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Articles for Editing

Occupational Inequality

Sexism in Academia

Educational Inequality

Feminization of the workplace

Women in STEM fields

Finding Sources

I have found a source that would be useful for a contribution to the Women in STEM fields article. It could be used to add to the 'Explanations for low representations of women' section. The article I found makes the point that low mathematical confidence is the reason why many women don't succeed in STEM and I think would make a good contribution to the Wikipedia article.

Contribution Draft for Women in STEM article

Innate vs. Learned Skill

In another study, it was found that women's lack of mathematical confidence is what leads to the belief that they do not possess the same skills as men in math/science subjects. Without strong skills in calculus, women cannot perform as well as their male counterparts in any field of STEM, which leads to the small number of women (compared to men) pursuing a career in these fields. A high percentage of women that do pursue a career in STEM do not continue on this the pathway after taking Calculus, as this is found to be a class that will weed out students from staying on the STEM pathway. (source4). In this study (source 4), it can be seen that while 32% of women admitted that their reason for leaving calculus was due to lack of understanding the material, while only 14% of men would admit the same. This difference in reason for leaving calculus is thought to develop from women’s confidence in ability, and not actual skill as “it is well-documented that confidence and identity play a significant role in one’s success and STEM aspirations, and that men and women have different levels of confidence in their mathematical ability.” (source4) Expanding on how women’s belief in ability has contributed to the perception that they do not possess equal skill in the field of math as men do, it was seen in another study that when men and women of equal math ability were asked to rate their own ability, women will rate their own ability at a much lower level (source 7).  Programs with the purpose to reduce anxiety in math or increase confidence could have a huge impact on women continuing their pursuit of a career in the STEM field (source 3). Not only can the issue of confidence keep women from even entering these fields but women in upper- level courses with higher skill are more strongly affected by the stereotype that they (by nature) do not possess this innate ability (source 8). This is another obstacle for women who, despite making it through courses designed to filter students out of the field, are still faced with the stereotypical threat that they are of inadequate ability to men. This results in a weaker confidence level and overall performance, even for women in upper-level courses. (source 8). For women to be able to perform their best in math is when there is no mention of gender. In a study (source 8) women were put in three different scenarios while given the same test. Out of these situations the one where there was no mention of gender, women performed at their best scores. In the situation where women were told that men and women performed equally on the test, even the mention of gender led to a drop in their performance. The worst scores were from the situation where women were told that men had performed better than women. Overall for women to pursue the male-dominated field of STEM, previous research shows that they must have more confidence in math/science ability (source 2). Women are not held back from excelling in the field because of not possessing the skills that men do, they only lack the confidence in their own ability (source 4).   

Annotated Bibliography for work on Women in STEM

Ahlqvist, S., London, B., & Rosenthal, L. (2013). Unstable Identity Compatibility: How Gender Rejection Sensitivity Undermines the Success of Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics Fields. Psychological Science (0956-7976), 24(9), 1644-1652.

In this study "Unstable Identity Compatibility: How Gender Rejection Sensitivity Undermines the Success of Women in Science Technology, Engineering and Mathematics Fields" it is examined how a woman's sense of belonging within STEM fields can affect overall their overall academic performance and experience. Author Bonita London is an Associate Professor in the department of Social and Health Psychology at Columbia University. Her research focuses on how social factors like stereotypes can impact academic achievement among specific groups. She has published work in numerous other academic journals and research papers about women's issues and the STEM field. In this study 146 undergraduate female students enrolled in a STEM major were asked to complete a questionnaire about their personal gender-STEM compatibility and high school GPA before their first semester. During their second semester they completed a survey each week that again asked about gender-STEM compatibility and their feeling of belonging. Finally at the beginning of their second year first semester, they were asked to complete a follow up of their compatibility in STEM program and belonging, as well as their official academic records for the first semester of their second year. It was found that women who perceived a higher rate of gender rejection sensitivity experienced greater fluctuations among their compatibility in the field, and had negative experiences academically. I plan to use this study to show how these other factors contribute to women's lower performance in STEM and not their actual ability. This study shows how many other factors from outside can affect a woman's academic performance, having no correlation to skill.

Chipman, S. F., Krantz, D. H., & Silver, R. (1992). MATHEMATICS ANXIETY AND SCIENCE CAREERS AMONG ABLE COLLEGE WOMEN. Psychological Science (0956-7976), 3(5), 292-295.

In "Mathematics Anxiety and Science Careers Among Able College Women" it was inquired if mathematical anxiety affects women in pursuing a scientific career. Author Susan Chipman has a PhD in Experimental Psychology from Harvard University and has contributed to many studies on female experience in mathematics and its personal effects. She is an expert in the field of Cognitive Psychology and Experimental Psychology. In this study a questionnaire was given to incoming students at Barnard, an all women's college.The questionnaire asked students to rate their personal quality of experience when learning mathematics and was given to find the relation between one's view on mathematics and their career aspirations. The results of the study found that if programs were to focus improving women's experience in mathematics it could lead to an increase in as many as two-three times as many women who would look into careers in the natural science field. I want to use the results from this study to show how by increasing women's confidence in math ability and their comfort level it could lead to the entrance of more women in the STEM field and therefore give way to an increase in opportunity to succeed in STEM.

Ellis, J., Fosdick, B. K., & Rasmussen, C. (2016). Women 1.5 Times More Likely to Leave STEM Pipeline after Calculus Compared to Men: Lack of Mathematical Confidence a Potential Culprit. Plos ONE, 11(7), 1-14.

The study "Women 1.5 Times More Likely to Leave STEM Pipeline after Calculus Compared to Men: Lack of Mathematical Confidence a Potential Culprit," looks into how the gender gap in STEM fields can be linked to the underrepresentation of women at important milestones in STEM career pathways like calculus. Author Bailey K. Fosdick is Assistant Professor in the Department of Statistics at Colorado State University and has contributed to many journal publications. It is stated that it is women's lower mathematical confidence and not their ability that may lead to the high number of women who leave the STEM field. In the study students enrolled in Calculus I were questioned at the beginning of the course in whether or not they planned on continuing to take Calculus II. One year later students were followed up to see who enrolled in Calculus II or not. Examining these students and seeing who stayed in the STEM pipeline revealed Calculus I to be a course that more or less would weed out students from continuing in STEM field. It was found that the women who decided not to continue in Calculus was due more to confidence in their own ability than their actual skill. The study concludes by stating that focusing on the retention of women in calculus will lead to an increase in the amount of women entering the STEM pipeline. This study can be used for my contribution of information to clarify that it is not the lack of women's skill that leads to their lower performance in STEM courses, but their belief in their own ability.

Kelly, S. (2013). For Girls in STEM, Belonging, Not Brain Structure, Makes the Difference. Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers, 88(7), 34-36.

In this article, "For Girls in STEM, Belonging, Not Brain Structure, Makes the Difference" it is examined how despite there being little to no evidence proving that men have a greater ability to perform in STEM subjects, men and women do significantly differ in their interest and confidence level. Author Stephanie Kelly has a PhD in communications and information, as well as her masters in organizational Communication. Her areas of expertise are in how messages social pressure can affect motivation, learning and desire for more information. She has also published in numerous academic journals on the topics of the effect of anxiety, perception and effectiveness of the learning system. This article really focuses on how girls cannot perform as well as boys in STEM, but that they don't feel comfortable with out performing them. It states that if girls are exposed to more role models and hands-on experiences in STEM that more women will get into the field. It is also mentioned how in many classrooms it is only a few girls in a class surrounded by boys, which can be intimidating and make for an environment that is difficult for girls to succeed in. I will use this article to show how it is not the lack of skill or ability in girls that leads to their lack of success in the field of STEM, but the environment they are in and many other factors. Women lack the feeling of belonging that men have in STEM field which hinders their ability and opportunities to succeed.

Leaper, C., Farkas, T., & Brown, C. (2012). Adolescent Girls' Experiences and Gender-Related Beliefs in Relation to Their Motivation in Math/Science and English. Journal Of Youth & Adolescence, 41(3), 268-282.

In "Adolescent Girls' Experiences and Gender-Related Beliefs in Relation to Their Motivation in Math/Science and English," it is examined how social and personal factors contributed to girls' academic motivation as well as their study of interest (specifically in math/science and English). Author Campbell Leaper is a professor and department chair in Psychology at the University of California. His focused area of study is in sexism and gender in childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. The study looks at how, in adolescent years, girls and boys score equally in math/ science subject areas while girls have a lower belief in their ability. This being a key factor to gender differences in STEM achievements in later years. These predictors of girls' academic motivation were investigated. It was found that motivation in math/science were related to grades, support from peers, gender attitudes, and exposure to feminism. This could be used as another source to emphasize how it is not that women lack the ability in math, but there are many factors that contribute to why women may not perform as well in mathematical courses.

Sax, L., Kanny, M., Riggers-Piehl, T., Whang, H., & Paulson, L. (2015). 'But I'm Not Good at Math': The Changing Salience of Mathematical Self-Concept in Shaping Women's and Men's STEM Aspirations. Research In Higher Education, 56(8), 813-842.

In the study "'But I'm Not Good at Math': The Changing Salience of Mathematical Self-Concept in Shaping Women's and Men's STEM Aspirations" the objectives are to examine how men and women's confidence varies across STEM fields, how the gender gap has changed over the last 40 years, and what factors contribute to the gender gap in math self- confidence. Author Linda Sax has a publication on the gender gap in college, and has contributed to many scholarly articles on gender in STEM fields. The results from the study show that across the five STEM fields examined, women and a lower belief in their math ability compared to men. Even among those majoring in math/statistics, women still had lower self-perception in their math ability. The study concludes in stating that one's belief in math ability has a major effect in whether or not one will enter the STEM field which could be a factor of the constant underrepresentation of women in STEM fields. The conclusion is drawn that if women had higher self confidence in math, it would lead to the entrance of more women in these fields, and therefore narrowing the current gender gap that exists. In my contribution I will use this source to show how it is the way women perceive their own ability that leads to how well they perform in math and how far they continue in STEM fields.

Steinberg, J. R., Okun, M. A., & Aiken, L. S. (2012). Calculus GPA and Math Identification as Moderators of Stereotype Threat in Highly Persistent Women. Basic & Applied Social Psychology, 34(6), 534-543.

The study "Calculus GPA and Math Identification as Moderators of Stereotype Threat in Highly Persistent Women" by Steinberg, Okun and Aiken analyzes how the stereotype that women's math ability is not as strong as men's can effect their performance. Both authors Okun and Aiken are involved in research at the University of Arizona in Psychology and have contributed to many other scholarly works in the area. The focus of the study was to see if women with higher math identification and skill were more strongly impacted compared to those with lower identification and skill. Situations were created where the women being tested were told three different scenarios: that men had performed better than women on the test they were about to take, that men and women had performed equally, or there was no mention of gender. The results showed that women with higher math skill and identification were more strongly effected than those who did not. Among the three scenarios, women under the stereo threat condition performed worse, women told that the genders were equal, performed at a average rate, and the women who were faced with no mention of gender performed the best. The women under the "stereotype threat" faced more pressure and anxiety to perform well, leading to a decrease in their performance. The conclusion was drawn that even mentioning that the genders performed at a equal level, can have an effect of the performance of women in calculus. No mention of gender at all is an ideal condition for women to perform to the best of their ability in math. This study can be used to show that how women identify their own math ability and the stereotype that men perform better than women in math, are ultimately contributing factors that impact how women will perform in math. By including this in my contribution it will show that it is not that women do not possess the innate skill, but their performance is affected by other factors.

Stoet, G., Bailey, D. H., Moore, A. M., & Geary, D. C. (2016). Countries with Higher Levels of Gender Equality Show Larger National Sex Differences in Mathematics Anxiety and Relatively Lower Parental Mathematics Valuation for Girls. Plos ONE, 11(4), 1-24.

This study "Countries with Higher Levels go Gender Equality Show Larger National Sex Differences in Mathematics Anxiety and Relatively Lower Parental Mathematics Valuation for Girls" questions how much the relationship of gender and mathematical anxiety affect performance in mathematics. Author Gijsbert is a professor in the School of Social Sciences at Leeds Beckett University. He is a psychologist with experience in developmental, cognitive neuroscience, and experimental psychology. He has work published in many academic journal articles in psychology and specializes in how how people use their attention in academic settings, as well as children's cognitive performance in school. In this study, students form ages 15-16 were studied in 41 different countries and it was found that countries with higher gender development/equality have higher levels of mathematical anxiety. It was also found that among parents, mathematical success and competence was valued more among sons than in daughters. I want to use this study to demonstrate that despite countries who are more developed in gender differences, they have a higher level of mathematical anxiety and specifically it was reported higher among girls as they were found to exhibit more "excess" math anxiety. A correlation was found between the girls' excess mathematic anxiety and their lower performance.