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Lloyd M. Taylor

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Lloyd M. Taylor was an American engineer lived in California in the 1930's through 1950's. He taught himself in the field of internal combustion engines, and was particularly interested in what makes an engine more efficient.

Fabricated Internal Combustion Engine

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He learned that one of the important determinant of engine efficiency was compression ratio, and found through experiments that what is later called the "mechanical octane value" [1] of a combustion chamber is the primary limiting factor. This means the rate at which a combustion chamber can dissipate heat determines how hot the internal surfaces of the chamber becomes, which, in turn determines the maximum compression ratio an engine designer could use.

In analysing the then-typical commercial water-cooled Otto cycle engines' cylinder blocks and cylinder heads made of cast iron with minimum wall thickness of about 1/4", Taylor concluded that there is not much room left for improvement in heat transfer from the chamber wall to the coolant.

After further experiments, he developed a new construction method for engine block and head to use various stamped steel plates of 1/16" to 1/8" thickness, together with cylinder sleeves, spark plug sleeves and valve guides, to form the entire engine, whereby the cylinder head and upper cylinder block sections have double wall construction to use the space in between as the coolant passage. This way, the heat on the combustion chamber wall would have incomparably shorter distance to travel to reach the coolant, thus a big improvement in mechanical octane value could be achieved.

Taylor applied for patent on April 8, 1941, and was issued the US Patent Number 2341488 "Fabricated Internal Combustion Engine" on February 8, 1944.

CoBra

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Crosley developed a new manufacturing method called Copper Brazing (CoBra) where stamped steel plates and other pieces totalling some 125 are tack welded, press fit or crimped together, the entire structure is put in a specially made oven to be heated up to 2,060 degrees F and copper alloy brazing is applied to the seams. A cooling off method was carefully chosen to achieve the best final strength and hardness, and the result was not only of high mechanical octane value, but also extremely light in weight with its unitary cylinder head / block unit weighing only 14 lbs dry. [2] [3]

Formula One

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In 1961, Coventry Climax was dominating the British Formula One field with the successful FPF and FWMV engines, but FWMV's initial selling price (3,000 Pounds), though considerably higher than the selling price of FPF (2,250 Pounds), did not cover the development cost and the mounting maintenance cost as more and more teams wanted to run it. He announced that the situation is the equivalent of his company subsidising the teams, so that the company will withdraw from Formula One racing at the end of the year.

As the customer teams did not have alternative engine suppliers, and thus being totally dependent on the supply of the FWMV engine, the teams got together and negotiated with Lee so that Oil company sponsorship funds would be funneled through the teams to Coventry Climax to cover the mounting costs, and Lee agreed to continue the development and support of these engines. [4]

This incident became the seed for the formation of Formula One Constructors Association later in the 1970s.

Also see

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Powel Crosley, Jr.

Early Types

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The co-founders Keith Duckworth and Mike Costin, being former employees of Lotus Engineering Ltd., maintained a strong relationship with Colin Chapman and the initial revenues of the company came almost exclusively from Lotus. When the company was founded in 1958, only Keith Duckworth left Lotus, leaving Mike Costin who had signed a binding term-employment contract with Chapman. Until 1962, Mike Costin worked on Cosworth projects in his private time, active as a key Lotus engineer on Lotus 15 through Lotus 26 (Elan), as well as leading the on-track Team Lotus contingent at foreign races as evidenced by the famous 1962 Le Mans Lotus scandal.

The following is the list of initial products with cylinder heads modified, but not originally designed by Cosworth, on Ford Kent blocks. The exceptions were Mk.XVII and MAE, which had intake port sleeves for downdraft carburetors brazed into the stock cast iron head in place of the normal side draft ports. There also were some specially cast iron heads with similar dimensions to these brazed heads with Titanium alloy valve spring retainers called the 'Screamer Head' for MAE in later years.

Type Year Block Displacement Claimed Description Mainly For
Mk.I 1959 105/107E 997 cc - Experimental one-off to test cam designs None
Mk.II 1960 105/107E 997cc 75 bhp First series production engine, A2 cam Lotus Mk.VII
Mk.III 1960 105/107E 997cc 85-90 bhp A3 Cam, optional dry sump Formula Junior
Mk.IV 1961 105/107E 1098 cc 90-95 bhp Mk.III with larger bore. Formula Junior
Mk.V 1962 109E 1340 cc 80 bhp Series production road engine Lotus Mk.VII
Mk.VI 1962 109E 1340 cc 105 bhp Racing version of Mk.V Lotus Mk.VII
Mk.VII 1962 109E 1475 cc 120 bhp Mk.VI with larger bore. 1.5 Litre class
Mk.VIII 1963 116E 1498 cc 90 bhp Improved Mk.V on 5 main bearing block Lotus Mk.VII
Mk.IX 1963 116E 1498 cc 120-125 bhp Racing version of Mk.VIII 1.5 Litre class
Mk.X 1963 116E 1498 cc - Experimental one-off Lotus TwinCam None
Mk.XI 1963 109E 1098 cc 100-110 bhp Improved Mk.IV, dry sump Formula Junior
Mk.XII 1963 116E 1594 cc 140 bhp Racing Lotus TwinCam, stock crank and rods, dry sump Lotus 22, Lotus 23
Mk.XIII 1963 116E 1594 cc 140-150 bhp Improved Mk.XII with steel crank/rods, dry sump Formula B, Lotus 22, 23B, 23C
Mk.XIV 1963 116E 1498 cc 100 bhp Improved Mk.VIII Lotus Mk.VII
Mk.XV 1963 116E 1594 cc 135-145 bhp Racing Lotus TwinCam, steel crank and rods, wet sump Lotus 26R, Lotus Cortina
Mk.XVI 1963 116E 1498 cc 140-150 bhp Mk.XIII for 1.5L class [5]
Mk.XVII 1964 109E 1098 cc 120 bhp Improved Mk.XI, downdraft intake ports, dry sump Formula Junior
MAE 1965 109E 997 cc 100-110 bhp Improved Mk.III, downdraft intake ports, dry sump Formula 3

In addition to the above, Cosworth designed and provided the assembly work for Lotus Elan Special Equipment optional road engines with special camshafts and high compression pistons. No Wikipedia editor is allowed to climb the Reichstag building dressed as Spider-Man.

Hewland

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Hewland Engineering Ltd.
Company typePrivate company
IndustryAutomotive
FoundedMaidenhead, 1957
FounderMike Hewland
HeadquartersMaidenhead, England
Area served
Worldwide
Key people
William Hewland
ProductsTransmissions, Electronic Data Acquisition and Control Systems
ServicesHigh Performance engineering
WebsiteHewland Engineering Ltd.

Hewland is a British engineering company, founded in 1957 by Mike Hewland, which specialises in racing-car gearboxes. Although predated by Colotti in producing gearboxes for racing purposes, Hewland was the first UK company that made racing car transaxles.[6]

History

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Mike Hewland ran a small engineering business at Maidenhead in the UK with the specialty in gear cutting. In 1959, Bob Gibson-Jarvie, the Chief Mechanic of UDT Laystall racing team running Cooper F2 cars, sought help from Hewland as gearbox troubles were experienced. The result of this request came out as six successful gearboxes being designed and built in 1959, and Hewland was in the gearbox business.[7]

The first transaxle product, the Hewland Mk.I of 1960, was a minor modification of the Volkswagen Beetle 4 speed transaxle used upside-down with custom made differential housing side plates for the midship engine Lola Mk.III (John Young tuned Ford 105E 997cc pushrod) built for the new Formula Junior rules (1L/360kg or 1.1L/400kg) in 1961.[8] Hewland Mk.II was a similar 4 speed transaxle with more modifications for Coventry Climax engined Elva Mk.VI 1.1 Litre sports racer in 1961.

Hewland Mk.III of 1962 became the first product for the public, which utilised the magnesium alloy case of the Beetle transaxle to house 5 pairs of bespoke straight-cut constant mesh spur gears with motorcycle-style dog rings operated by custom-made brass shift forks. Gear selector shaft was located in the nose housing, unmodified as in the Beetle set up, facing rear-ward at the tail end of the box in the front-side-back position on a midship engine racing cars. The elimination of synchromesh parts provided the space for an additional pair of gears for the 5th speed.

This Mk.III became a big seller for small displacement formula cars and racing sports cars, and was the basis on which all the later products were built.

The advantages of the series were:

  • Dog-ring gear selection made it extremely quick shifting.
  • The structure that enabled changing of gear ratios on the 2nd through 5th speeds possible without removing the transaxle from the vehicle, or detaching it from the engine.
  • Upside-down usage enabled the dry sump racing engines to be mounted low on the chassis.
  • The 3rd, 4th and the 5th gears used the same components, thus were interchangeable.
  • Magnesium alloy Volkswagen case made it very light weight.

Hewland dominated the racing scenes in the 1960s, 70's, 80's and 90's, and still is a leading company in racing transmissions with its focus shifted a bit toward custom engineering work for vehicle manufacturers. In addition to the traditional manual transmission products covering almost all the racing and rallying classes, Hewland offers a complete semi-automatic transmission components including shift actuators, throttle actuators, compressors, shift position sensors and steering wheel paddle systems.[9]

Transaxle types

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The following is the list of the smaller product range housed in Volkswagen case except for LD200.

Type Year Rating sp. Weight Description
Mk.I 1960 1500cc 4 72lbs Custom side plates and unequal-length output shafts for Lola Mk.III
Mk.II 1961 1500cc 4 72lbs Another custom for Elva, VW gears and differential
Mk.III 1962 1500cc 5 70lbs "Hewland quick-change gears", VW differential, tail-shifter
Mk.IV 1963 1500cc 5 70lbs GKN (Ford Zephyr) diff., forward facing selector on the right side, Metalastic doughnut
Mk.V 1963 1600cc 5 75lbs "High torque", thicker gears and layshaft for Cosworth Mk.XII and XIII
Mk.VI 1965 1500cc 5 75lbs Improved Mk.IV for F3 and later FF. Metalastic doughnut attachment
Mk.VII 1968 1000cc 6 72lbs 6 speed version of Mk.VI for 1 Litre F2
Mk.8 1968 1500cc 5 70lbs Hewland diff. on taper roller bearings, all gear-hubs splined to pinion shaft
Mk.9 1973 1500cc 5 70lbs Double row output shaft bearing for Spicer halfshafts, side plates for inboard disc brake
LD200 1988 150lb/ft 5 63lbs Complete redesign of Mk.9 housed in Hewland case

Transmission capacity is measured by the maximum output torque (not the horsepower), which is the product of the input torque times overall reduction ratio. However, as the output torque is proportional to the input torque with typical gear and differential reduction ratios, and as the input torque (engine output torque) is roughly proportional to the engine displacement, Hewland used to indicate the maximum allowable engine size, and later the maximum input torque measured in Lbs/ft., as the transaxle selection guide.

The following is the list of larger product range up to 1981.

Type Year Rating sp. Weight Description
HD4 1963 300lb/ft 4 85lbs "Hewland Design", bespoke casing, alternative to ERSA Knight
HD5 1963 200lb/ft 5 85lbs 5 speed version of HD4
LG 1966 600lb/ft 2 136lbs "Large Gearbox" for Indy, internal oil pump
FT200 1966 200lb/ft 5 90lbs All new HD5, big seller
LG500 1967 500lb/ft 4 136lbs 4 speed LG, LSD or 'Power-Loc' for CanAm
FG400 1968 280lb/ft 5 110lbs FT gears with LG diff. for DFV
LG600 1968 600lb/ft 5 145lbs 5 speed LG500, longer bearing carrier, for F5000 and CanAm
DG300 1969 300lb/ft 5 117lbs "Different Gearbox", LG diff., internal oil pump, for F1 and sports cars
LG2 1971 700lb/ft 2 138lbs Second generation of LG, for Indy
LG Mk.II 1971 600lb/ft 4/5 140lbs Second geneneration of LG600, new case, selector rod and diff.
DG300 Mk.II 1972 300lb/ft 5 118lbs Second generation of DG300
FGA 1972 280lb/ft 5/6 110lbs Second geneneration of FG400, for DFV
FGB 1978 260lb/ft 6 112lbs Lower ratio FGA, larger case for bigger diameter gears, for high rev. turbo F1
DGB 1981 440lb/ft 5 134lbs Higher torque version of DG300 Mk.II, stronger case, for sports car endurance
VG 1981 600lb/ft 5 167lbs Higher torque version of DGB

Engine Balance

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Engine balance refers to those factors in the design, production, tuning, maintenance and the operation of an engine that benefit from being balanced. Major considerations are:

  • Structural and operational elements within an engine
  • Longevity and performance
  • Power and efficiency
  • Performance and weight/size/cost
  • Environmental cost and utility
  • Noise/vibration and performance

This article is currently limited on structural and operational balance within an engine in general, and balancing of internal combustion piston engine components in particular.

Overview

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Piston engine balancing is a complicated subject that covers many areas in the design, production, tuning and operation. The engine considered to be well balanced in a particular usage may produce unacceptable level of vibration in another usage for the difference in driven mass and mounting method, and slight variations in resonant frequencies of the environment and engine parts could be big factors in throwing a smooth operation off balance. In addition to the vast areas that need to be covered and the delicate nature, terminologies commonly used to describe engine balance are often incorrectly used and/or poorly defined not only in casual discussions but also in many articles on respected publications.

Internal combustion piston engines, by definition, are converter device to transform energy in intermittent combustion to mechanical motion. Slider-crank mechanism is used in creating a chemical reaction on fuel, and converting the energy into rotation.

This article lists the balancing elements in "Items to be balanced" section to establish the engine balance basics, followed by:

This section includes categorization of various kinds of engine vibration.
This section explains what Secondary balance is, and how the confusing terminologies 'Primary' and 'Secondary' came into popular use.
This section includes engine balance discussions on various multi-cylinder configurations.

Items to be balanced

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There are many factors that could throw an engine off balance, and there are many ways to categorize them. The following is an example of categorizing the items that need to be balanced for a smooth running piston engine. As piston engine mechanisms are complex and have many components to balance, similar and often simpler categorizing principles can be used on many other forms of engines. In the category descriptions, 'Phase' refers to the timing on the rotation of crankshaft, 'Plane' refers to the location on the crankshaft rotating axis, and 'CG' refers to the center of gravity.

  • Mechanical
  • Static Balance - Static balance refers to the balancing of weight and the location of CG on moving parts.
1. Reciprocating mass - e.g. Piston and conrod weight and CG uniformity.
2. Rotating mass - e.g. Crank web weight uniformity and flywheel concentricity
  • Dynamic Balance - In order for a mass to start moving or change its course in the motion, it needs to be accelerated. In order for a mass to be accelerated, a force is required, and that force needs to be countered (supported) in the opposite direction. Dynamic balance refers to the balancing of these forces and friction.
All accelerations of a mass can be divided into two components opposing in the direction. For example, in order for a piston in a single cylinder engine to be accelerated upward, something must receive (support) the downward force, and it is usually the mass of the entire engine that moves downward a bit as there is no counter-moving piston. This means one cause of engine vibration usually appears in two opposing directions. Often the movement or deflection in one direction appears on a moving mass, and the other direction appears on the entire engine, but sometimes both sides appear on moving parts, e.g. a torsional vibration killing a crankshaft, or a push-pull resonance breaking a chain. In other cases, one side is a deflection on a static part, the energy in which is converted into heat and dissipated into the coolant.
  • Reciprocating mass - Piston mass needs to be accelerated and decelerated, resisting a smooth rotation of a crankshaft. In addition to the up-down movement of a piston, a conrod bigend swings left and right on a typical single cylinder engine.
3. Phase balance - e.g. Pistons on 90 degree V6 without a offset crankshaft reciprocate with unevenly spaced phases in a crank rotation
4. Plane balance - e.g. Boxer Twin pistons travel on two different rotational planes on the crankshaft, which creates forces to rock the engine on Z-axis[10]
  • Rotating mass
5. Phase balance - e.g. Imbalance in camshaft rotating mass could generate a vibration with the frequency equal to 2 crank rotations in a 4 cycle engine
6. Plane balance - e.g. Boxer Twin crankshaft without counter weights rocks the engine on Z-axis[11]
7. Torsional balance - e.g. If the rigidity of crank throws on an inline 4 cylinder engine is uniform, the crank throw farthest to clutch surface (#1 cylinder) normally shows the biggest torsional deflections, forcing the engine block to be twisted in the other rotational direction. It is usually impossible to make these deflections uniform across multiple cylinders except on a radial engine. See Torsional vibration
  • 8. Static mass - A single cylinder 10 HP engine weighing a ton is very smooth, because the forces that comprise its imbalance in the operation must move a large mass to create a vibration. As power to weight ratio is important in the design of an engine, the weight of a crankcase, cylinder block, cylinder head, etc. (i.e. static mass) are usually made as light as possible within the limitations of strength, cost and safety margin, and are often excluded in the consideration of engine balance.
However, most vibrations of an engine are small movements of the engine itself, and are thus determined by the engine weight, rigidity, location of CG, and how much its mass is concentrated around the CG. So these are crucial factors in engine dynamic balance, which is defined for the whole engine in reciprocal and rotational movements as well as in bending and twisting deflections on X, Y and Z axis. It is important to recognize that some moving mass must be considered a part of static mass depending on the kind of dynamic balance consideration (e.g. camshaft weight in analyzing the Y axis rotational vibration of an engine).
  • Friction
9. Slide resistance balance - e.g. A piston slides in a cylinder with friction. A ball in a ball bearing also slides as the diameter of inner and outer laces are different and the distance of circumference differs from the inside and out. When a ball bearing is used as the main bearing on a crankshaft, eccentricity of the laces normally create slide friction
10. Rolling resistance balance - e.g. A ball in a ball bearing generates friction in rolling on a lace
  • Fluid - Pressure, Flow and Kinetic balance on gas, oil, water, mist, air, etc.
  • Torque Balance - Torque here refers to the torque applied to crankshaft as a form of power generation, which usually is the result of gas expansion. In order for the torque to be generated, that force needs to be countered (supported) in the opposite direction, so engine mounts are essential in power generation, and their design is crucial for a smooth running engine.
11. Amount of torque - e.g. Normally, the amount of torque generated by each cylinder is supposed to be uniform within a multi-cylinder engine, but often are not
12. Direction of torque - e.g. The conrod of a late-igniting cylinder pushes the crankshaft most at a different angle when compared to an early-igniting cylinder
13. Phase balance - e.g. Firings on a single cylinder 4 cycle engine occur at every 720 degrees in crankshaft rotation
14. Plane balance - e.g. Torque is applied to the crankshaft on the crank rotational plane where the conrod bigend is located, which are at different distances to power take off (e.g. clutch surface) plane on an inline multi-cylinder engine
  • Drag - Negative torque that resists the turning of crankshaft
  • Pressure balance - Not only the compression in a cylinder, but also any creation of positive (as in oil pressure) and negative (as in intake manifold) pressure are sources of resistance, which benefit from being uniform
15. Phase balance - e.g. Compression on a single cylinder 4 cycle engine occurs every 720 degrees in crank rotation phase
16. Plane balance - e.g. Compression on a boxer twin engine occurs at different planes on the crankshaft at different distance to clutch surface. A single plane (row) radial engine does not have this plane inbalance except for a short mismatch between the power generating plane where the conrods are, and the power take off plane where the propeller is.
  • Flow resistance
17. Phase balance - e.g. If only one cylinder of a multi-cylinder engine has a restrictive exhaust port, this condition results in increased resistance every 720 degrees on crank rotation on a 4 cycle engine
18. Plane balance - e.g. If only one cylinder of a multi-cylinder inline engine has a restrictive exhaust port, it results in increased resistance on the crank rotational plane where that cylinder/conrod is located.
  • 19. Kinetic resistance - Oil, water, vapor, gas and air do have mass, that needs to be accelerated in order to be moved for the operation of an engine. Rolls Royce Merlin received rear-facing stub exhaust pipes in its development, resulting in a measurable increase in the maximum speed of Supermarine Spitfire and De Havilland Mosquito. This is a form of jet propulsion using kinetic energy in the exhaust, implying that the balancing of kinetic resistance arising from fluid components of an engine is not insignificant. Crank webs partially hitting the oil in oil pan (accelerating the oil mass rapidly) could be a big source of vibration.
  • 20. Shearing resistance - Metallic parts in an engine are normally designed not to touch each other by being separated by a thin film of oil. But a cam sometimes touches the tappet, and metal bearing surface wears with insufficient oil or with too much / too little clearance. A film of liquid (especially oil) resists being sheared apart, and this resistance could be a source of vibration as often experienced on an over-heating engine that is nearing a seizure.
  • 21. Thermal - Thermal balance is crucial for the durability of an engine, but also has a profound effect on many of the above balancing categories. For example, it is common for a longitudinary-mounted inline engines to have the front-most cylinder cooled more than the other cylinders, resulting in the temperature and torque generated on that cylinder less than on other phase and planes. Also, thermal inbalance creates variations in tolerances, creating differing sliding frictions.

Primary Balance

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The terminology "Primary balance" is another source of confusion in the discussion of multi-cylinder piston engine configurations. Primary, "first order" or "first harmonic" balance are supposed to mean the same thing, and should refer to balancing of items that could shake an engine once in every rotation of the crankshaft, i.e. having the frequency equal to one crank rotation. Secondary or "second order" balance should refer to those items with the frequency of twice in one crank rotation, so there could be tertiary (third order), quaternary (fourth order), quinary (fifth order), etc. balances as well.

A cylinder in 4 cycle engines fires once in two crank rotations, generating forces with the frequency of a half the crankshaft speed, so the concept of "half order" vibrations is sometimes used when the discussion is on the balances on torque generation.

There are three major types of vibration caused by engine imbalances:

Reciprocating

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A single cylinder, 360°-crank parallel twin, or a 180°-crank inline-3 engine normally vibrates up and down because there are no counter-moving piston(s) or there is a mismatch in the number of counter-moving pistons. This is a 3. phase imbalance of reciprocating mass.

Rocking

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Boxer engines, 180°-crank parallel twin, 120°-crank inline-3, 90 degree V4, inline-5, 60 degree V6 and crossplane 90 degree V8 normally vibrate rotationally on Z or Y-axis. This is a result of plane imbalances (4., 6., 14. and 16) called the rocking couple.

Four stroke engines with 4 or less number of cylinders normally do not have overlapping power stroke, so tend to vibrate the engine back and forth rotationally on X-axis. Also, multi-cylinder engines with counter moving pistons have a CG height imbalance in a conrod swinging left on the top half of crank rotation, while another swings right on the bottom half, causing the top of the engine to move right while the bottom moves slightly to the left.[note 1] Engines with 13. phase imbalance on torque generation (e.g. 90 degree V6, 180°-crank inline-3, etc.) show the same kind of rocking vibration on X-axis.

Torsional

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Twisting forces on crankshaft cannot be avoided because conrods are normally located at a (often different) distance(s) to the power take-off plane (e.g. clutch surface) on the length of the crankshaft. The twisting vibrations caused by these (7.Torsional imbalance) forces normally cannot be felt outside of an engine, but are major causes of crankshaft failure.


However, it is simpler to focus on bigger sources of imbalance only, and it is somewhat customary to discuss only two categories, in which 'Primary' is traditionally meant to be all non-secondary imbalance items lumped together regardless of frequency, and 'Secondary' is meant to be the effects of non-sinusoidal component of piston and conrod motions in slider-crank mechanism as described below.

Secondary (Non-sinusoidal) Balance

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When a crank moves 90 degrees from the top dead center (TDC) in a single cylinder engine positioned upright, the bigend up-down position is exactly at the half-way point in the stroke, but the conrod is at the most tilted position at this time, and this tilt angle makes the small-end position to be lower than the half-way point in the stroke.

Because the small-end position is lower than the half-way point of the stroke at 90 degrees and at 270 degrees after TDC, the piston moves less distance when the crank rotates from 90 degrees to 270 degrees after TDC than during the crank rotation from 90 degrees before TDC to 90 degrees after TDC. In other words, a piston must travel a longer distance in its reciprocal movement on the top half of the crank rotation, than on the bottom half.

Assuming the crank rotational speed to be constant, this means the reciprocating movement of a piston is faster on the top half than on the bottom half of the crank rotation. Consequently, the inertia force created by the mass of a piston (in its acceleration and deceleration) is stronger in the top half of the crank rotation than on the bottom half.

So, an ordinary inline 4 cylinder engine with 180 degrees up-down-down-up crank throw may look like cancelling the upward inertia created by the #1-#4 piston pair with the downward inertia of the #2-#3 pair and vice versa, but in fact the upward inertia is always stronger, and the vibration caused by this imbalance is traditionally called the Secondary Vibration.

When a conrod bigend rotates, its up-down movement (like it is seen from the side of an inline 4 cylinder engine) can be plotted on a graph (with the position on the stroke on Y-axis, rotational position of the crank in degrees on X-axis) with a clean Sine curve, and this is called the sinusoidal movement. Its left-right changes in position is exactly the same, as it is equivalent to just changing the view point from the side to the top of the engine. However, the up-down movement of a conrod small-end (and the piston) does not move in this fashion as described above, thus is considered not sinusoidal.

The inertia force created by this non-sinusoidal reciprocating motion is equivalent to the mass times the acceleration of change in the position, which is expressed as:


where is the change in up-down location, is the center-to-center conrod length, is the radius of the crank (i.e. a half of stroke) is the change in crank rotational angle from TDC.

This non-sinusoidal motion can mathematically be considered as a combination of two sinusoidal motions, one with the frequency equal to the crank rotation (equivalent to the piston motion with infinitely long conrod, which is called the 'primary' component), another with double the frequency[12] (equivalent to the effect of conrod tilting angle, which is the 'secondary'). Although pistons do not move in the fashion defined by either of these two motions, it is easier to understand the motion separately, so the use of the terms primary and secondary became popular outside of mathematical analysis.

To live in the world without becoming aware of the meaning of the world is like wandering about in a great library without touching the books. - Dan Brown, 2009

The vibration caused by this inertia force (or the difference of its strength between the top and bottom half of crank rotation) is very small at lower engine speed, but it grows exponentially as it is proportional to the square of the crank rotational speed, making it a major problem in high-revving engines. Inline 4 cylinder and 90 degree V8 engines with flat-plane crankshaft move two pistons always in synch, making the imbalance twice as large (and a half as frequent) as in other configurations (e.g. Crossplane inline-four or V8) that move all pistons in different, evenly spaced, reciprocal phases.

Inherent balance

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When comparing piston engines with different configurations in the number of cylinders, the V angle, etc., the term "inherent balance" is used. This term often describes just two categories in the above list that are 'inherent' in the configuration, namely, 3. (Phase balance on reciprocating mass), and 13. (Phase balance on torque generation).

In rare cases when considering a boxer twin, the categories 4. (Plane balance on reciprocating mass), 6. (Plane balance on rotating mass) and sometimes 14. (Plane balance on torque generation) are included, however, statements like "A flat-8 boxer engine has a perfect inherent balance"[13] ignore these three categories as flat-8 boxer configuration has inherent imbalance in these categories by having the left and right banks staggered (not positioned symmetrically in plan view) in the same manner as in boxer twin.

"Inherent mechanical balance" further complicates the discussion in the use of the word 'mechanical' by implying to exclude balances on torque generation and compression for some people (as in the above categorization) while not excluding them for others (as they are the results of mechanical interaction among piston, conrod and crankshaft).

While many items on the above category list are not inherent to a configuration of a multi-cylinder engine, it is safe for a meaningful discussion of inherent balance on multi-cylinder engine configurations to include at least the balances on:

  • Reciprocating mass (3.Phase and 4.Plane)
  • Rotating mass (6.Plane)
  • Torque generation (13.Phase and 14.Plane)

and preferably:

  • Compression (15.Phase and 16.Plane)

Two cylinder engines

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There are three common configurations in two-cylinder engines: parallel-twin; V-twin; and boxer twin (a common form of flat engine).

Secondary imbalance is the strongest on a parallel twin with a 360 degree crankshaft[14] (that otherwise has the advantage of 13. an evenly spaced firing, and lack of 4. & 6. imbalances), which moves two pistons together. Parallel twin with a 180 degree crankshaft[15] (that has the disadvantage of 13. uneven firing spacing and strong 4., 6., 14. & 16. imbalance) produces the vibration a half as strong and twice as frequent. In a V-twin with a shared crank pin (e.g. Ducati 'L-twin'), the strong vibration of the 360°-crank parallel twin is divided into two different directions and phase separated by the same amount of degrees as in the V angle, with 13. unevenly spaced firing as well as the imbalances 4., 6., 14. and 16.

BMW R50/2 boxer-twin engine viewed from above, showing the left & right cylinders being offset

A boxer engine is a type of flat engine in which each of a pair of opposing cylinders is on separate crank throws, offset at 180° to its partner, with 13. an evenly spaced firing. If the pistons could lie on the same crank rotational plane, then the design is inherently balanced for the momentum of the pistons. But since they cannot, the design, despite having a perfect 3. phase balance largely cancelling the non-sinusoidal imbalance, inherently has 4. plane imbalance on reciprocating mass, 6. plane imbalance on rotating mass, 14. plane imbalance on torque generation, and 16. plane imbalance on compression (these four kinds of imbalance are also known as "rocking couple") due to the crank pin rotating planes being offset.[16] [[

File:Forked connecting rods (Autocar Handbook, 13th ed, 1935).jpg|thumb|right|Fork and Blade conrods. This is the type used on Allison V-1710, which was retrofitted to many racing Merlins post-war.]]

This offset, the length of which partly determines the strength of the rocking vibration, is the largest on the parallel twin with a 180° crankshaft, and does not exist on a V or a flat engine that has a shared crank pin with "fork and blade" conrods (e.g. Harley-Davidson V-twin engine. See illustration on right). Other configurations fall in between, depending on the bigend and crank web thickness (if it exists in between the throws), and the main bearing width (if it exists in between the throws).

Three cylinder engines

[edit]

Inline 3 with 120° crankshaft is the most common three cylinder engine. They have 13. evenly spaced firing and perfect 3. phase balance on reciprocating mass, with 4. plane imbalance on reciprocating mass, 6. plane imbalance on rotating mass, 14. plane imbalance on torque generation, and 16. plane imbalance on compression. Just like in a crossplane V8, these first order rocking couples can be countered with heavy counterweights, and the secondary balance is comparable to, or better than an ordinary inline 4 because there is no piston pairs that move together.

This secondary balance advantage is beneficial for making the engine compact, for there is not as much need for longer conrods, which is one of the reasons for the popularity of modern and smooth turbo-charged inline 3 cylinder engines on compact cars. However, the crankshaft with heavy counterweights tend to make it difficult for the engine to be made sporty (i.e. quick revving up and down) because of the strong flywheel effect.

Unlike in a crossplane V8, the bank of three cylinders have evenly spaced exhaust pulse 240° (120° if two stroke) crank rotational angle apart, so a simple three-into-one exhaust manifold can be used for uniform scavenging of exhaust (needed for uniform intake filling of cylinders, which is important for 11. and 12.), further contributing to the size advantage.

Four cylinder engines

[edit]

Inline-4, flat-4 and V4 are the common types of four cylinder engine. Normal inline-4 configuration[note 2] has very little rocking couples, but the secondary imbalance is large due to two pistons always moving together, and the rotational vibration on X-axis tend to be large because the height imbalance on conrods' CG swinging left and right[note 1] is amplified due to two conrods moving together.

Ordinary Flat-4 boxer engines[note 3] have excellent secondary balance at the expense of rocking couples due to opposing pistons being staggered (offset front to back). The above mentioned rotational vibration on X-axis[note 1] is much smaller than an inline-4 because the pairs of conrods swinging up and down together move at different CG heights (different left-right position in this case). Another important imbalance somewhat inherent to boxer-four that is often not dialed out in the design is its irregular exhaust pulse on one bank of two cylinders. Please see flat-four burble explanation part of flat-four article on this exhaust requirement similar to the crossplane V8 exhaust peculiarity.

V4 engines come in vastly different configurations in terms of the 'V' angle and crankshaft shapes. Lancia Fulvia V4 engines with very narrow V angle have crank pin phase offset corresponding to the V angle, so the firing spacing (phase pattern) is exactly like an ordinary inline-four. But some V4s have irregular firing spacing, and each design needs to be considered separately in terms of all the balancing items.
For example, Honda VFR1200F engine basically is a 76° V4 with a 360° shared-crank-pin crankshaft, but the conrod orientation is an unusual right-left-left-right (as opposed to normal right-left-right-left) with much wider bore spacing on the right bank than on the left, which results in significantly reduced rocking couples at the expense of longer engine length. Furthermore, the shared crank pin has 28° phase offset, resulting in 256°-104°-256°-104° firing spacing, which is irregular within a 360° crankshaft rotation but evenly distributed from one rotation to another (as opposed to 90° V4 with 180° crankshaft that has 180°-270°-180°-90° firing spaced unevenly within 360 degrees and within 720 degrees of crankshaft rotation).[17]

Five cylinder engines

[edit]

Inline five cylinger (L5) engine, with crank throws at 72° phase shift to each other, is the common five cylinder configuration. (Notable exceptions are Honda motorcycle V5, and Volkswagen VR5 engine.) These typical L5 engines have 13. evenly spaced firing and perfect 3. phase balance on reciprocating mass, with 4. plane imbalance on reciprocating mass, 6. plane imbalance on rotating mass, 14. plane imbalance on torque generation, and 16. plane imbalance on compression. Just like in inline 3 engines above, these first order rocking couples can be countered with heavy counterweights, and the secondary balance is comparable to, or better than an ordinary inline 6 because there is no piston pairs that move together.

Compared to three and four cylinder designs, a major advantage in 4-stroke format is the overlap in power stroke, where the combustion at every 144° of crank rotation ensures a continuous driving torque, which, while not as much noticeable at high rpm, translates to a much smoother idle.

Modern examples such as the current Audi RS3 engine have undersquare design, because the advantage in secondary balance allows it to have longer stroke without sacrificing the higher rpm smoothness, which is desirable for a smaller bore and shorter engine length.

Inline six cylinder engines

[edit]

Inline 6 (L6), V6 and Flat 6 (F6) are the common six cylinder engine configurations.

Inline 6 normally has crank throws at 120° phase shift to each other with two pistons at about equal distance to the center of the engine (#1 and #6 cylinder, #2 and #5, #3 and #4) always moving together, which results in superb plane balance on reciprocating mass (4.) and rotating mass (6.), in addition to the perfect phase balances 3., 5., 13. and 15.. Combined with the overlapping torque generation at every 120° of crankshaft rotation, it often results in a very smooth engine at idle. However, the piston pairs that move together tend to make secondary imbalance strong at high rpm, and the long length configuration can be a cause for crankshaft and camshaft torsional vibration, often requiring a torsional damper. The long length of the engine often calls for a smaller bore and longer stroke for a given cylinder displacement, which is another cause for large secondary imbalance unless designed with long conrods. Furthermore, 4-stroke inline 6 engines inherently have 14. (Plane imbalance on torque generation) and 16. (Plane imbalance on compression), which are typically more or less balanced on 12 cylinder configurations.

In terms of firing spacing, these typical inline 6 are like two inline 3 engines connected in the middle, so the firing interval is evenly distributed within the front three cylinders and within the back three, with equal 240° spacing within the trio and 120° phase shift to each other. So three-into-one exhaust manifolds on the front and on the rear three cylinders, with each of them then connected with a two-into-one pipe results in 120° (240° if not merged in dual exhaust) evenly distributed exhaust pulse.
Intake pulse, which is also important for evenly filling the cylinders with the same volume and mixture of intake charge for 11. (uniform amount of torque) and 12. (uniform timing in torque generation), is exactly the same, so two carburetors or throttle bodies on two one-into-three intake manifolds (when the three runner lengths are equal, strictly speaking) results in evenly spaced intake pulse at the throttles. Jaguar XK inline 6 had three SU carburettors each serving the front two, middle two and the rear two cylinders in the later models, which resulted in unevenly distributed intake pulse at each carburetor. This configuration, while resulting in higher power due to the increased total flow capacity of the carburetors than the earlier evenly-spaced-pulse twin carburetor configuration, may have contributed to the later 4.2 Liter version's "rougher running" reputation compared to the earlier legendary 3.4 and 3.8 Liter versions.

V6 engines

[edit]

V6 engines with un-split shared crank pin can have equally spaced firing when the V-angle is at 120° (60° or 120° for 2-stroke). However, the 120° bank angle makes the engine rather wide, so production V6 tend to use 60° angle with a crank pin that is offset 60° for the opposing cylinders. As offsetting the crank pin for as much as 60° no longer provides overlap in the diameter of the crank pin, the actual pin is not really an offset 'split' pin, but normally is completely separate in two parts with a thin crank web connecting the two indivisual pins. This makes the crankshaft structurally weaker, much more so than in the crankshaft with slight offset seen on the Lancia Fulvia V4 with 10.5° to 13° offset, and racing V6 engines such as Cosworth GBA for Formula One often used the 120° bank angle to avoid this weakness unless required by the formula as in all the 2014 - 2015 Formula One 1.6 Liter turbo V6 engines that has 90° bank angle according to the regulation.[18]

60° V6 is compact in length, width and height, which is advantageous for rigidity and weight. The short crankshaft length mitigates the torsional vibration problem, and secondary balance is better than in an inline 6 because there is no piston pairs that move together. Furthermore, each bank of three cylinders have evenly spaced ignition interval, so the exhaust system advantage is shared with inline 3. However, these advantages come at the price of having plane imbalances on 4. rotating mass, 6. reciprocating mass, 14. torque generation, and 16. compression. Also, the left and the right banks being staggered (for the thickness of a conrod plus the thin crank web) makes the reciprocating mass plane imbalance more difficult to be countered with heavy counterweights than in inline 3. But when the engine and engine mounts are properly designed, it makes a fabulous powerplant like Alfa Romeo V6 engines.

90° V6 simetimes were designed like chopping 2 cylinders off common V8 engines to share production tooling (e.g. General Motors 90° V6 engines up to 231 CID with 18° offset crankshaft and uneven firing interval), but newer examples (e.g. Honda C Series engines) are dedicated designs with 30° offset crank pins that result in even combustion spacing. Compared to 60° V6, the offset crank pins could have overlap in the diameter of the pin, and the V angle coincides with the angle of mean directions of conrods swinging left and right in each bank. It also shares the four (4., 6., 14 and 16.) plane imbalances (rocking couples) and the staggered cylinders, but there is the secondary balance advantage over L6 as well.

Flat six engines

[edit]

Flat six engine with 180 degree phase offset between opposing cylinder pair, and 120 degree phase offset among the three pairs (these are called Boxer Six engine) is the common configuration. These 6 cylinder Boxer engines have 14. (Plane imbalance on torque generation) and 16. (Plane imbalance on compression) just like in inline six. As the strength of vibration generated by these imbalances are more or less proportional to engine length, boxer six has the advantage as flat-6 is much shorter than an inline 6 configuration. However, boxer six has additional plane imbalances on rotating mass (4.) and reciprocating mass (6.) due to its left and right banks being staggered front to back, although the offset distance tends to be much smaller in relation to the engine size than in flat-four and flat-twin.

On the other hand, secondary balance is far superior to Straight Six because there are no piston pairs moving together, and is superior to V6 because a large part of secondary imbalance is cancelled in the opposing cylinder pairs except for the front-to-back offset. This makes a boxer six particularly suited for high-revving operation.

Similar to Straight-six, these typical boxer 6 are like two inline 3 engines sharing a crankshaft, so the firing interval is evenly distributed within the three cylinders on the left bank and within the right three, with equal 240° spacing within the trio in a bank and 120° phase shift to each other. So three-into-one exhaust manifolds on the left and on the right three cylinders, with each of them then connected with a two-into-one pipe results in 120° (240° if not merged in dual exhaust) evenly distributed exhaust pulse. Likewise, intake pulse is evenly distributed among the three cylinders on each bank.

Porsche flat six engine is famous for being a successful design for a long production run, with some early examples (911T model) having a crankshaft without counter-weights.

List of Porsche engines

[edit]

The following is the list of Porsche engines:

Early engines

[edit]

[19] [20]

Type Year Displ. Bore x Stroke KW/hp@rpm Description Used by
1 1898 - - 3-5hp@500 8-pole "Octagon" electric motor Egger-Lohner C2 Phaeton
8 1930 3250 - - 8 cylinder Wanderer
16 1932 3500 - - 8 cylinder, Diesel Neue Röhr, Gustav Hiller
22 1932 4358 68 x 75 220/295@4500 45ºV16 OHC Solex, supercharged Auto Union Type A
22 1934 4954 72.5 x 75 276/370@4700 45ºV16 OHC Solex, supercharged Auto Union Type B
22 1936 6008 75 x 85 388/520@5000 45ºV16 OHC Solex, supercharged Auto Union Type C
36 1933 3250 - - 8 cyl. supercharged Neue Röhr
38 1933 1450 - 21/28@- F4 OHV 32, Prototype for NSU
39 1934 - - - - Petrol engine for Gustav Hiller
40 1933 - - - Single cyl. Test engine for Gustav Hiller
49 1934 - - - Single cyl. Test engine for 55
55 1935 - - - - 1000HP airplane engine for Südbremse
60 1935 985 70 x 64 19/25@- F4 OHV KdF Wagen, Kubelwagen
64 1937 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV 64
70 1936 17700 - - 32 cylinder radial Airplane engine
71 1935 553 - - Single cyliner Test engine for 70
72 1935 19700 - - V16 Liquid-cooled Airplane engine
73 1935 1231 - - Single cylinder Test engine for 72
82 1942 1131 75 x 64 - F4 OHV KdF Wagen, Schimmwagen
94 1937 2962 67 x 70 358/476@7800 60ºV12 supercharged Mercedes-Benz W154 (M154 engine)
97 1938 - - - - Bulldog truck
100 1940 - - - - Leopard Tank prototype
101 1942 15000 - 240/320@2400 V10 Air-cooled Tiger P1 tank, Elefant Tank Destroyer[21]
104 1937 247 67 x 70 - Single cylinder Test engine for 94
108 1938 822 - 10.2/14@2250 Single cyl. air-cooled Diesel 108K/KH, 108L/LH, 108S, 108V Porsche Junior
109 1939 - - - Two-stroke Test engine for Mercedes-Benz
110 1937 1531 - 14.6/19@- Twin cyl. version of 108 110 Porsche Standard AP
111 1936 822 - 8.8/12@- Single cyl. air-cooled Diesel 111L, 111K Porsche Standard
112 1940 2467 - - Three cyl. version of 110 133 Porsche Super
113 1940 - - - Petrol version of 112 113V
113 1941 - - - Wood-gas version of 112 113G
114 1938 1493 58 x 56.5 - 72ºV10 water-cooled DOHC 114 F-Wagen. [22]
115 1939 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHC supercharged -
117 - - - - Single cylinder Test engine for 101 Series 1
119 - - - - Single cylinder Test engine for 101 Series 2
120 1939 985 70 x 64 - F4 OHV Utility engine for Ministry of Air Transport
121 1939 985 70 x 64 - F4 OHV, Magneto Utility engine for Office of Munitions
122 1939 985 70 x 64 - F4 OHV, Coil Utility engine for German Post Office
122 - 1531 - 16.1/21@- Twin cyl. air-cooled Diesel 122, Allgaier AP22 tractor
127 1940 - - - Sliding valve Experimental
133 - 2467 - 24.2/32@- Three cyl. air-cooled Diesel 133, Allgaier 133
141 - - - - Twin cylinder Auxiliary engine for 101 and 102
144 1947 3289 - 32.2/43@1800 Four cyl. version of 112 144 Porsche Master
158 1941 - - - Single cylinder Diesel Direct injection experimental
159 - - - - Single cylinder Diesel Pre-chamber injection experimental
170 1942 - - - - Marine outboard engine
171 1942 - - 44/60@- - Marine outboard engine
174 1942 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV Marine outboard engine
179 1942 - - - F4 OHV Petrol Fuel injection experimental for VW
190 - - - - Diesel Diesel engine for 101 -cancelled
191 - - - - Single cylinder Diesel Experimental for 190
200 1942 - - - Air-cooled Diesel 10 Liter tank engine -cancelled
203 1942 - - - Single cylinder Diesel Experimental for 200
208 1942 1644 - 18.3/24@- Twin cylinder Diesel 208N Porsche Standard
209 1942 44500 - - Air-cooled Diesel 205 Maus Tank engine
212 1942 - - - V16 OHV Diesel VK4502(P) Tank engine
213 1942 - - - Single cylinder Diesel Experimental for 212
215 - - - - Single cylinder Diesel Experimental for 209
217 1948 1374 - 14.6/19@- Single cylinder Diesel 217T Porsche Standard
218 - 1644 - 18.3/24@- Twin cylinder Diesel 218H, 218V, 218U, 218S Porsche Standard
238 - 1629 - 19/25@- Twin cylinder Diesel 238 Porsche Standard Star
300 1944 - - - Jet engine V1
308 - 2467 - 27.8/37@- Three cyl. Diesel 308N, 308L, 308S, B308, F308 Porsche Super
309 1945 2625 - 29.3/39@- Three cyl. Diesel 309N, 309S, B309 Porsche Super
318 - 2467 - 29.3/39@- Three cyl. Diesel L318 Porsche Super
319 - 2625 - 25.6/34@- Three cyl. Diesel L319, 329 Export, 339 Porsche Super
323 1942 875 - 11/15@- Single cyl. air-cooled Petrol 109G Porsche Junior
324 1946 - - 6/8@- - Utility engine
325 1946 - - 11/15@- - Utility engine
326 1946 - - 23/30@- - Utility engine
328 1946 1750 - 22/28@- Twin cylinder Diesel 219 Porsche Standard Star
330 1946 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV VW Wood-gas conversion
331 1946 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV VW indigenous fuels conversion
332 1946 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV VW anthracite-coal conversion
356 1949 1131 75 x 64 29/40@4200 F4 OHV 356 (356/1 Gmund)
360 1947 1493 56 x 50.5 224/300@8500 F12 DOHC supercharged 360 Cisitalia
361 1947 124 56 x 50.5 - Single, DOHC Experimental 360 engine development
362 1948 1985 59 x 60.5 - F12 DOHC Formula Two for Cisitalia
366 1949 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV twin carb. High output VW engine for 356 prototype
367 1949 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV Hemi head based on 115 for 356 prototype
369 1949 1086 73.5 x 64 29/40@4200 F4 OHV Hemi head 356 (356/2, Gmund production)
370 1947 1500 - - Air-cooled six cylinder Cisitalia rear-engine GT study
372 1947 2000 - 75/100@- V8 air-cooled Cisitalia Sedan study
408 - 3289 - 36.6/48@- 4 Cylinder Diesel 408, 418 Porsche Master
409 - 3500 - 36.6/48@- 4 Cylinder Diesel 409, 419, 429 Porsche Master
425 1948 - - 15/20@- Single cylinder Diesel Porsche Diesel
427 - - - 23/30@- Twin cylinder Diesel Porsche Diesel
502 1950 1488 80 x 74 42/55@4400 F4 OHV 356 1500
506 1951 1287 80 x 64 32/44@4200 F4 OHV 356 1300
506/1 1954 1290 74.5 x 64 32/44@4200 F4 OHV 356 1300A
506/2 1955 1290 74.5 x 74 32/44@4200 F4 OHV 3pc. crankcase 356/356A 1300
508 1952 1287 80 x 64 32/44@4200 F4 OHV 356 1300
509 1951 1287 80 x 64 - F4 OHV 356 1300 prototype
514 1951 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV Roller bearing 356 SL (514)
527 1951 1488 80 x 74 44/60@5000 F4 OHV Roller bearing 356 1500
528 1952 1488 80 x 74 51/70@5000 F4 OHV 356 1500S
528/2 1953 1488 80 x 74 51/70@5000 F4 OHV, 3pc. crankcase 356 1500S
531 1953 1290 74.5 x 74 44/60@5500 F4 OHV 356 1300
532 1953 1488 80 x 74 44/60@5000 F4 OHV Single Carb. 356 1500
533 1952 1086 73.5 x 64 - F4 OHV 1.1L Class racing
535 1952 - - 18/24.2@- Twin cylinder Diesel Allgaier P312/116 coffee plantation tractor
536 1953 - - 17/22@- Twin cylinder Diesel Allgaier A122
537 1953 - - 25/33@- Three cylinder Diesel Allgaier A133
538 1853 - - 33/44@- 4 cylinder Diesel Allgaier A144
539 1952 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV 3pc. crankcase prototype
540 1952 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine
543 1952 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine
544 1952 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine
546 1952 1488 80 x 74 40/55@4400 F4 OHV Plain Bearing 356 1500
546/2 1954 1488 80 x 74 42/55@4400 F4 OHV 3pc. crankcase 356 1500
557 1955 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV 3pc. crankcase 356 1500 for US
589 1954 1290 74.5 x 74 44/60@5500 F4 OHV 356 1300S
589/2 1955 1290 74.5 x 74 44/60@5500 F4 OHV 3pc. crankcase 356 1300S
596 - - - - Two cylinder Industrial engine
606 - 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV 3pc. crankcase Under-floor engine
616/1 1956 1582 82.5 x 74 44/60@4500 F4 OHV 356A 1600
616/2 1956 1582 82.5 x 74 55/75@5200 F4 OHV 356A 1600S
616/3 1956 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine
616/3R 1956 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Reverse rotation Industrial engine
616/4 1956 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV 356A police vehicle
616/5 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Utility engine for refueling vehicle
616/6 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Utility engine
616/7 1960 1582 82.5 x 74 66/90@5500 F4 OHV 356B S90
616/8 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine
616/11 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Special engine
616/12 1962 1582 82.5 x 74 55/75@5200 F4 OHV 356B Super
616/13 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine (improved 616/3)
616/13R - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Reverse rotation Industrial engine (improved 616/3R)
616/14 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV 356B police vehicle
616/15 1963 1582 82.5 x 74 55/75@5200 F4 OHV 356C
616/16 1963 1582 82.5 x 74 68/95@5800 F4 OHV 356SC
616/18 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine (improved 616/8)
616/20 - 1488 80 x 74 - F4 OHV Utility engine
616/21 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Industrial engine for Contraves
616/23 - 1582 82.5 x 74 38/50@- F4 OHV Industrial engine
616/24 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV 356B Super police vehicle
616/26 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV 356B Super 90 police vehicle
616/27 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV 356B Super 90 police vehicle
616/33 - 1700 - - F4 OHV Industrial engine
616/33-1 - 1700 - - F4 OHV Industrial engine
616/36 1966 1582 82.5 x 74 66/90@5500 F4 OHV 902[23]/912
616/37 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV 356SC police vehicle
616/39 1968 1582 82.5 x 74 66/90@5500 F4 OHV 912(US)
616/40 1969 1582 82.5 x 74 66/90@5500 F4 OHV 912(US)
619 - - - - Diesel -
631 - - - - Diesel Study
638 - - - - V6 1.2 and 1.6 Liter engine study
655 - 50 - - Single cylinder Moped engine
678 1959 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Aircraft engine
678/1 1959 1582 82.5 x 74 47/65@4800 F4 OHV Aircraft engine /w. reduction gear
678/3 1959 1582 82.5 x 74 38/52@4000 F4 OHV Aircraft engine, direct drive
678/3A - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Aircraft engine, direct drive
678/4 1959 1582 82.5 x 74 55/75@5200 F4 OHV Aircraft engine /w. reduction gear
702/3 1959 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Gyrodyne engine
702/4 - 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Gyrodyne engine
703 1960 1582 82.5 x 74 44/60@4500 F4 OHV 356B
729 1958 1582 82.5 x 74 - F4 OHV Marine engine
  • Above engines after 1955 had 3-piece crankcase.

Fuhrmann engine

[edit]
Type Year Displ. Bore x Stroke KW/hp@rpm Description Used in
547 1953 1498 85 x 66 75/100@6200 F4 DOHC 550 1500RS
547/1 1954 1498 85 x 66 82/110@6500 F4 DOHC 550
547/1 1955 1498 85 x 66 101/135@7200 F4 DOHC Weber 40DCM 550A 1500RS/RSK, 645, 356GS/GT
547/2 1957 1587 87.5 x 66 121/165@8000 F4 DOHC 550A 1600RSK
547/3 1958 1587 87.5 x 66 120/160@8000 F4 DOHC 718 RS60/RS61
547/4 1959 1587 87.5 x 66 119/160@7800 F4 DOHC 718 RS61
547/5 1957 1606 88 x 66 120/160@8000 F4 DOHC 718 RS61
547/6 1957 1755 92 x 66 - F4 DOHC 718 RS61
587 1961 1968 92 x 74 150/210@7800 F4 DOHC 718 W-RS, 904
587/1 1962 1968 92 x 74 96/130@6400 F4 DOHC 356B Carrera GS
587/2 1963 1968 92 x 74 118/160@6600 F4 DOHC 356B Carrera 2 GT
587/3 1960 1968 92 x 74 138/185@7800 F4 DOHC 718 RS61
587/3 1963 1968 92 x 74 132/180@6900 F4 DOHC 904 Carrera GTS
592 1964 1968 92 x 74 118/160@6600 F4 DOHC 356C Carrera 2 GT
692 1958 1498 85 x 66 77/105@6800 F4 DOHC 356 Carrera GS
692/0 1959 1498 85 x 66 77/105@6800 F4 DOHC roller bearing 356A Carrera GS
692/1 1959 1498 85 x 66 99/135@7200 F4 DOHC plain bearing 356A Carrera GT
692/2 1959 1587 87.5 x 66 77/105@6500 F4 DOHC plain bearing 356A/B Carrera GS
692/3 1960 1587 87.5 x 66 85/115@6800 F4 DOHC 356B Carrera GT
692/3A 1961 1587 87.5 x 66 99/135@7200 F4 DOHC 356B Carrera Abarth GTL
719/0 1958 1498 85 x 66 117/155@7200 F4 DOHC Fuel injected "Versuchsmotor"
787 1961 1498 85 x 66 139/188@8000 F4 DOHC 787
787/1 1962 1498 85 x 66 140/190@8000 F4 DOHC 787
753 1961 1494 66 x 54.6 180/240@9200 F8 DOHC Desmodromic 804

[24] [25] [26] [27]

Type Year Displ. Bore x Stroke KW/hp@rpm Description Cars used
745 1963 1991 80 x 66 - F6 Twin fan, Proof of Concept 901 Prototype
771 1964 1974 69 x 66 160/220@8200 F8 DOHC Flat fan Weber 48 IDF 904/8 Bergspyder, 906, 910
771/1 1965 2195 71 x 69.3 190/260@8000 F8 DOHC Flat fan Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI 906, 910, 907
771 1967 1981 76 x 54.6 202/275@9000 F8 DOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI 910/8
771/0 1967 2926 84 x 66 265/360@8600 F8 DOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI 908, 907
901/01 1963 1991 80 x 66 95/130@6100 F6 SOHC Solex 40PI[28] 901/911
901/02 1966 1991 80 x 66 118/158@6600 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911S
901/03 1967 1991 80 x 66 80/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911T
901/04 1967 1991 80 x 66 95/130@6100 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911L (SPM)
901/05 1966 1991 80 x 66 95/130@6100 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911
901/06 1967 1991 80 x 66 95/130@6100 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911L
901/07 1968 1991 80 x 66 96/130@6100 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911L (SPM)
901/08 1968 1991 80 x 66 117/160@6600 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDS3 911S (SPM)
901/09 1969 1991 80 x 66 103/140@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E
901/10 1969 1991 80 x 66 125/170@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911S
901/11 1969 1991 80 x 66 103/140@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E (SPM)
901/12 1968 1991 80 x 66 80/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDT3 911T (SPM)
901/13 1968 1991 80 x 66 80/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDT3 911T
901/14 1968 1991 80 x 66 95/130@6100 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911L (US)
901/15 1969 1991 80 x 66 81/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911T (SPM)
901/16 1969 1991 80 x 66 81/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911T (US)
901/17 1968 1991 80 x 66 95/130@6100 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDA3 911L (US, SPM)
901/18 1969 1991 80 x 66 103/140@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E (US)
901/19 1969 1991 80 x 66 80.5/110@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911T (US, SPM)
901/20 1965 1991 80 x 66 153/210@8000 F6 SOHC Weber 46IDA3 904/6, 906, 911R
901/21 1966 1991 80 x 66 160/220@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI slide throttle 904/6, 906, 910, 907
901/22 1966 1991 80 x 66 154/210@8000 F6 SOHC Weber 46IDA3 906, 911R
901/23 1967 1991 80 x 66 155/210@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 906, 910, 907
901/24 1967 1991 80 x 66 132/180@6800 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI Factory 911 for rally
901/25 1969 1991 80 x 66 160/220@8000 F6 SOHC Weber 46IDA3 Twin plug Factory 914/6 for racing
901/26 1969 1991 80 x 66 132/180@6800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDS3 Factory 914/6 for rally
901/30 1967 1991 80 x 66 108/150@6500 F6 SOHC Weber 46IDA3 Factory 911 for rally
901/35 1970 1991 80 x 66 160/220@8000 F6 SOHC Weber 46IDA3 Twin plug 914/6 GT
901/36 1970 1991 80 x 66 81/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDTP3 914/6
901/37 1970 1991 80 x 66 81/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDTP3 914/6 (SPM)
901/38 1970 1991 80 x 66 81/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDTP13 914/6(US)
901/39 1970 1991 80 x 66 81/110@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDTP13 914/6(US, SPM)
907 1966 2195 84 x 66 199/270@8500 F6 DOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI Twin plug 910, 907
908 1968 2997 85 x 66 261/355@8400 F8 DOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI Twin plug 908/2, 908/3
911/01 1969 2195 84 x 66 114/155@6200 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E
911/02 1969 2195 84 x 66 132/180@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911S
911/03 1969 2195 84 x 66 92.2/125@5800 F6 SOHC Zenith 40TIN 911T
911/04 1970 2195 84 x 66 114/155@6200 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E (SPM)
911/05 1970 2195 84 x 66 132/180@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911S (SPM)
911/06 1970 2195 84 x 66 92/125@5800 F6 SOHC Zenith 40TIN 911T (SPM)
911/07 1969 2195 84 x 66 92/125@5500 F6 SOHC Zenith 40TIN 911T (US)
911/08 1970 2195 84 x 66 92.2/125@5800 F6 SOHC Zenith 40TIN 911T (US, SPM)
911/20 1970 2247 85 x 66 168/230@7800 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI Twin plug Factory 911 for racing
911/21 1971 2380 87.5 x 66 182/250@7800 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI Twin plug Factory 911 for racing, 906
911/22 1971 2247 85 x 66 168/230@7800 F6 SOHC Weber 46IDA3 Twin plug Factory 911 for racing
911/41 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 109/150@5700 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911
911/42 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 128/175@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S
911/43 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (US)
911/44 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 117/160@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (CA)
911/46 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 109/150@5700 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911 (SPM)
911/47 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 128/175@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (SPM)
911/48 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (US, SPM)
911/49 1975 2687 90 x 70.4 117/160@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (CA, SPM)
911/50 1973 2341 84 x 70.4 140/190@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911S
911/51 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 103/140@5600 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911TE (US)
911/52 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 121/165@6200 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E
911/53 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 140/190@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911S
911/56 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 140/190@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 916
911/57 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 96.2/130@5800 F6 SOHC Zenith 40TIN 911TV
911/58 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 96.2/130@5600 F6 SOHC Zenith 40TIN 914/6 prototype
911/61 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 103/140@5600 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911TE (US, SPM)
911/62 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 121/165@6200 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911E (SPM)
911/63 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 140/190@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911S (SPM)
911/67 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 96/125@5800 F6 SOHC Weber 40IDTP3 911TV (SPM)
911/70 1971 2494 86.7 x 70.4 198/270@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI 911 ST
911/72 1972 2808 92 x 70.4 200/275@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfisher MFI 911 Carrera RSR
911/73 1972 2628 89 x 70.4 200/275@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI 911 Carrera RSR
911/74 1973 2993 95 x 70.4 230/315@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI turbo 911 Carrera RSR
911/75 1974 2993 95 x 70.4 242/330@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI turbo slide throttle 911 Carrera RSR
911/76 1974 2142 83 x 66 370/500@7600 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI turbo 911 Carrera RSR Turbo, 908/3
911/77 1973 2993 95 x 70.4 168/230@6200 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911 Carrera RS
911/78 1976 2142 83 x 66 395/540@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch/Kugelfischer MFI turbo 936, 908/3
911/79 1977 1425 71 x 60 270/370@8000 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI turbo Baby 935
911/81 1976 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911 (ROW)
911/82 1976 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911 (US)
911/83 1972 2687 90 x 70.4 160/210@6300 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911 Carrera RS
911/84 1976 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (CA)
911/85 1977 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (US)
911/86 1976 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 911 (ROW, SPM)
911/86 1972 2341 84 x 70.4 140/190@6500 F6 SOHC Bosch MFI 916
911/89 1976 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (CA, SPM)
911/90 1977 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (US, SPM)
911/91 1973 2341 84 x 70.4 103/140@5700 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911TK (US)
911/92 1974 2687 90 x 70.4 108/150@5700 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911 (US)
911/93 1974 2687 90 x 70.4 128/175@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (US), 911 Carrera (US)
911/94 1977 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (Japan)
911/96 1973 2341 84 x 70.4 103/140@5700 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911TK (US, SPM)
911/97 1974 2687 90 x 70.4 108/150@5700 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911 (US, SPM)
911/98 1974 2687 90 x 70.4 128/175@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (US SPM), 911 Carrera (US, SPM)
911/99 1977 2687 90 x 70.4 120/165@5800 F6 SOHC Bosch CIS 911S (Japan, SPM)
916 1966 1991 80 x 66 168/230@8200 F6 DOHC Bosch MFI 910, 907
  • SPM denotes Sportomatic. US denotes United States of America, includes Canada, excludes California after 1975. CA denotes California. ROW denotes "Rest of the World" excluding US, CA and Japan.
912 1969 4494 85 x 66 390/520@8000 F12 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug 917
912/2 1970 4494 85 x 66 418/560@8300 F12 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug 917
912/10 1971 4907 86 x 70.4 447/600@8400 F12 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug 917K, 917/20
912/51 1971 4494 85 x 66 625/838@8000 F12 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug, Turbo 917/10
912/52 1971 4994 87 x 70 746/1000@7800 F12 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug, Turbo 917/10
912/54 1972 5374 90 x 70.4 809/1085@7800 F12 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug, Turbo 917/30
917 1969 7166 90 x 70.4 563/755@7800 F16 DOHC non-Boxer[29], Twin plug, N.A. 917PA prototype
  • N.A. denotes Normally Aspirated.

1934 Monaco Grand Prix

[edit]

The 1934 Monaco Grand Prix (formally the VI Grand Prix de Monaco) was a Grand Prix motor race held on 2 April 1934 at Circuit de Monaco in and out of Monte Carlo. The race comprised 100 laps of a 3.180km circuit, for a total race distance of 318.0km.

The Association Internationale des Automobile Clubs Reconnus (AIACR) had announced on 12 October 1932 that a new Grand Prix formula will go into effect for the 1934 season, and the 1934 Monaco Grand Prix was the first Grand Épreuve event run under the new regulations. Although one of the new rules required the race distance to be over 500 km, Monaco GP was permitted to be run for 100 laps or 318 km, as the time required to complete 100 laps at the slow Circuit de Monaco was comparable to 500 km at faster tracks such as Monza.

The race was won by Guy Moll, a newly recruited Algerian with Scuderia Ferrari, driving an Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3. In addition to winning the very first race after the enrollment for Ferrari, Moll remained the youngest driver to have won a Monaco GP until Lewis Hamilton won in 2008.

Starting grid

[edit]
Grid No Driver Car Note
1 22 Carlo Felice Trossi Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 1'58"
2 14 Philippe Étancelin Maserati 8CM 1'59"
3 8 René Dreyfus Bugatti T59 1'59"
4 24 Achille Varzi Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 1'59"
5 28 Tazio Nuvolari Bugatti T59 1'59"
6 16 Louis Chiron Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 2'00"
7 20 Guy Moll Bugatti T59 2'00"
8 32 Piero Taruffi Maserati 4C 2500[30] 2'00"
9 10 Jean-Pierre Wimille Bugatti T59 2'00"
10 18 Marcel Lehoux Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 2'00"
11 4 Whitney Straight Maserati 8CM 2'02"
12 30 Eugenio Siena Maserati 8C3000 2'05"
13 26 Renato Balestrero Alfa Romeo 8C 2600 Monza 2'05"
14 12 Pierre Veyron Bugatti T51 2'06"
15 2 Earl Howe Maserati 8CM 2'08"

Classification[31][32]

[edit]
Pos No Driver Car Laps Time/Retire
1 20 Guy Moll Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 100 3h31m31.4
2 16 Louis Chiron Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 100 3h32m33.4
3 8 René Dreyfus Bugatti T59 99 3h32m19s
4 18 Marcel Lehoux Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 99 3h33m18s
5 28 Tazio Nuvolari Bugatti T59 98 3h33m35s
6 24 Achille Varzi Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 98 3h33m38s
7 4 Whitney Straight Maserati 8CM 96 3h32m00s
8 14 Eugenio Siena Maserati 8C 3000 96 3h32m47s
9 12 Pierre Veyron Bugatti T51 95 3h33m29s
ret 22 Carlo Felice Trossi Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3 95 Transmission
Ret 32 Piero Taruffi Maserati 4C 2500[30] 91 Ignition/Fuel feed?
10 2 Earl Howe Maserati 8CM 85 3h31m51s
Ret 14 Philippe Étancelin Maserati 8CM 63 Accident
Ret 26 Renato Balestrero Alfa Romeo 8C 2600 Monza 51 Differential
Ret 10 Jean-Pierre Wimille Bugatti T59 18 Brakes

Fastest Lap: Carlo Felice Trossi (Alfa Romeo Tipo B/P3), 2m00m00.0s

Chapman believed the fiasco was caused by the French contender for Index of Thermal Efficiency Award, René Bonnet. Gérard Crombac knew of a competitor to Bonnet, Jean Rédélé's ambition to beat the then-dominant Automobiles René Bonnet at Le Mans, and gave the idea of helping Alpine instead of subsequent direct participation to Chapman. As a result, a 2 seater racing prototype was designed by a team of Lotus employees, Len Terry, Bob Dance and Keith Duckworth based on Lotus 23C.[33]

This design was found to be non-compliant to the 1963 Le Mans regulations, so the frame structure was changed to a steel backbone design familiar to Rédélé's team at Alpine, and became the Alpine M63. M64 of 1964 had the original frame designed by Terry, and the French Alpine M63 and M64 could fit British 6-stud Wobbly Web wheels as a testament.[33]

In 1964 Le Mans, Alpine won the Index of Thermal Efficiency with the M64, with a M63B in the second place. Alpine went on to become the Le Mans overall winner in 1978 with a A442B.

History

[edit]

Formula One engines have come through a variety of regulations, manufacturers and configurations through the years.[34] It is imperative to understand the distinction among the terms "Grand Prix", "World Championship" and "Formula One" to come to grips with the history.

Car racing in various forms began almost immediately after the invention of the automobile, and many of the first organised car racing events were held in France in 1900. As traditional racing events often had multiple races and classes, like Men, Women, 100m, 1500m, breast-stroke, etc., the French had the tradition of calling a particular race in an event with the name of the award given to the winner. In the case of the car race held at Circuit du Sud-Ouest in Pau, France in 1900, there were no class divisions, and no prize on record was given to the winner, René de Knyff driving a Panhard et Revassor (2.1L, 4 cylinder engine called the 'Phoenix' jointly developed with Gottlieb Daimler in Germany, about 20 hp), who became the commissioner of the CSI later. In 1901, the event was named "Semaine de Pau (Week in Pau)", and the prizes given to the winners were "Grand Prix de Pau (Grand Prize of Pau)" for the "650 kg or heavier" class, "Grand Prix du Palais d'Hiver (Grand Prize of the Winter Palace)" for "400 - 650 kg" class, and "Second Grand Prix du Palais d'Hiver" for the "under 400 kg" class. This event is significant not only because it called the prizes Grand Prix, but also it was one of the very first automobile race events, including a race for the fastest class of cars, held on a closed circuit (the 1900 race was on an open road).

During and after World War I, it had become obvious that the size of engines and/or superchargers, not the weight of cars, primarily determined how fast they could run. Also, many wealthy people enjoyed racing in the smaller Voiturette cars, not the 5-11L (mostly 4 cylinder) behemoths that ruled on fast courses. In 1926, the Voiturette definition of "up to 1,500 cc supercharged" was adopted to regulate the all-out Grand Prix races (mostly in France), and Voiturette class was re-defined as "up to 1,100 cc un-supercharged".

Formula One was born as the first internationally unified regulation to define a class of racing cars in 1946, to be effective next year. It was defined by Commission Sportive Internationale (CSI), the sporting branch of Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA).

References

[edit]
  1. ^ SAE 10.4271/500192 Cylinder Performance-Compression Ratio and Mechanical Octane-Number Effects S.D.Heron and A.E.Felt |origyear 1950
  2. ^ Bollman, Jim. "The Mighty Tin". Retrieved 2013-07-09.
  3. ^ Stewart, Scott. "Merging Quality with Hobby..." Retrieved 2013-07-08.
  4. ^ Whitelock, Mark. 1 1/2-Litre Gp Racing 1961-1965. Veloce. pp. 299–300. ISBN 978-184584016-7.
  5. ^ Mk.XVI was used by Bob Gerard Racing on Cooper T71/73 for John Taylor at 1964 British Grand Prix, but was entered as "Ford 109E engine" for reasons unknown
  6. ^ "Hewland Engineering Introduction". Archived from the original on 2007-09-29. Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  7. ^ James, Roger. "The Hewland Story". Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  8. ^ James, Roger. "The Hewland Story". Retrieved 2007-09-05.
  9. ^ "Hewland Brochure" (PDF). Retrieved 2013-09-14.
  10. ^ Crankshaft rotating axis is refered to as the X-axis, cylinder center line on a boxer twin (or the parallel line to them at the center of an engine on plan view) is refered to as the Y-axis, and the up-down line perpendicular to X and Y axis is called the Z-axis
  11. ^ Crankshaft rotating axis is refered to as the X-axis, cylinder center line on a boxer twin (or the parallel line to them at the center of an engine on plan view) is refered to as the Y-axis, and the up-down line perpendicular to X and Y axis is called the Z-axis
  12. ^ Foale, Tony. "Some science of balance" (PDF). p. 4, Fig. 4. Reciprocating Forces, Piston motion = Red, Primary = Blue, Secondary = Green. Retrieved 2013-11-4. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  13. ^ Taylor, Charles Fayette. The Internal Combustion Engine in Theory and Practice Vol. 2: Combustion, Fuels, Materials, Design, p. 299
  14. ^ Foale, Tony, Some science of balance, p. 6, Fig. 13. 360°-crank parallel twin
  15. ^ Foale, Tony, Some science of balance p. 6, Fig. 13. 180°-crank parallel twin
  16. ^ Foale, Tony, Some science of balance p. 17, Fig. 14. Plane offset
  17. ^ Sagawa, Kentaro. "VFR1200F, True value of the progress (in Japanese)".
  18. ^ Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (23-01-2014). "2014 FORMULA ONE TECHNICAL REGULATIONS" (PDF). Retrieved 27-02-2014. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= and |date= (help)
  19. ^ Stasher, Klaus (2012-03-18). "Porsche Typenliste" (PDF). Retrieved 2014-03-11.
  20. ^ https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Porsche-Diesel_Motorenbau
  21. ^ "German Tiger Tank". Retrieved 2014-03-10.
  22. ^ Ludvigsen, Karl (2003). Porsche, Excellence was expected. Bentley Publishers Inc. Chapter 1, Volume 1.
  23. ^ 902 was the type number during the development of 912
  24. ^ {{cite web|http://rennlight.com/engine-types.html}
  25. ^ Morgan, Peter (2012). Porsche. Motorbooks. ISBN 978-0-7603-4261-9.
  26. ^ Anderson, Bruce (1996). Porsche 911 Performance Handbook. MBI Publishing Company. ISBN 0-7603-0033-X.
  27. ^ Leffingwell, Randy (1995). Porsche. Motorbooks International. ISBN 0-87938-992-3.
  28. ^ Phased out in mid-1966. Replaced by 901/05.
  29. ^ a b c d e f g Opposing conrods sharing a crank pin on a 180 degree crankshaft
  30. ^ a b Chassis #2012 34 Engine #2012"4CM 2000/2500".
  31. ^ http://www.teamdan.com/archive/gen/1934/1934.html#mc
  32. ^ http://www.kolumbus.fi/leif.snellman/gp341.htm
  33. ^ a b McCullough, Mitch (February 2018). "Journey back to Le Mans". Octane. Dennis Publishing. Cite error: The named reference "McCullough" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  34. ^ Leo Breevoort; Dan Moakes; Mattijs Diepraam (22 February 2007). "World Championship Grand Prix engine designations and configurations". 6th Gear. Archived from the original on 24 February 2007. Retrieved 19 May 2007.
[edit]


Grand Prix Race
Previous race:
1933 Spanish Grand Prix
1934 Grand Prix season
Grandes Épreuves
Next race:
1934 French Grand Prix
Previous race:
1933 Monaco Grand Prix
Monaco Grand Prix Next race:
1936 Monaco Grand Prix

(Monaco Grand Prix was not held in 1935.)

Category:Monaco Grand Prix Monaco Grand Prix

See also

[edit]
[edit]

Notes

[edit]
  1. ^ a b c When a conrod swings left on the top half of crank rotation, another swings right on the bottom half, with the conrod CG heights located as much as the piston stroke apart. When the CG is located at different heights, the swing motion to the left cannot cancel the swing motion to the right, and a rotational vibration is introduced.
  2. ^ Normal inline-four has up-down-down-up crank throws. See crossplane inline-four for unusual up-left-right-down or similar crank throws.
  3. ^ 'Ordinary' means left-right-right-left crank throws.

References

[edit]


The BDA series

[edit]
Aluminium block 2L BDG on Chevron B19

Cosworth solidified its association with Ford in 1969, by developing a double overhead camshaft (DOHC) 16-valve inline four-cylinder engine for road use in the Ford Escort. As Keith Duckworth was busy designing and developing the DFV, the project was assigned to Mike Hall, who created the 1601 cc BDA on the Kent block for homologation purposes. The camshafts were driven by a toothed belt developed for Fiat 124, hence the name BDA, literally meaning "Belt Drive, A type". It was designed for FIA Group 2 and Group 4 on either rallying or touring car racing purpose. The nominal homologation at 1601 cc capacity meant that BDA-engined cars competed in what was usually the top class (1600 cc and up) so were eligible for overall victories rather than class wins.

In 1970, the 1701 cc BDB was created for the Escort RS1600, and this engine received fuel injection for the first time in the series as 1701 cc BDC. Two years later, the BDA series was adopted for Formula 2; first came the 1790 cc BDE, then the 1927 cc BDF eventually reaching a maximum of 1975 cc BDG in 1973. As the bore size reached ever closer to the bore center distance, leaving little space in between cylinders, the all three types had brazed-in cylinder liners to the block. As a departure from the Ford iron block, the BDG received a new aluminium block (originally designed by Brian Hart in 1971 and re-engineered by Cosworth[1]) soon after, and this cylinder block was used as a replacement part in rebuilding many other BD series engines as well as some Mk.XIII engines.

The iron block was also used for smaller displacements; starting with the very successful 1599 cc Formula Atlantic BDD in 1970, followed by the 1098 cc BDJ and 1300 cc BDH variants for SCCA Formula C and sports car racing, respectively. There was even a one-off 785 cc version built by Cosworth employees Paul Squires and Phil Kidsley; fitted with a Lysholm supercharger it was installed in a Brabham BT28 Formula 3 chassis and competed in the British Hill Climb Championship as the Brabham-Lysholm.[2]

In 1970, Ford asked Weslake and Co of Rye to build the BDD for them, and by the end of 1970, the production line was installed at Rye and production was under way. These engines were often called the 'BDA', but were 1599 cc BDDs eligible for under 1.6 Litre class. The 1599 cc BDD engine won a number of championships around the world in Formula Atlantic and Formula Pacific during the 1980s.

In 1975, 1599 cc big valve BDM (225 bhp) was developed with fuel injection for Formula Atlantic, and a 'sealed engine' version BDN (1599 cc, 210 bhp) followed in 1977 for Canadian Formula Atlantic series.

Largely known as 'Cosworth BDA', BDD and BDM were also very successful in Formula Pacific and Formula Mondial racing in Australia and New Zealand. In open wheel racing, Cosworth powered cars (Ralt RT4 and Tiga's) won Australian Drivers' Championship from 1982-1986 as well as winning the Australian Grand Prix from 1981-1984 (including wins by Alain Prost and Roberto Moreno) before the race became part of the Formula One World Championship in 1985, and won the New Zealand Grand Prix each year from 1982-1988. BDD and BDM engines were also prominent in the Australian Sports Car Championship during the 1980s, winning the 1987 championship.

1803 cc BDT on Ford RS200 with turbocharger and wastegate valve more visible than the engine

The turbo charged 1778 cc BDT was created in 1981, which powered the never-raced RWD Escort RS1700T. In 1984, 4WD Ford RS200 debuted with a 1803 cc version of BDT, which was created for Group B rallying. Between 1984 and 1986 the BDT engine was used in Group C endurance racing by Roy Baker, in class C2 using the Tiga GC284, GC285 and GC286. Later in 1986, a 2137 cc version was created by Brian Hart using a bespoke aluminium block and a large intercooler for RS200 Evolution, just as Group B was cancelled by the FIA. This BDT-E ('E' for Evolution) produced over 600 bhp (447 kW; 608 PS) in Group B 'rallycross' boost level, normally producing 530–550 bhp (395–410 kW; 537–558 PS) on a lower but sustainable boost.

In 1983, the BD series saw its second road engine incarnation (the first being the original BDA and BDB), the BDR, which was a BDA or BDB sold in kit form for the Caterham Super Seven in 1601 cc (120 bhp) and in 1701 cc (130 bhp) formats.

The Hart 420R and the Zakspeed F1 engines owe much to the BDA series, being essentially an aluminium-block derivative using similar heads.

Mercedes-Benz M276 engine

[edit]

The first spray of fuel injection creates the base lean burn mixture in the intake cycle, while the later spray(s), up to 5 times in total in difficult conditions, control when and where the ignition starts and how the burn propagates in stratified charge fashion[3]. In combination with a new smaller and more efficient Variable Valve Timing mechanism on all 4 camshafts that enables short openings of intake valves with a longer combustion stroke, thus making the process an Atkinson Cycle in partial throttle conditions for better fuel efficiency, the precise control allows a quicker and smoother re-start of the engine for the Start-Stop system.


These features are also shared with Mercedes' M278 V8 engine, announced at the same time.

Partial Formula One Championship results

[edit]
International  Cup  for  Formula  One  Manufacturers             Results  for  Coventry  Climax
Year Entrant Chassis Engine Tyre Drivers 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Make Points WCC
19571 Cooper Car Company Cooper T43 FPF 2.0 L4 A
D
ARG MON 500 FRA GBR GER PES ITA 1
Australia Jack Brabham 6 Ret6 7
United Kingdom Les Leston DNQ
United Kingdom Mike MacDowel 76
United Kingdom Roy Salvadori 5 Ret
RRC Walker Racing Team D Australia Jack Brabham Ret
FPF 1.5 L4 (F2) Ret
Cooper Car Company D United Kingdom Roy Salvadori Ret
JBW Cars D United Kingdom Brian Naylor 13
R. Gibson D United Kingdom Dick Gibson Ret
Ridgeway Managements D United Kingdom Tony Marsh 15
Cooper T41 FWB 1.5 L4 (F2) Australia Paul England Ret
19582 Cooper Car Company Cooper T44 FPF 2.0 L4 D ARG MON NED 5005 BEL FRA GBR GER POR ITA MOR Cooper-
Climax
31 3rd
United Kingdom Roy Salvadori 4
Cooper T45 Ret 8 11 3 2 9 5 7
Australia Jack Brabham 4 8 Ret 6 6 7 Ret
United Kingdom Ian Burgess Ret
United Kingdom Jack Fairman 8
RRC Walker Racing Team C
D
France Maurice Trintignant 1 9 3 Ret Ret
Cooper T43 8 8
United Kingdom Stirling Moss 1
United Kingdom Ron Flockhart DNQ
Cooper Car Company Cooper T45 FPF 1.5 L4 (F2) D New Zealand Bruce McLaren 53 13
Australia Jack Brabham Ret 11
Tony Marsh D United Kingdom Tony Marsh 8
Robert La Caze D Morocco Robert La Caze 14
André Guelfi D France André Guelfi 15
JBW Cars D United Kingdom Brian Naylor Ret
British Racing Partnership D United Kingdom Tom Bridger Ret
High Efficiency Motors Cooper T43 D United Kingdom Ian Burgess 7
Scuderia Centro Sud D West Germany Wolfgang Seidel Ret
Ecurie Eperon d'Or D Belgium Christian Goethals Ret
R. Gibson D United Kingdom Dick Gibson Ret
RRC Walker Racing Team D France François Picard Ret
Team Lotus Lotus 12 FPF 2.0 L4 D United Kingdom Cliff Allison 6 6 4 Ret Ret 7 10 Lotus-
Climax
3 6th
United Kingdom Graham Hill Ret Ret Ret
Lotus 16 FPF 2.2 L4 United Kingdom Cliff Allison 10
United Kingdom Graham Hill Ret Ret Ret 6 16
FPF 1.5 L4 (F2) Ret
Ecurie Demi Litre Lotus 12 D United Kingdom Ivor Bueb 11
19593 Cooper Car Company Cooper T51 FPF 2.5 L4 D MON 5005 NED FRA GBR GER POR ITA USA Cooper-
Climax
40 (53) 1st
Australia Jack Brabham 1 2 3 1 Ret Ret 3 4
United Kingdom Bruce McLaren 5 5 3 Ret Ret Ret 1
France Masten Gregory Ret 3 Ret 7 Ret 2
Italy Giorgio Scarlatti 12
RRC Walker Racing Team D United Kingdom Stirling Moss Ret Ret -7 -7 Ret 1 1 Ret
France Maurice Trintignant 3 8 11 5 4 4 9 2
Ecurie Bleue D United States Harry Schell Ret
High Efficiency Motors Cooper T45 D United Kingdom Jack Fairman Ret
Taylor-Crawley Racing Team D United States George Constantine Ret
Ace Garage - Rotherham Cooper T51 FPF 1.5 L4 (F2) D United Kingdom Trevor Taylor DNQ
United Racing Stable D United Kingdom Bill Moss DNQ
British Racing Partnership D United Kingdom Ivor Bueb DNQ 13
Equipe Nationale Belge D Belgium Lucien Bianchi DNQ
Belgium Alain de Changy DNQ
R.H.H. Parnell D United Kingdom Henry Taylor 11
Cooper T45 United Kingdom Tim Parnell DNQ
Alan Brown Equipe[3] D United Kingdom Mike Taylor Ret
United Kingdom Peter Ashdown 12
Jean Lucienbonnet D France Jean Lucienbonnet DNQ
Gilby Engineering Cooper T43 D United Kingdom Keith Greene DNQ
Team Lotus Lotus 16 FPF 2.5 L4 D
United Kingdom Graham Hill Ret 7 Ret 9 Ret Ret Ret Lotus-
Climax
5 4th
United States Pete Lovely DNQ
United Kingdom Innes Ireland 4 Ret Ret Ret Ret 5
United Kingdom Alan Stacey 8 Ret
John Fisher D United Kingdom Bruce Halford Ret
Dorchester Service Station FPF 1.5 L4 (F2) D United Kingdom David Piper Ret
Dennis Taylor Lotus 12 D United Kingdom Dennis Taylor DNQ
David Fry Fry F2 D United Kingdom Mike Parkes DNQ Fry-
Climax
0 -
19604 Cooper Car Company Cooper T53 FPF 2.5 L4 D ARG MON 5005 NED BEL FRA GBR POR ITA USA Cooper-
Climax
48 (58) 1st
Australia Jack Brabham 1 1 1 1 1 4
Cooper T51 Ret DSQ
Cooper T53 Australia Bruce McLaren Ret 2 3 4 2 3
Cooper T51 1 2
United States Chuck Daigh -8 -8 -8 -8 Ret -8
United Kingdom Ron Flockhart Ret
Yeoman Credit Racing Team D United States Phil Hill -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 -9 6
United Kingdom Tony Brooks 4 Ret Ret -10 5 5 Ret
United Kingdom Henry Taylor 7 4 8 DNQ 14
Belgium Olivier Gendebien 3 2 9 7 12
United Kingdom Chris Bristow Ret Ret Ret
United Kingdom Bruce Halford 8
Fred Tuck Cars D DNQ
Cooper T45 Belgium Lucien Bianchi Ret Ret
Equipe Nationale Belge D 6
High Efficiency Motors Cooper T51 D United Kingdom Roy Salvadori Ret DNS -11 8
United Kingdom Jack Fairman Ret
Ecurie Bleue FPF 2.2 L4 D United States Harry Schell Ret
Arthur Owen Cooper T45 D United Kingdom Arthur Owen Ret
Wolfgang Seidel FPF 1.5 L4 (F2) D Germany Wolfgang Seidel 9
Scuderia Colonia Cooper T43 D Italy Piero Drogo 8
Equipe Prideaux D United Kingdom Vic Wilson Ret
Ecurie Maarsbergen Cooper T51 D Netherlands Carel Godin de Beaufort 8
RRC Walker Racing Team FPF 2.5 L4 D France Maurice Trintignant 312
United Kingdom Stirling Moss Ret12
Lotus 18 1 4 DNS DSQ 1 Lotus-
Climax
34 (37) 2nd
Jim Hall D United States Jim Hall 7
Taylor-Crawley Racing Team D United Kingdom Mike Taylor DNS
Team Lotus D United Kingdom Innes Ireland 6 9 2 Ret 7 3 6 2
United Kingdom John Surtees Ret 2 Ret Ret
United Kingdom Jim Clark Ret 5 5 16 3 16
United Kingdom Alan Stacey Ret Ret Ret Ret
United Kingdom Ron Flockhart 6
Lotus 16 Argentina Alberto Rodriguez Larreta 9
Robert Bodle Ltd D United Kingdom David Piper DNS 12
  • ^1 Constructor championship did not exist until 1958.
  • ^2 Points are given on 8-6-4-3-2 basis down to 5th place. Only the best 6 races count.
  • ^3 Points are given on 8-6-4-3-2 basis down to 5th place. Only the best 5 races count.
  • ^4 Points are given on 8-6-4-3-2-1 basis down to 6th place. Only the best 6 races count.
  • ^5 Constructor championship points were not awarded for Indianapolis 500.
  • ^6 Brabham took over MacDowel's Cooper mid-race and finished 7th.
  • ^7 Moss participated these events with BRM.
  • ^8 Daigh drove for Scarab.
  • ^9 Phil Hill participated these events with Ferrari.
  • ^10 Brooks drove for Vanwall.
  • ^11 Salvadori drove Aston Martin DBR5.
  • ^12 Moss took over Trintignant's Cooper mid-race and finished 3rd.
Key
Colour Result Colour Result
Gold Winner Black Disqualified (DSQ)
Silver 2nd place White / Blank Did not start (DNS)
Bronze 3rd place Excluded (EX)
Green Other points position Did not arrive (DNA)
Blue Other classified position Withdrawn (WD)
Not classified, finished (NC) Did not enter (cell empty)
Purple Not classified, retired (Ret) Text formatting Meaning
Red Did not qualify (DNQ) Bold Points counted
toward Championship
Did not pre-qualify (DNPQ)



Engine regulation progression

[edit]
Years Operating
principle[a]
Maximum displacement Configuration RPM
limit
Fuel flow
limit (Qmax)
Fuel composition
Naturally
aspirated
Forced
induction
Alcohol Petrol
2022[b][4] 4-stroke piston   1.6 L[c] 90° V6 + MGUs Unrestricted[d] (0.009 x rpm)+5.5
up to 100(kg/h)[e]
10%[f] Unleaded
2014–2021[b] 1.6 L[g][5][6]      15,000 rpm[d] 5.75%[h]
2009–2013[i] 2.4 L Prohibited 90° V8 + KERS 18,000 rpm Unrestricted
2008 90° V8 19,000 rpm
2007[j] Prohibited
2006[j][7] Unrestricted[8]
2000–2005 3.0 L V10
1995–1999 Up to 12
cylinders
1992–1994 3.5 L
1989–1991 Unrestricted
1988 1.5 L, 2.5 bar Unrestricted
1987 1.5 L, 4 bar
1986 Prohibited 1.5 L
1981–1985 3.0 L
1966–1980 Unspecified
1963–1965 1.5 L
(1.3 L min.)
Prohibited Pump Gasoline[9]
1961–1962 Unrestricted
1958–1960 2.5 L 0.75 L
1954–1957 Unrestricted
1947–1953[k] 4.5 L 1.5 L

Notes:

  1. ^ 2-stroke, gas turbine, rotary, etc.
  2. ^ a b MGU(Motor Generator Unit)-Kinetic (brake) and MGU-Heat (exhaust) energy recovery systems allowed.
  3. ^ Displacement must be between 1,590cc and 1,600cc. Naturally aspirated engines are not prohibited. Boost pressure is not limited.
  4. ^ a b Lower rpm fuel flow restriction on the next column reaches the maximum of 100kg/hour at 10,500rpm. At this flow rate, further increasing rpm requires lower boost, or results in thinner air/fuel ratio. Due to this, engine manufacturers normally set the maximum engine speed at about 13,000 rpm.
  5. ^ Maximum fuel flow rate (Q) is limited in relation to engine speed below 10,500rpm. On or above 10,500rpm, the maximum fuel flow rate of 100kg/hour applies.
  6. ^ 10% Ethanol content is required in pump gasoline.
  7. ^ Smaller displacement is allowed. Naturally aspirated engines are not prohibited, but were not used by any team. Boost pressure is not limited, but fuel flow rate (which was not regulated up to 2013) is limited to 100 kg per hour (roughly equivalent to 3.5 bar at the maximum rpm).[citation needed]
  8. ^ 5.75% bio-sourced alcohol content is required in pump petroleum.
  9. ^ Kinetic (braking) energy recovery system (KERS) allowed.
  10. ^ a b For 2006 and 2007, the FIA reserved the right to give special dispensations to teams without access to new specification engines to use 2005-spec engines with a rev-limiter. This dispensation was given to Scuderia Toro Rosso only in 2006.
  11. ^ For 1952 and 1953, World Championship races were run to Formula Two rules (0.75 L with compressor, 2 L without), but Formula One regulations remained intact.
  1. ^ Robson, Graham (2017). COSWORTH - THE SEARCH FOR POWER (6th Edition). Veloce Publishing Ltd. p. 67. ISBN 1845848950.
  2. ^ Mason, Chris (1990). Uphill Racers. Bookmarque Publishing. p. 448. ISBN 978-1-870519-08-3.
  3. ^ "Alan Brown Equipe".
  4. ^ Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile. "2022 FORMULA ONE TECHNICAL REGULATIONS" (PDF).
  5. ^ "How Formula One's Amazing New Hybrid Turbo Engine Works". 2014-01-22. Archived from the original on 14 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-09.
  6. ^ Fédération Internationale de l’Automobile (2014-01-23). "2014 FORMULA ONE TECHNICAL REGULATIONS" (PDF). Article 5.1 on p.21. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 March 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-12.
  7. ^ "2006 Formula One Technical Regulations". Archived from the original on 11 November 2020. Retrieved 10 November 2020.
  8. ^ "How Long do F1 Engines Last? | F1 Chronicle". 17 June 2020. Archived from the original on 25 April 2021. Retrieved 25 April 2021.
  9. ^ "F1 rules and stats 1960–1969". 2009-01-01. Archived from the original on 12 August 2014. Retrieved 2014-08-09.