional and economic aspiration coupled with the gender inequalities remain an unattainable goal for them. This is because motherhood means a loss of social and economic freedom and it forces these women to stay at home instead of embracing a career.During the sixties, the role of women in the American society changed drastically. Women entered the paid labour force. More and more women worked because couples cannot pay their bills with just a salary. They cannot afford to have children because the United States is still among the few industrialised nations with no national policy on adequate maternity. Hence part time jobs, child care, and inadequate “social welfare” are quite common and do not favour.

CHANGES IN RECENT YEARS

Recently, more than 54 % women were in the labour force. It’s however difficult to combine motherhood and work.As a result, unwanted pregnancies became a threat to woman’s goals. They are also confronted with disparity between their salaries and that of men. This gap still exists today. As a result, women chose to delay marriage and child rearing in order to achieve advancement and promotion. About 11% of married couples prefer not to have children at all because they want to promote their careers and enjoy life. Children are considered as a burden. These organisations call themselves “child free” or “childless”.Some men seem to refuse the responsibility of reproduction. The demand for abortion is now linked to women’s demand for equality, particularly at work. Unfortunately it was not recognised by the Supreme Court in the 1973 decision. Even if the law was meant to protect their lives, this means that men have a reproductive freedom which the women don’t have.The arguments for women now are whether a young girl can continue her education and compete for advancement? In the United States, the number of employed married women rose from 28 .8% to 60 % in recent years and the number of employed mothers of pre-schoolers rose from 18.5% to 51.3%.The changes in the status of women and income have led to changes in family size: An average of two children spaced 2 years. The restriction on abortion in spite of the legalisation affects the minors a lot today.

CONCLUSION The Abortion controversy is a national debate in the united state that still divides the nation between pro-life and pro-choice since the last 30 years. Some favour the women’s right to chose, and others oppose it and want the 1973 law to be abandoned. No level of the American political life has escaped a confrontation with the abortion law.As a matter of fact, few of the Supreme Court decisions have created more hostility than the 1973 decision, due to the fact that the abortion controversy cannot be definitely eradicated by subsequent federal and state laws, as long as the constitution is not amended or reshuffled.I therefore believe that the American constitution has failed to provide clear and concise recommendations pertaining to the rights to the unborn. The attempt to out law abortion will probably impose on desperate American women “Back –alley” and public health problem as it was years back —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.48.169.58 (talk) 17:35, 27 January 2009 (UTC)

Feminist

Professor: University of Ottawa

Betty Baba

My vocation as a feminist started with a personal conviction due to my cultural background. I hail from a traditionally patriarchal Igbo society where men have more privilege than women. When I left Nigeria to France for further studies my ambition was to teach French after graduating. As an undergraduate student I was curious to learn more and understand why the differential between women and men. I started meditating on certain customs and practices in African in Nigeria, “Osu” in Ghana “Trokosi” , and genital mutilation in Africa countries. I developed interest reading books on theories, Freud, de Beauvoir on the biological determinism research relating to women’s movement. Convinced that the Patriarchal assumption about the appropriate place for women to occupy “mans world” are so seamlessly woven into the thought structure and social policies of most western cultures that they seem to dedicate the natural way for things to be . The following people really influenced my carrier Betty Friedan, Simone de Beauvoir , Gorelick, Sherry, and Adrienne Rich. To quote Adrienne Rich :Women grow to womanhood in a world where it is assumed that women are a subgroup, that “man’s world” is real world, that patriarchy is equivalent to culture and culture to patriarchy, …… that generalizations about “man”, “humankind”, “children”, “blacks” parent”, “the working class” hold true women, mother , daughters sisters, wet-nurses, infant girls, and can include them with no more than a glancing reference here and there, usually to some specialized function like breast –feeding. I therefore, decided to pursue my education in “Women studies” My first research was on “The controversy of abortion since 1973 in the United State” Why this topic or the choice to work on such a topic? In African society a woman’s marriage is always considered by society as a fiasco if there are no offspring’s the husband is advice to marry another wife. (Flora Nwapa, Efuru H.E.B. p. 62) Abortion is a serious crime in Ibo traditional society the Ibo traditionalist believes that only pills can render a woman Sterile. It means killing, which is not in keeping with Ibo morals unless ordained by the gods. (Flora Nwapa, Efuru, p.205 ) This topic really enlightened me on why in Europe women can terminate their pregnancy due to personal reasons. I continued my education majoring in “Women’s studies” I chose another topic for my doctorate on “women Studies”. After reading a pamphlet on polygamy written by Adèle lang and Susi Rajah I’m not a feminist, but ……. “Is the reason that only men practice polygamy that no wife would want more than one husband” (Adèle lang and Susi Rajah) I found it amazing and started pondering on the issue of polygamy in Africa . There is the social honour and dignity associated to a large family even if accumulating women, and children who will lack means of subsistence. Having many children increases the chance of being cared for in ones old age in a society where there is no social security. I was more concerned about with the economic and social problem with the modern era. Today, women have the right to vote, hold public office, and have equal pay for equal work, a career or to own a business, and to choose to be childless, or unmarried or married with children then we shouldn’t have course to complain but certain aspects like women’s victimization according to Statistic Canada reports that an act of sexual violence or harassment occurs every 17 minutes in Canada. Ninety percent of these acts are against women. The United Nations also reports that approximately 5,000 women world wide is killed each year by their husbands over dowry disputes. It’s reported that at least thirty percent of women with disabilities in Canada are abused, sexually, physically, and often both (Duffy) and by the time a Canadian woman has called the police to report a domestic assault, she has , an average , already been assaulted 30 times(Beatty) We should not under estimate the 173 solved female homicides in 1999, of which more than two thirds of them were committed by men known to the women (Statistics Canada;Duffy) “Is the reason we hear of only women being stoned for adultery because there aren’ t enough rocks in the world for adulterous males”( Adèle lang and Susi Rajah ) A funny experience about a course I taught as a professor of “women, sexuality , and social justices” among the articles in the course pack I still find the article on Pyne’s ,Scott-Dixon , amazing articles . “A question for feminism, “ Pyne talks about the concept of gender being an identity that we create and relate to ourselves. (Pyne, 63) “What does it mean for patriarch if I can bind my breast and stuff my pants and have instant access to male privilege?” This statement question what it’s to be a man or be a woman. Scott-Dixon is writing about hiding her breasts that distinguishes her from the male and faking the male attributes in her trousers in order to have patriarchy privilege. ) this article illustrates the barriers faced by women in employment, education, and social and economic freedom is due only to appearance (S-Dixon25) equal capacity for what has traditionally been considered Men’s work, Being a male and its privileges are out of reaches of females women therefore chose to dress as men, for educational purposes like Agnodice in the 4th century BCE, Greece. (Scott-Dixon, 73). As a feminist, I see my self as a woman, mother, and wife still bent on working towards some of the unachieved women’s goals. I am not a man-hater, and I would never be. All men are not abusive, selfish, insensitive or barbarians although I have never been a victim of rape, of sexual harassment, or abuse. It’s also sad to learn that we still have some customs and rituals in Africa or in Indian the caste system unlawful practices opposed to human rights. The forceful marriage the genital mutilation, the Sharia, women victimization, Trafficking should be eradicated because some of these countries do not compile to international laws.

Igbo ethnic groups is  one of  the largest living in southeastern Nigeria
  
 Osu caste system. Osu are regarded as unclean or untouchable because they are (alleged to be) dedicated to the gods. 

 Trokosi a ritual servitude of virgin girls dedicated to religious shrine a practice in counties in Ghana, Togo, and Benin in atonement for alleged misdeeds of a family member.

 Joan Kelly observes: “It has been a strength of Patriarchy in all its historical forms to assimilate itself so perfectly to socioeconomic political and cultural structures as to be virtually invisible” In Joan Kelly , Women, History, and theory , (Chicago : University of Chicago press, 1984), 61

 Adrienne Rich’s remarks at the Columbia University Seminar on women and Society, 1976. Quoted by Hester Eisenstein in her contemporary feminist thought, (London : Allen and Unwin, 1994),74

 Flora Nwapa   the first English language novelist from Africa. Efuru became Africa's first internationally published female novel in the English language (Publisher: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd).

 Adèle lang and Susi Rajah authors of how to spot a Bastard by his star sign best seller confessions of a socio pathic social climber New York Times.

 Stastics canada, Student resources . homicide victims and suspects by age and sex , December 2000.

Beatty,Brenda. “A Montreal Massacre Remembrance. “montreal Massacre memorial service. University of Waterloo, December 6, 2000.
 
Pyne, Cat,” A Question for feminism,”Turbo Chicks :Talking your feminisms, (Toronto :Sumach Press, 2001), 111-118.
 
 Scott-Dixon , Krista, “cross purposes : A short history of cross -dressing Women “ Herizons (Fall 2006, 24-27,47)  —Preceding unsigned comment added by 70.51.55.165 (talk) 02:52, 29 January 2009 (UTC) 

My inspiration as a Feminist

Professor: University of Ottawa

Betty Baba

My vocation as a feminist started with a personal conviction due to my cultural background. I hail from a traditionally patriarchal Igbo society where men have more privilege than women. When I left Nigeria to France for further studies my ambition was to teach French after graduating. As an undergraduate student I was curious to learn more and understand why the differential between women and men. I started meditating on certain customs and practices in African in Nigeria, “Osu” in Ghana “Trokosi” , and genital mutilation in Africa countries. I developed interest reading books on theories, Freud, de Beauvoir on the biological determinism research relating to women’s movement. Convinced that the Patriarchal assumption about the appropriate place for women to occupy “mans world” are so seamlessly woven into the thought structure and social policies of most western cultures that they seem to dedicate the natural way for things to be . The following people really influenced my carrier Betty Friedan, Simone de Beauvoir , Gorelick, Sherry, and Adrienne Rich. To quote Adrienne Rich :Women grow to womanhood in a world where it is assumed that women are a subgroup, that “man’s world” is real world, that patriarchy is equivalent to culture and culture to patriarchy, …… that generalizations about “man”, “humankind”, “children”, “blacks” parent”, “the working class” hold true women, mother , daughters sisters, wet-nurses, infant girls, and can include them with no more than a glancing reference here and there, usually to some specialized function like breast –feeding. I therefore, decided to pursue my education in “Women studies” My first research was on “The controversy of abortion since 1973 in the United State” Why this topic or the choice to work on such a topic? In African society a woman’s marriage is always considered by society as a fiasco if there are no offspring’s the husband is advice to marry another wife. (Flora Nwapa, Efuru H.E.B. p. 62) Abortion is a serious crime in Ibo traditional society the Ibo traditionalist believes that only pills can render a woman Sterile. It means killing, which is not in keeping with Ibo morals unless ordained by the gods. (Flora Nwapa, Efuru, p.205 ) This topic really enlightened me on why in Europe women can terminate their pregnancy due to personal reasons. I continued my education majoring in “Women’s studies” I chose another topic for my doctorate on “women Studies”. After reading a pamphlet on polygamy written by Adèle lang and Susi Rajah I’m not a feminist, but ……. “Is the reason that only men practice polygamy that no wife would want more than one husband” (Adèle lang and Susi Rajah) I found it amazing and started pondering on the issue of polygamy in Africa . There is the social honour and dignity associated to a large family even if accumulating women, and children who will lack means of subsistence. Having many children increases the chance of being cared for in ones old age in a society where there is no social security. I was more concerned about with the economic and social problem with the modern era. Today, women have the right to vote, hold public office, and have equal pay for equal work, a career or to own a business, and to choose to be childless, or unmarried or married with children then we shouldn’t have course to complain but certain aspects like women’s victimization according to Statistic Canada reports that an act of sexual violence or harassment occurs every 17 minutes in Canada. Ninety percent of these acts are against women. The United Nations also reports that approximately 5,000 women world wide is killed each year by their husbands over dowry disputes. It’s reported that at least thirty percent of women with disabilities in Canada are abused, sexually, physically, and often both (Duffy) and by the time a Canadian woman has called the police to report a domestic assault, she has , an average , already been assaulted 30 times(Beatty) We should not under estimate the 173 solved female homicides in 1999, of which more than two thirds of them were committed by men known to the women (Statistics Canada;Duffy) “Is the reason we hear of only women being stoned for adultery because there aren’ t enough rocks in the world for adulterous males”( Adèle lang and Susi Rajah ) A funny experience about a course I taught as a professor of “women, sexuality , and social justices” among the articles in the course pack I still find the article on Pyne’s ,Scott-Dixon , amazing articles . “A question for feminism, “ Pyne talks about the concept of gender being an identity that we create and relate to ourselves. (Pyne, 63) “What does it mean for patriarch if I can bind my breast and stuff my pants and have instant access to male privilege?” This statement question what it’s to be a man or be a woman. Scott-Dixon is writing about hiding her breasts that distinguishes her from the male and faking the male attributes in her trousers in order to have patriarchy privilege. ) this article illustrates the barriers faced by women in employment, education, and social and economic freedom is due only to appearance (S-Dixon25) equal capacity for what has traditionally been considered Men’s work, Being a male and its privileges are out of reaches of females women therefore chose to dress as men, for educational purposes like Agnodice in the 4th century BCE, Greece. (Scott-Dixon, 73). As a feminist, I see my self as a woman, mother, and wife still bent on working towards some of the unachieved women’s goals. I am not a man-hater, and I would never be. All men are not abusive, selfish, insensitive or barbarians although I have never been a victim of rape, of sexual harassment, or abuse. It’s also sad to learn that we still have some customs and rituals in Africa or in Indian the caste system unlawful practices opposed to human rights. The forceful marriage the genital mutilation, the Sharia, women victimization, Trafficking should be eradicated because some of these countries do not compile to international laws.

Igbo ethnic groups is  one of  the largest living in southeastern Nigeria
  
 Osu caste system. Osu are regarded as unclean or untouchable because they are (alleged to be) dedicated to the gods. 

 Trokosi a ritual servitude of virgin girls dedicated to religious shrine a practice in counties in Ghana, Togo, and Benin in atonement for alleged misdeeds of a family member.

 Joan Kelly observes: “It has been a strength of Patriarchy in all its historical forms to assimilate itself so perfectly to socioeconomic political and cultural structures as to be virtually invisible” In Joan Kelly , Women, History, and theory , (Chicago : University of Chicago press, 1984), 61

 Adrienne Rich’s remarks at the Columbia University Seminar on women and Society, 1976. Quoted by Hester Eisenstein in her contemporary feminist thought, (London : Allen and Unwin, 1994),74

 Flora Nwapa   the first English language novelist from Africa. Efuru became Africa's first internationally published female novel in the English language (Publisher: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd).

 Adèle lang and Susi Rajah authors of how to spot a Bastard by his star sign best seller confessions of a socio pathic social climber New York Times.

 Stastics canada, Student resources . homicide victims and suspects by age and sex , December 2000.

Beatty,Brenda. “A Montreal Massacre Remembrance. “montreal Massacre memorial service. University of Waterloo, December 6, 2000.
 
Pyne, Cat,” A Question for feminism,”Turbo Chicks :Talking your feminisms, (Toronto :Sumach Press, 2001), 111-118.
 
 Scott-Dixon , Krista, “cross purposes : A short history of cross -dressing Women “ Herizons (Fall 2006, 24-27,47)