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This is a scrapbook for my own purposes but there are no secrets here.

Colossal Stones

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This is a list of ancient sites that moved megalithic stones. A megalith is a large stone which has been used to construct a structure or monument, either alone or together with other stones. In most if not all cases they moved at least one colossal stone over ten tons usualy much more than one megalith or megaliths much bigger than ten tons. There are also a list of documented efforts to move colossal stones that were documented in recent times that used technology that wasn't much if any more advanced than the technology the ancient civilizations used. In most cases the ancient civilizations had little if any advanced technology to move these megaliths. The most notable exception is the ancient Greeks and Romans who had Cranes and treadwheels to help lift colossal stones. Most of these weights are based on estimates by published scholars however there have been a lot of false estimate of many of these stones presented as facts. To help recognize exagerations there is also a brief discription of how to calculate the weight of colossal stones by calculating volume and density.

list of efforts to move stones

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  • Josh Bernstein and Julian Richards organized an effort to pull a 2 ton stone on wooden tracks with a group of about 16 men. Approximately 8 men pulled each ton. [67]
  • Thor Heyerdahl organized an effort to pull a 10 ton Moai on a sledge with a group of 180 men. Approximately 18 men pulled each ton. [68] [69] [70]
  • Mark Lehner and NOVA organized an experiment to tow stones and to build a pyramid 9 meters wide by 9 meters deep by 6 meters high. They were able to tow a 2 ton block on a sledge across wood tracks with 12 to 20 men. Approximately 6 to 10 men pulled each ton. The pyramid was 54 cubic meters total estimated weight 135 tons. It was built out of 186 stones. The average weight of each stone was almost 1,500 lbs. (.75 tons) They found that 4 or 5 men could use levers to flip stones less than a ton and roll them to transport them. 44 men took 22 days to complete the pyramid including the carving of the stones. They used iron to carve the stones that wasn't available to the ancient Egyptians. Egyptians had to use copper. They also used a modern front end loader to accelerate the work on the lower courses. They were unable to use the front end loader to install the capstone since it was to high and had to use levers to raise it to 20 feet. [71]
  • Henri Chevier organized an effort to pull a 6 ton block on a sledge with a group of 6 men. Approximately 1 man pulled each ton. [72] other reports claim that Chevier's experiment required 3 men to pull each ton. [73]
  • Giovanni Battista Belzoni organized an effort to pull a 7.5 ton fragment of a statue of Ramses on rollers with a group of 130 men in 1815. This statue was towed to the river and loaded on a barge where it was sent to London. Progress increased with practice as they went along. Approximately 17 or 18 men pulled each ton. [74]
  • Henry Layard organized an effort to transport 2 10 ton colossal Statues of a winged Lion and a winged Bull with a group of 300 men in 1847. He loaded them on a wheeled cart and towed them from Nimrud to the river and loaded on a barge where it was sent to London. Approximately 30 men pulled each ton. [75]
  • Paul Emile Botta and Victor Place attempted to move 2 additional 30 ton colossi to Paris from Khorsabad in 1853. In order to facilitate their shipment to Paris they were sawed in pieces and they still ran into problems. One of them fell into the river into the Tigris never to be retrieved. The other made it to Paris. [76]
  • In a 2001 exercise in experimental archaeology, an attempt was made to transport a large stone along a land and sea route from Wales to Stonehenge. Volunteers pulled it for some miles (with great difficulty) on a wooden sledge over land, using modern roads and low-friction netting to assist sliding, but once transferred to a replica prehistoric boat, the stone sank in Milford Haven, before it even reached the rough seas of the Bristol Channel. [77]
  • Charles Love experimented with a 10-ton replica of a Moai on Easter Island. His first experiment found rocking the statue to walk it was too unstable over more than a few hundred yards. He then found that placing the statue upright on two sled runners atop log rollers, 25 men were able to move the statue 150 feet (46 m) in two minutes. Approximately 2.5 men pulled each ton. [78]

Calculating the weight of megaliths

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In the cases of the smaller megaliths it may be possible to weigh them. Some of the Olmec heads have been moved and may have been weighed by truck scales. However in most cases the megaliths were to large or they may have been part of an ancient structure so this method couldn't be used. If you know the volume of a stone and the density you can calculate the weight by multiplying them. The density of most stones is between two and three tons per cubic meter. The average weight of granite is about three tons per cubic meter, limestone 2.5 tons per cubic meter, sandstone or marble 2.7tons per cubic meter. Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter like volcanic tuff or basalt which weighs about 1.9 tons per cubic meter. Since the density of most of these stones flucuates it is neccissary to know the source for the stone and volume to obtain accurate estimates. In some cases these measurements are close enough to recognize obviously flawed estimates though for example in Fingerprints of the Gods page 58-60 Graham Hancock mentions a monolith around 12 feet long (3.6 meters) by 5 feet wide (1.5 meters) by 5 feet thick (1.5 meters) that could not have "weighed less less than 200 tons". This momolith would be about 8.1 cubic meters. A more acurate estimate would be less than 25 tons based on these measurements. This is just one of many exaggerated examples that have been provided by some published sources. In the cases of the smaller megaliths it may be possible to weigh them. However in most cases the megaliths were too large or they may have been part of an ancient structure so this method couldn't be used. If you know the volume of a stone and the density you can calculate the weight by multiplying them. The density of most stones is between two and three tons per cubic meter. The average weight of granite is about 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter, limestone 2.3 metric tons per cubic meter, sandstone or marble 2.5tons per metric cubic meter [79] [80][81][82][83]. Some softer stones may be lighter than 2 tons per cubic meter like volcanic tuff or basalt which weighs about 1.9 tons per cubic meter.[84][85] Since the density of most of these stones flucuates it is neccissary to know the source for the stone and volume to obtain accurate estimates. In some cases these measurements are close enough to recognize obviously flawed estimates though for example in Fingerprints of the Gods page 58-60 Graham Hancock mentions a monolith around 12 feet long (3.6 meters) by 5 feet wide (1.5 meters) by 5 feet thick (1.5 meters) that could not have "weighed less less than 200 tons". This monolith would be about 8.1 cubic meters. A more acurate estimate would be less than 23 metric tons based on these measurements. This is just one of many exaggerated examples that have been provided by some published sources. [86] [87]

  • Template:Convert/list of units
  • Template:Convert
  • low density limestone ranges from 110 through 135 lb/ft3 (1760 through 2160 Kg/M3) or 1.75 through 2.15 metric tons per cubic meter
  • medium density limestone ranges from 135 but not greater than 160 lb/ft3 (2160 through 2560 Kg/M3) or 2.15 through 2.55 metric tons per cubic meter
  • high density limestone over 160 lb/ft3 (2560 Kg/M3) or 2.55 metric tons per cubic meter [88]
  • Grammer school density calculation [89] [90]
  • The average density of granite is 2.75 g/cm or 2.75 metric tons per cubic meter 3 and its viscosity at standard temperature and pressure is ~4.5 • 1019 Pa·s [91]
  • A geologist determined the density of a sample of quartzite to have a density of 2.65 grams/cubic cm or 2.65 metric tons per cubic meter, and determined the sample of sandstone to have a density of 2.45 grams/cubic cm. or 2.45 metric tons per cubic meter ?[92]
  • Quartzite Density 2.3 to 2.4 Kg/cm3 or 2.3 to 2.4 metric tons per cubic meter [93]
  • marble Density 2.55 to 2.7 Kg/cm3 or 2.55 to 2.7 metric tons per cubic meter [94]
  • sandstone Density 2.3 to 2.4 Kg/cm3 or 2.3 to 2.4 metric tons per cubic meter [95]
  • granite Density 2.6 to 2.8 Kg/cm3 or 2.6 to 2.8 metric tons per cubic meter [96]
  • limestone Density 2.5 to 2.7 Kg/cm3 or 2.5 to 2.7 metric tons per cubic meter [97]
  • 2.65g/cm3, sandstone with with 10% porosity 2.49g/cm3, limestone with no porosity 2.71g/cm3, limestone with with 10% porosity 2.54g/cm3, dolomite with no porosity 2.87g/cm3, dolomite with with 10% porosity 2.68g/cm3, anhydrite with no porosity 2.96g/cm3, halite with no porosity 2.16g/cm3. [98]
  • limestone (2.6 g/cm3 or less), quartzite (2.7 g/cm3), and granite (2.7-2.8 g/cm3) are all common low-density rocks [99]
  • Basalt density 2.8-2.9 g/cm3 or 2.8 to 2.9 metric tons per cubic meter [100]
  • bentonite/basalt samples over a density range of 1.45 to 2.03 g/cm or 1.45 to 2.03 metric tons per cubic meter [101]
  • 1 cubic metre (35 cu ft)
  • 1 cubic metre (1,000,000 cm3)
  • 1 metric ton (1,000,000 g)
  • 1 metric ton (1,000 kg)
  • 1 metric ton (2,200 lb)
  • 1 metric ton (1.0 t)
  • 1 metric ton (0.98 long tons)
  • 1 metric ton (1.1 short tons)
  • 1 short ton (0.91 t)

Media outlets

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Issue or other sites

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Other Lists

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list of ancient sculpture

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Bolivia

Cambodia

China

Columbia

Easter Island

Egypt

Greece

Honduras

India

Indonesia

Iran

Iraq

Italy

Mexico

Turkey

Colossal heads

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The most recognized aspect of the Olmec civilization are the enormous helmeted heads.[104] As no known pre-Columbian text explains them, these impressive monuments have been the subject of much speculation. Once theorized to be ballplayers, it is now generally accepted that these heads are portraits of rulers, perhaps dressed as ballplayers.[105] Infused with individuality, no two heads are alike and the helmet-like headdresses are adorned with distinctive elements, suggesting to some personal or group symbols.[106]

There have been 17 colossal heads unearthed to date.[107]

Site Count Designations
San Lorenzo 10 Colossal Heads 1 through 10
La Venta 4 Monuments 1 through 4
Tres Zapotes 2 Monuments A & Q
Rancho la Cobata 1 Monument 1

The heads range in size from the Rancho La Cobata head, at 3.4 m high, to the pair at Tres Zapotes, at 1.47 m. It has been calculated that the largest heads weigh between 25 and 55 short tons (50 t).[108].

The heads were carved from single blocks or boulders of volcanic basalt, found in the Tuxtlas Mountains upto 80 miles away from there final location. The Tres Zapotes heads, for example, were sculpted from basalt found at the summit of Cerro el Vigía, at the western end of the Tuxtlas. The San Lorenzo and La Venta heads, on the other hand, were likely carved from the basalt of Cerro Cintepec, on the southeastern side,[109] perhaps at the nearby Llano del Jicaro workshop, and dragged or floated to their final destination dozens of miles away.[110] It has been estimated that moving a colossal head required the efforts of 1,500 people for three to four months.[111]

In 1999 a british team led by Bob Loew conducted experiments to attempt to see how they moved these colossal heads and other megalithic sculptures including Olmec alters. They only allowed themselves 10 days for this experiment due to a screening deadline. They built a sledge out of mahogany and loaded a 12 ton stone on it and attempted to tow it on wooden tracks this effort failed due to multiple problems including a broken sledge and lack of time. They also conducted another experiment to find out if they could tow these on a barge down the river. They built a raft out of balsa wood, bamboo and rubber all of which were available to the Olmecs. They attempted to launch this from a lagoon but failed due to the shallow water. They concluded that they would have more sucess if they had more time to experiment and if the launched the raft from Campeche Bay. [112] Hunter Ellis also conducted an experiment for the final season of Digging for the Truth with greater success this involved using a smaller stone. There were also other more successful megalith moving experiments conducted at other megalithic locations listed here. Some of these experiments failed the first time and after learning from their mistakes led to more successful attempts.

Some of the heads, and many other monuments, have been variously mutilated, buried and disinterred, reset in new locations and/or reburied. It is known that some monuments, and at least two heads, were recycled or recarved, but it is not known whether this was simply due to the scarcity of stone or whether these actions had ritual or other connotations. It is also suspected that some mutilation had significance beyond mere destruction, but some scholars still do not rule out internal conflicts or, less likely, invasion as a factor.[113]

The flat-faced, thick-lipped characteristics of the heads have caused some debate due to their apparent resemblance to African facial characteristics. Based on this comparison, some have insisted that the Olmecs were Africans who had emigrated to the New World.[114] However, claims of pre-Columbian contacts with Africa are rejected by the vast majority of archeologists and other Mesoamerican scholars.[115] Explanations for the facial features of the colossal heads include the possibility that the heads were carved in this manner due to the shallow space allowed on the basalt boulders. Others note that in addition to the broad noses and thick lips, the heads have the Asian eye-fold, and that all these characteristics can still be found in modern Mesoamerican Indians. To support this, in the 1940s artist/art historian Miguel Covarrubias published a series of photos of Olmec artworks and of the faces of modern Mexican Indians with very similar facial characteristics.[116]. In addition, the African origin hypothesis assumes that Olmec carving was intended to be realistic, an asssumption that is hard to justify given the full corpus of representation in Olmec carving.


List of Mesoamerican pyramids Haumea


Roger Hopkins

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Roger Hopkins is a stone mason and sculptor from Sudbury Massachusetts with a landscape stone masonry business called Naturalistic Gardens. He was consulted to do experiments in Egypt (with Mark Lehrner), Stonehenge and other locations to move megaliths. He participated in a NOVA pyramid building experiment with Mark Lehrner. He also participated in three obelisk erecting experiments and an experiment to create a trilithon at stonehenge. This trilithon was made of 2 megaliths weighing about 40 tons and a lintel weighing about 9 tons.


Egypt 25 tons over 100 people maybe 20 feet all day
Stonehenge
pyramid

See Also

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  • Adorno
  • Bakunin
  • August Ferdinand Bebel
  • Daniel Bell
  • Alex Callinicos
  • Edwin Chadwick
  • Noam Chomsky
  • Eisenach
  • Engels
  • Feuerbach
  • Fourier
  • Goldman
  • Roger S. Gottlieb
  • Critique of the Gotha Program
  • Gramsci
  • Hegel
  • Adolf Hitler
  • John Kay
  • Kropotkin
  • Ferdinand Lassalle
  • Lennin
  • Liebknecht
  • P. J. O'Rourke
  • Pannekoek
  • Joan Robinson
  • Henri de Saint-Simon
  • Peter Singer
  • Goran Therborne
  • Trotsky

Roger Fouts Washoe (chimpanzee) Jane Goodall In the Shadow of Man Francine Paterson Koko (gorilla)Koko Lyn Miles Chantek Birute Galdikas Dian Fossey Gorrilas in our Midst Sue Savage Rumbaugh Kanzi Peter Singer [117]

In Animal Liberation, Singer argues against what he calls speciesism: discrimination on the grounds that a being belongs to a certain species. He holds the interests of all beings capable of suffering to be worthy of equal consideration, and that giving lesser consideration to beings based on their having wings or fur is no more justified than discrimination based on skin color. He argues that animals should have rights based on their ability to feel pain more than their intelligence. In particular, he argues that while animals show lower intelligence than the average human, many severely retarded humans show equally diminished, if not lower, mental capacity, and intelligence therefore does not provide a basis for providing nonhuman animals any less consideration than such retarded humans. He also points out that many primates have learned to communicate with American sign language (ASL) or symbol languages. These include chimpanzees, gorrilas Bonbos and a Orangatan. Primates that have learned ASL or symbol languages include Washoe, Koko, Chantek, and Kanzi.[118] Likewise, pigs, birds, primates and cetaceans can rank as being as intelligent as children. Singer does not specifically contend that we ought not use animals for food insofar as they are raised and killed in a way that actively avoids the inflicting of pain, but as such farms are uncommon, he concludes that the most practical solution is to adopt a vegetarian or vegan diet. Singer also condemns vivisection except where the benefit (in terms of improved medical treatment, etc.) outweighs the harm done to the animals used.[119]


When Peter Singer attempted to speak during a lecture at Saarbrucken he was interupted by a group of protesters including advocates for the handicapped. Dr. Georg Meggle offered the protesters the opportunity to explain why he shouldn't be allowed to speak. The protesters indicated that they believed he was opposed to all rights for the handicapped. They were unaware that although he believed that some lives were so blighted from the beggining their parents may decide their lives are not worth living; in other cases once the decision is made to keep them alive everything that could be done to improve the quality of their life should be done. They were also unaware that he had three grandparents that died in the Nazi concentration camps. The following discusion revealed that there were many misconceptions about his positions. This didn't end the controvercy about his positions. One of the protesters made it clear that to enter the discusions was a tactical error. [120] A lecture at the Zoological Institute of the University of Zurich was also interupted by two groups of protesters. The first group was a group of disabled people who staged a brief protest at the beginning of the lecture. They objected to inviting an advocate of euthanasia to speak. At the end of this protest when Peter Singer attempted to address their concerns a second group of protesters rose and began chanting "Singer raus! Singer raus!" When Peter Singer attempted to address these concerns a protester jumped on stage and grabbed his glasses. The host of the lecture ended the lecture at this point. The first group were distressed at what happened afterwards. They didn't intend to halt the lecture and they had some questions that they wanted to ask Peter Singer following the lecture before it was abandoned. [121]

I rarely if ever read a book without mistakes. So my choice is either cite work from books that make mistakes or nothing at all. I try not to repeat the mistakes. Most aceptible scholars make a smaller percentage of mistakes. Alternate scholors often make much more but sometimes they might get things right that traditional scholors get wrong. In the case of ancient wonders of the worlds involving moving colossal stones traditional scholars often ignore inconveniant facts however caution should be used when using alternate scholors since they are usualy even worse. When it comes to the size of colossal stones that can easily be measured it shouldn't be that hard but there are a lot of contridictary numbers out there and a lot of obvious math mistakes if you bother to check them even from leaders in the field like Zahi Hawass. If there is evidence that dozens of blocks well over 100 tons were moved by the ancients but modern experiments can't move more than 30-40 tons if that with ancient technology then refusing to consider differant ideas is almost as foolish as jumping to conclusions without sufficient information. If traditional scientist ignore inconveniant facts they become the psuedoscientists that they are often trying to debunk. They also make the psuedoscientists seem more credible by default. Presenting things in the most organized manor is the best way to tell them apart.

References

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  99. ^ http://meteorites.wustl.edu/id/density.htm
  100. ^ http://www.albarrie.com/techfabrics/continuousfiber.aspx
  101. ^ http://www.osti.gov/energycitations/product.biblio.jsp?osti_id=5461391
  102. ^ "Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris Scarre 1999
  103. ^ "Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World" edited by Chris Scarre 1999
  104. ^ Diehl, p. 111.
  105. ^ Pool, p. 118; Diehl, p. 112. Coe (2002), p. 69: "They wear headgear rather like American football helmets which probably served as protection in both war and in the ceremonial game played…throughout Mesoamerica".
  106. ^ Grove, p. 55.
  107. ^ Pool, p. 107.
  108. ^ In particular, Williams and Heizer (p. 29) calculated the weight of San Lorenzo Colossal Head 1 at 25.3 short tons, or 23 tonnes. See Scarre. p. 271-274 for the "55 tonnes" weight.
  109. ^ See Williams and Heizer for more detail.
  110. ^ Scarre. Pool, p. 129.
  111. ^ Pool, p. 103.
  112. ^ History Channel "Mega Movers: Ancient Mystery Moves"
  113. ^ Diehl, p. 119.
  114. ^ Wiercinski, A. (1972). Inter-and Intrapopulational Racial Differentiation of Tlatilco, Cerro de Las Mesas, Teothuacan, Monte Alban and Yucatan Maya, XXXlX Congreso Intern. de Americanistas, Lima 1970 ,Vol.1, 231-252.
  115. ^ Taube, for one, says "There simply is no material evidence of any Pre-Hispanic contact between the Old World and Mesoamerica before the arrival of the Spanish in the sixteenth century.", p. 17. Davis, N. "Voyagers to the New World" University of New Mexico Press, 1979 ISBN 0-8263-0880-5 Williams, S. "Fantastic Archaeology" University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991 ISBN 0-8122-1312-2 Feder, K.L. "Frauds, Myths, and Mysteries. Science and Pseudoscience in Archaeology" 3rd ed., Trade Mayfield ISBN 0-7674-0459-9
  116. ^ "Mexico South", Covarrubias, 1946
  117. ^ Cite error: The named reference Cosmos by Carl Sagan was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  118. ^ Practical Ethics second edition, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43363-0. p. 55-82,111
  119. ^ Gareth Walsh, "Father of animal activism backs monkey testing", The Sunday Times, November 26, 2006.
  120. ^ Holger Dorf, "Singer in Saabrucken", unirevue (Winter semester, 1989/90), p.47
  121. ^ Practical Ethics second edition, 1993, ISBN 0-521-43363-0. p. 346-359

Bibliography

[edit]
  • Bernstein, Josh: Digging for the Truth 2006 (based on the history channel series)
  • Coe, Michael, Dean Snow, and Elizabeth Benson: "Atlas of Ancient America" 1986
  • Davidson, Basil: "African Kingdoms" 1966 Time-Life Great Ages of Man series
  • Edwards, Dr. I.E.S.: The Pyramids of Egypt 1986/1947
  • Fouts, Roger: Next of Kin: what chimpanzees have taught me about who we are. New York: William Morrow and Company, 1997
  • Lehner, Mark The Complete Pyramids, London: Thames and Hudson (1997). ISBN 0-500-05084-8.
  • Murray, Dr. Joyce: Cultural Atlas For Young People: "Africa" 1990
  • Oliphant, Margaret: "The Atlas Of The Ancient World" 1992
  • Peters, Elizabeth and Khristen Whitebread editors: Amelia Peabody's Egypt 2003
  • Readers Digest: "Mysteries of the Ancient Americas" The New World Before Columbus 1986
  • Romer, John: Ancient Lives Daily Life in Egypt of the Pharaohs
  • Scarre, Chris editor "The Seventy Wonders of the Ancient World", (1999) Thames & Hudson, London
  • Siliotti, Alberto, Zahi Hawass, 1997 "Guide to the Pyramids of Egypt"
  • Stewert, Desmond and editors of the Newsweek Book Division "The Pyramids and Sphinx" 1971
  • Walker, Charles, 1980 "Wonders of the Ancient World"

Time Life Lost Civilizations series:

Africa's Glorious Legacy (1994)
Ancient India: Land Of Mystery (1994)
Aztecs: Reign of Blood and Splendor (1992)
Celt's: Europes People of Iron
China's buried Kingdoms
Egypt: Land of the Pharaohs (1992)
Greece Temples, Tombs and Treasures
The Holy Land
Incas: Lords of Gold and Glory
The Magnificent Maya
Mesopotamia: The Mighty Kings. (1995)
Mound Builders and Cliff Dwellers
Pompeii: The Vanished City
Ramses II: Magnificence on the Nile (1993)
Rome: Echoes of Imperial Glory
The Search for El Dorado
Southeast Asia: A Past Regained (1995)
Sumer: Cities of Eden
Vikings: Raiders From the North
Wonddrous realms of the Aegean

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