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Critics of the prevalent portrayals of women in the mass media observe possible negative consequences for various segments of the population, such as:[25][26]

  • Women of average or normal appearance feeling inadequate or less beautiful in comparison to the overwhelming use of extraordinarily attractive women.
  • Unrealistic expectations by men of how women should look or behave.
  • Stereotyping of women who are positively portrayed by or sexualized in the media, such as the theme of a "dumb blonde" or "blonde bimbo", limiting the societal and career opportunities for people who fit these stereotypes.[19]
  • Psychological disorders such as body dysmorphic disorder, anorexia, bulimia and so on.
  • The excessively coercive nature of appeal to strong sexual instincts to sell products or promote media.
  • Increase in the likelihood and acceptance of sexual violence.[27]

Many studies have shown the negative effects that this exploitation of women in the media has on the mental health of young women,but recently the studies have focused on Aging women in western societies.It has been observed that the exploitation of young attractive women in te media causes aging women to feel a variety of emotions including sadness, anger,concern, envy, desensitization, marginalization, and discomfort that their appearance was being judged by others[1].[2] Counter arguments[edit source | edit]

______________________________________Rape Culture Additions

Effects[edit source | edit] Rape culture has been described as detrimental to women as well as men. Some writers and speakers, such as Jackson Katz, Michael Kimmel, and Don McPherson, have said that it is intrinsically linked to gender roles that limit male self-expression and cause psychological harm to men.[60] According to political scientist Iris Marion Young, victims in rape cultures live in fear of random acts of oppressive sexual violence that are intended to damage or humiliate the victim.[61] Others link rape culture with modernisation and industrialisation, arguing that pre-industrial societies tend to be "rape free" cultures, since the lower status of women in these societies give them some immunity from sexual violence. In industrial rape cultures, women emerge from their homebound roles and make their presence felt in the workplace and other areas traditionally dominated by men, increasing male insecurities that lead to them using rape as a countering method.[46][62] Others also link rape culture to environmental insecurities, where men objectify women as part of their struggle to control their immediate environment. It is also linked to gender segregation, and the belief that rape proves masculinity.[63] Other manifestations of rape culture include denial of widespread rape,[64] institutional apathy towards the problem of rape,[65] minimization of rape cases by government officials,[64][65][66] and excusing rapists as social anomalies.[64][65]

One predominant fear that feminists hold, is that existence of this rape culture in America can influence juror decision making in sexual assault trials. This allows for men who have committed sexual assault crimes to get by with little to no punishment, only serving to strengthen the pervasiveness of the culture in the American Judicial system and American society as a whole. [3]

___ According to Michael Parenti, rape culture manifests through the acceptance of rapes as an everyday occurrence, and even a male prerogative. It can be exacerbated by police apathy in handling rape cases, as well as victim blaming, reluctance by the authorities to go against patriarchial cultural norms, as well as fears of stigmatization from rape victims and their families.[4] Other sociologists posit that rape culture links nonconsensual sex to the cultural fabric of a society, where patriarchial world views, laced with misogyny and gender inequality, are passed from generation to generation, leading to widespread social and institutional acceptance of rape.

Feminists and gender activists conceptualize rape cultures that encourage gender violence, as well as perpetuate "rape myths", ranging from treating rape as merely "rough sex" to blaming the victim for inviting rape. Such "rape myths" are social messages that command women to assume predefined gender roles concerning sexual behavior.[5] A 2015 meta-analysis found that overall men perceived rape victims more negatively than women did and this sex difference was moderated by the acceptance of rape myths.[6] This "rape myth" idea is also reflected in spousal rape. Rape culture perpetuates particular rape myths that are then codified into law. Emergence of the concepts like 'intimate partner rape'[7] or 'marital rape' is one consequence of these rape myths.Rape cases where both parties previously knew one another has been coined "acquaintance rape," a term first coined by Robin Warshaw in 1988, and subsequently used by prominent academics such as Mary P. Koss.[8] In addition, rape culture can manifest when third parties separate the sexual violence of select individuals and cast them off as deviant perverts. Highly influential scholars and feminists, such as J. Ann Tickner, have stressed the importance of understanding that because individuals are a part of broader society, they cannot be explained apart from society. By only focusing on deviant individuals who commit sexual violence, it is forgotten that society influences and reinforces the mindset that these individuals have.[9]

According to Chris O'Sullivan, acts of sexism are commonly employed to validate and rationalize normative misogynistic practices. For instance, sexist jokes may be told to foster disrespect for women and an accompanying disregard for their well-being, or a rape victim might be blamed for being raped because of how she dressed or acted. O'Sullivan examines rape culture and fraternities, identifying the socialization and social roles that contribute to sexual aggression, and looks at "frat life" and brotherhood ideals of competition and camaraderie. This competition and camaraderie leads to sex being viewed as a tool of gaining acceptance and bonding with fellow "brothers," as they engage in contests over sex with women.[10] In O'Sullivan's article, sexualized violence towards women is regarded as a continuum of a society that regards women's bodies as sexually available by default.[11]

Filmmaker Thomas Keith explained his thoughts on this with the his film "Bro Code: How Contemporary culture creates sexist men. Keith focuses on the sexual objectification of women that has occurred in America for decades. He states the American male culture teaches boys and men to dehumanize and disrespect women. Keith addresses several different forms of contemporary media, mainly focusing on movies and music videos that show womanizing as positive and acceptable behavior, pornography glamorizes the brutalization of women, comedians who make jokes about rape and other forms of sexual assault, and a plethora of men's magazines, books, TV shows that portray their own archaic view of American masculinity and manhood. Men's level of violence towards women has reached epidemic levels, and the media today is making it clear that it is not only normal, but it's cool, for boys and men to control and humiliate women.

According to some, the root cause of rape culture is the "domination and objectification [sic] of women".[12] However, academic theory holds that rape culture does not necessarily have a single cause, and causes may be localized based on other social aspects of culture. Rape culture is a fluid and always-changing entity that is socially produced and socially legitimated, so throughout time and place its definitions will change. Reasoning about rape and rape culture is also influenced by gender and heterosexuality norms, and therefore is also changing through time and place.[13][14] For example, in South Africa the overriding "war culture" which emphasized masculinity and violence led to a culture in which rape was normalized.[12][15] A University of California Davis public document alleged that the enforcement of the following of social rules by women and the conditioning of gender roles were major causes.[16] Others say in a rape culture women are conditioned to assume responsibility for male sexuality, and gender roles are socially constructed and enforced on women through fear.[17]

Rape culture is prominently becoming an issue on university campuses, especially in Canada, the United States, and the U.K. Rape culture is easier to pinpoint and identify on campuses as opposed to just looking at general society, because they are public institutions where many young people live, work, and study. In a study of date rape, gender-based miscommunications were held to be a major factor supporting a campus rape culture.[18] The general unwillingness of police and district attorneys to prosecute rapes where force was not involved or where the victim had some sort of relationship with the aggressor is also cited as a motivation for date rape and campus rape.[14] Often, victims are dissuaded from reporting sexual assaults because of university and college ambivalent reactions to rape reports. Victims may also not want to risk stigmatization and scrutiny in their lives, especially in concentrated populous areas like campuses.[19] Victim-hood is a social creation, and is associated with stigma. Definitions of what counts as "rape" and who is treated as a "genuine victim" are constructed in discourse and practices that reflect the social, political, and cultural conditions of society. Rape victims may not be considered as such if it appears they did not struggle or put up a fight, and their emotional responses are observed and reported during investigations to aid in deciding if the victim is lying or not [20] In addition, there have been reported incidents of colleges questioning accounts of victims, further complicating documentation and policing of student assaults, despite such preventative legislation as the Clery Act.[21][22]


New Feminism additions

Critiques Critics of the movement argue that it was created by a patriarchal structure for its own maintenance. “It will always mean that men are defining women and telling women what it is like to be a woman,” according to Sister of Mercy Mary Aquin O’Neill, director of the Mount Agnes Theological Center for Women in Baltimore.[50] Until women are members of this higher authority, it can never make authoritative decisions about their perspectives because they are excluded from the vote.[51] Other critics[who?] maintain that no movement that opposes abortion and birth control in the form of artificial contraception can be positive for women. New Feminism may also be a form of gender or biological determinism, which may be seen as old prejudices in a new guise.[52]

This modern use of New Feminism by the Catholic Church attempts to stray away from the traditional sentiments of the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia that women and men do not belong together in the political, economic, and social spheres. It was never clarified though as to why these changes were made, and the Vatican still followed many premises that shared the same anthropological arguments of the 1912 Catholic Encyclopedia. Another critique of New Feminism is that Pope John Paul II's positions can too easily be tied to more traditional Catholic teachings. This could cause the continuation of a worldview that negates the ability for men and women to successfully work together in a professional and/or social setting.[23]

  1. ^ Rochelle Hine (4/15/2011). "In the Margins: The Impact of Sexualised Images on the mental Health of Aging Women" (1): 16. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  2. ^ [1],
  3. ^ Hildebrand, Meagen; Najdowski, Cynthia (2015). "The Potential Impact of Rape Culture on Juror Decision Making: Implications For Wrongful Acquittals in Sexual Assault Trials". Albany Law Review. Vol.78 (3): p1059-1086. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |pages= has extra text (help); |volume= has extra text (help)
  4. ^ Parenti, Michael (2005). The Cultural Struggle. New York: Seven Stories Press. pp. 71–79. ISBN 9781583227046. Retrieved 13 June 2013.
  5. ^ Nicoletti, John; Spencer-Thomas, Sally; Bollinger, Christopher (2009). Violence Goes to College: The Authoritative Guide to Prevention and Intervention. Charles C Thomas Publisher. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-398-07910-9.
  6. ^ Hockett, Jericho M.; Smith, Sara J.; Klausing, Cathleen D.; Saucier, Donald A. (2015-10-06). "Rape Myth Consistency and Gender Differences in Perceiving Rape Victims: A Meta-Analysis". Violence Against Women. doi:10.1177/1077801215607359. ISSN 1552-8448. PMID 26446194.
  7. ^ "Intimate Partner Rape Resources". Band Back Together. Retrieved 2013-03-16.
  8. ^ Warshaw, Robin. I Never Called It Rape. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |1= (help)
  9. ^ Tickner, J.Ann (2014). A Feminist Voyage Through international Relations. Oxford University Press. p. 38.
  10. ^ Chris O'Sullivan, "Transforming a Rape Culture, edited by Emilie Buchwald, Pamela R. Fletcher & Martha Roth, ISBN 0-915943-06-9, page 26
  11. ^ Chris O'Sullivan, "Fraternities and the Rape Culture", in Transforming a Rape Culture, edited by Emilie Buchwald, Pamela R. Fletcher & Martha Roth, ISBN 0-915943-06-9
  12. ^ a b Vogelman, L. "Sexual Face of Violence: Rapists on Rape (abstract)". Raven Press Ltd (book); National Criminal Justice Reference Service (abstract). Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  13. ^ anderson, irina; doherty, kathy (2008). Accounting for Rape. Routledge. p. 4.
  14. ^ a b Herman, Dianne F. "The Rape Culture". Printed in Women: A Feminist Perspective (ed. Jo Freeman). Mcgraw Hill, 1994. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  15. ^ "Slutwalk Joburg takes to the streets". Times LIVE. 23 September 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  16. ^ "Defining a Rape Culture" (PDF). University of California Davis. Retrieved 18 October 2011.
  17. ^ Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael (3 December 2010). The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 493. ISBN 978-1-4443-9264-7.
  18. ^ Mills, Crystal S. and Granoff, Barbara J. (November 1992). "Date and acquaintance rape among a sample of college students (abstract)". Social Work. 37 (6): 504–509. Retrieved 13 June 2013.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  19. ^ Anderson, Irina; Doherty, Kathy (2008). Accounting for Rape. Routledge. p. 13.
  20. ^ Anderson, Irina; Doherty, Kathy (2008). Accounting for Rape. Routledge. p. 5.
  21. ^ "Feds launch investigation into Swarthmore's handling of sex assaults". Philadelphia Inquirer. 2013-07-16.
  22. ^ "Annual campus crime report may not tell true story of student crime". Daily Nebraskan. 2013-07-16.
  23. ^ Kaveny, Cathleen (28 March 2008). "The "New Feminism"?". Commonwealth. 135 (6): p8-8. {{cite journal}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help); |pages= has extra text (help)

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