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Hello Sandbox :) looking forward to experimenting and writing stuff in here!

Please feel free to go to my talk page and suggest changes to my proposal! I am going to be working on a few articles regarding the intersection of race and mental health, and my previous proposal is about Homophobia in ethnic minority communities. Please check it out and let me know if there is anything we can discuss!

PJHC BLM Edit-A-Thon

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Special Education- African-Americans in Special Education

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[1]

School-to-prison pipeline

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Homophobia in ethnic minority communities- Article's introduction

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Editing the heading/intro area of the article

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Different regions of the world and different nations have unique conceptions of what groups are considered ethnic minorities. However, in many Western nations where people of color are seen as ethnic minorities, homophobia that is not usually associated with the nation’s dominant culture may arise as a result of a particular ethnic community’s norms.

Theory

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Intersectionality and Dual Minority Identity

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Homophobia within ethnic minority communities creates a double bind for LGBT ethnic minorities. Members of these groups experience racial and ethnic discrimination from wider society in addition to homophobia within their ethnic/racial groups which compounds the oppression these minorities experience. This intersection of multiple forms of discrimination creates a triple threat for LGBT people of color.[2] The first domain of discrimination is racism within LGBT communities, which can make it hard for people who belong to an ethnic minority group to identify with the LGBT community and feel like the community is a safe space. This discrimination manifests in LGBT social areas like bars and organizations where people of color are oftentimes excluded from the space physically and socially, and overall less likely to be welcomed. [3] [4]

The second domain is heterosexism within ethnic communities, which is the main focus of this article. However, heterosexism within ethnic communities cannot be treated as a completely separate issue from the other forms of discrimination as many of the forms of discrimination overlap. The third form of discrimination is racism in close, same-sex relationships where gay men of color are less sought out; solicitations for sex discriminate by race with phrases like “no rice” referring to no East Asian men, “no curry” which means no South Asian men, or “no chocolate” which signifies no black men.[5] Race-based sexual stereotypes are rampant within the LGBT community, which impacts potential partner choices for ethnic minority LGBT people. Black and Latino gay men are usually considered aggressive and passionate, and Asian gay men are believed to be feminine, mechanical, and reserved. These preferences are exacerbated by Internet dating sites and apps, where gay men can tailor their partner's bodily preferences according to their tastes.[6]

Effects on health

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The heterosexism in ethnic minority communities is especially harmful to the mental health of LGBT people of color. This is because LGBT people of color often consider their ethnic community to be a stronger support network than LGBT communities due to racism in the LGBT community.[7] Abandonment by the racial community that has provided support throughout childhood in dealing with external racism is an acute fear for non-heterosexual people of color. Due to the racial community’s importance for LGBT people of color, discrimination within their own community negatively effects mental health since it comes from the community they feel most connected to. If a person considers themselves to be more dependent on their ethnic community than others, they may favor their racial identity over their sexual identity.[8] Heterosexism is thus a stressor due to external racial oppression as well as internalized homophobia. Homophobia within ethnic minority communities is not solely due to the unique homophobic cultural practices of each ethnic minority, but rather a broader issue of Western non-white discrimination.[9]

The multiple levels of discrimination can create the need for a supportive community to undo the psychological damage of discrimination. Non-heterosexual people of color often find that neither racial community nor sexual orientation community can cater to their psychological needs since the racial community can sometimes be homophobic and the LGBT community can sometimes be racist.[10] Even as minority groups find solace in support networks amongst themselves, clinical spaces continue to be inaccessible to LGBT people of color. When minority individuals experience invalidations of their unique experience, like the generalizing comment “at the end of the day, we are all human”, it becomes difficult to seek out necessary health services for LGBT people of color.[11] Within the clinic, a white psychiatrist may not understand the particular social needs of a person of color, and spaces for dual minority identity development are relatively lacking. Microaggressions within the clinic are detrimental for mental health, and prevention requires additional effort from practicing counselors to be stripped of bias, informed of unique issues, and further support networks.[12]

Effects on coming out

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Heterosexism in ethnic minority communities can account for the delayed timing in the process of coming out between white LGBT people and LGBT people of color; LGBT people of color, on average, come out to their families and communities later than white LGBT people.[13] White LGBT youth find it generally easier to come out to their family as there is a broader range of social acceptability. Since white LGBT youth can better identify with white-dominated LGBT communities, they can find an additional safe community outside of their biological family and face no fear of external societal racism. [14] Young LGBT-POC feel the additional stigma from their own community combined with the stigma that other LGBT youth face, and risking family and communal alienation means losing an important support network for POC due to the broader culture’s oppression of racial minorities.[15] However, as ethnic minorities in a mostly Western context, ethnic communities can sometimes be strong enough to provide some form of solace for individuals who identify as LGBT.[16] If the oppression towards the ethnic minority group is stronger in a wider societal context, homophobia from within may be more bearable than losing access to their racial community.[17] However, some other research has found that heterosexism and levels of internalized homophobia are similar for both white and POC LGBT people.[18]

Editing specific communities

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US 1.2- Black community

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African American LGBT people tend to identify more with their racial/ethnic category rather than their sexual orientation as a main identity reference group. Black LGBT people are often are hesitant about revealing their sexuality to their friends and family because of homosexuality’s incompatibility with ideal cultural gender roles that some people within the community hold.[19] However, when black people (especially black lesbians) come out, family and community loyalty can sometimes serve as a safety net to prevent social alienation. This familial safety net of acceptance is not full tolerance; for black lesbians, the community of “girlfriends” may grant acceptance so long as there is a tacit silence about the LGBT woman’s sexuality.[20]

US 1.2- Latino community

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Family gender roles in Hispanic/Latino culture are sometimes considered to be defined by clear brightlines. Oftentimes, fathers and husbands hold power over the women in their lives, and same-sex relationships disrupt the traditional role.[21]

On the other hand, this overt silence about sexuality may also include nuance; family identity and community is incredibly important to Hispanic/Latino families, and they sometimes offer a support network despite the LGBT child’s disobedience against the nuclear family. As Latino/a LGBT people experience greater racial discrimination amongst broader society, primary support can come from families where they are stigmatized yet still accepted. [22]

US 1.4- AAPI community

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Adding to the introductory section

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Homosexuality is sometimes considered a mental disorder in many Asian countries of origin; shock therapy, public shaming, or other denigrating methods are sometimes used in an attempt to rid someone of homosexuality.[23]

Homophobia in Cultural Expectations

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Homophobia in the Asian-American Pacific-Islander community can be prevalent due to cultural expectations that some members of the AAPI community hold. These cultural expectations are not universal or uniform, but may help explain why some LGBT Asian Americans feel homophobic pressure from their ethnic communities.

Some Asian Americans and first-generation Asian immigrants consider homosexuality to be Western in nature, especially since the concept of "gay identity" is a term coined in the Western world.[24] A large percentage of Asian languages do not have a specific word describing homosexuality, gay, lesbian, etc, but rather several stand-in terms that roughly reference one's sexuality. Due to the hermeneutical injustice in lacking specific terminology for concepts, there often is little to no frame of reference for understanding the dynamic of same-sex sexual relationships. The attempted explanation of gay identity to one's community creates a language barrier between the community and the LGBT member where the LGBT person has difficulty explaining their sexual orientation to their family and community members, exacerbating the lack of understanding and cultural rift between supposedly Western conceptions of homosexuality and heterosexism.[25]

Homosexuality is considered to not be associated with Asian cultures, especially in Japanese and Chinese cultures which operate with limited gender roles. Thus, when LGBT Asian American children try to explain their gay identity to their parents, it often can be unsuccessful since there is no equivalent concept in Asian culture. Even in Western understandings, Asian American LGBT people find little to no representation.[26] Coming out and continual assertion of gay identity is viewed as a rejection of fundamental Asian cultural values; due to the belief that homosexuality is a Western concept, LGBT children become sources of familial shame for Asian American and Asian immigrant mothers.[27]

Verbal openness and communication in Asian-American families is often considered to be restrained in comparison to white families. Non-verbal cues and indirect high-context communication are valued by Asian-American families.[28] As a part of acculturating to Western society, second-generation Asian-Americans start to use more English and speak less of their parents' language, which makes deeper discussion of issues between generations more difficult.[29] This can lead to pushing back discussions about sex and relationships, which gives Asian-American children a late start in comparison to their peers.[30] The overall lower amount of open communication compounds difficulties in expressing identity to their community.

Oftentimes, sexual shame accompanies any discussion of sexual orientation. Actively and openly pursuing sexual desires are often discouraged regardless of sexual orientation; however, this effect is exacerbated for LGBT Asian-American children and makes it incredibly difficult to come out to family members.[31][32] Those who belong to Asian cultures may feel that sex is a taboo topic that should not be discussed in detail, and view discussions about sexuality and sexual orientation to be shameful.[33] Asian immigrant parents often feel that nobody else in the community would understand their child's sexuality, and thus prefer to avoid the topic of sexual orientation altogether.[34] The family will oftentimes refuse to acknowledge their sexual orientation even if they have previously discussed it with their family members.[35]

Filial piety is also considered another potential reason for why Asian-Americans experience homophobia within their ethnic community. Asian immigrant parents may carry cultural values from their country of origin, including Confucian ideals of filial piety for the eldest son to carry on the family name, care for the parents as they grow old, and respect their ancestors.[36] However, each family is different based on generation of immigrant as well as level of acculturation to "Americanized" views, so level of adherence to traditional values may differ. LGBT Asian-American children are viewed as unable to carry on the family name if they are solely attracted to the same-sex and choose not to have children. These traditional values also affect whether or not the child chooses to disclose sexual identity and how the family responds to their child's disclosure.[37]

Unique challenges arise from the Asian-American LGBT experience when being gay is considered a form of social deviance that brings shame to the family name for the cultural reasons listed above, making it more difficult to come out to Asian-Americans than to other Americans. Sexual orientation disclosure is not an openly celebrated event, and once Asian-American children do come out, their parents often believe that their homosexuality is a result of their particular parenting choices, and may shame themselves for not “correcting” their children in an early age.[38]

Internalized Homophobia

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The expectations placed on Asian-American LGBT people can oftentimes lead to internalization of homophobic attitudes or reluctance to embrace their sexual orientation. If an Asian-American LGBT person felt more culturally adherent to Asian country of origin values, they are more likely to experience internalized heterosexism and were less likely to disclose sexual identity to others in comparison to those who did not adhere as much to traditional values.[39] Family-oriented and socially-oriented identity interact with internalized heteronormativity; these three factors influence one’s choice to come out or enter a straight marriage.[40]

Managing internalized homophobia in order to keep feelings of inadequacy away includes tactics that respond to external oppression from the AAPI community and from LGBT communities. Some respond to stigma by attempting to pass for straight or continually cover their orientation to avoid discrimination; if family members have been told about sexual orientation, they may simply choose to not discuss the issue and act as if the person is not homosexual.[41] In the cases of some gay Asian men, they respond to stigmatized status by re-appropriating and destigmatizing assumptions of excessive femininity compared to other gay men. Some may also redefine homophobia within the AAPI community as being a Western ideal; if homophobia is framed as not truly being a part of Asian beliefs, gay Asian-Americans can reclaim their Asian authenticity.[42]

However, some studies have found that there are no significant differences for the amount of internalized homophobia Asian-American LGBT people experience.[43]

Acceptance

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Similarly to other ethnic minorities in the US, the dual minority identity may make a family support network more important to maintain than disowning a child. Yet since in Asian American cultures, there is often a lesser degree of overt expression of love, which can affect both parent and child’s relationship to disclosing a non-straight sexual identity. If an Asian American family feels their familial ties are strong, coming out does not represent a permanent split but rather a shift towards a new form of embracing the homosexual family member.[44] This form of acceptance can help LGBT people feel more comfortable in their own identity.[45][46]

Planned edit areas

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Editing the heading/intro area of the article

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First, I will add on to the existing description of difficulties facing orientation discrimination from both outside and within an ethnic group by describing that not only will people face racism within LGBT communities, but have internalized homophobia due to fear from disapproval within their ethnic culture. I will add the link to Racism in the LGBT community up here, it is currently in the “See Also” section, but it might be better served to move it up to the top as well.

• Source(s): Balsam, Kimberly F et al. “Measuring multiple minority stress: the LGBT People of Color Microaggressions Scale.” Cultural diversity & ethnic minority psychology vol. 17,2 (2011): 163-174 (This is the source I will use to discuss what I said above)

Second, I will add a caveat that one should keep in mind that ethnic minorities are different from country to country, and that this article mainly discusses the issue within Western countries (specifically the US and UK). I will seek the guidance of other Wikipedia users as well as utilize the talk page to determine how to best execute this.


US 1.1- Theory

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This section should be moved into either the very top of the article, or should be removed as a subsection from underneath US because the issues like intersectionality go beyond just the US. Either that, or the theory can be kept under the US section and I could add my references and sources to this section since the Muñoz research is very US centered as well, but just move the ideas about intersectionality up to the top heading since that really does apply to more than just the US.

This section would also describe the way ethnic minority members of the LGBT community act in their lives as distinct from white communities since they are apart from the dominant culture. (Muñoz) This section will also discuss how the empowerment of certain members in the LGBT community oftentimes forget ideas about ethnic minorities. (Eng)

• Source(s): Muñoz, José Esteban. Disidentifications: Queers of Color and the Performance of Politics (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1999), 74. • Eng, David L. The Feeling of Kinship: Queer Liberalism and the Racialization of Intimacy (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2010)


US 1.2- Black community

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In this section, I may add discussion from sources about how the complexity of these intersecting identities makes it difficult to live authentically. The Greene piece would also be linked to Mental health inequality. I may have to do more research in this area to add the information, but I would like to not focus on this as much because there is already so much written in the Wikipedia article already about homophobia in the US Black community.

• Source(s): Greene, Beverly. “African American Lesbians and Bisexual Women in Feminist-Psychodynamic Psychotherapies: Surviving and Thriving between a Rock and a Hard Place,” in Psychotherapy with African-American Women: Innovations in Psychodynamic Perspectives and Practices, ed. Leslie C. Jackson and Beverly Greene (New York: Guilford Press, 2000) (This is the source I will use to discuss what I said above)


US 1.4- AAPI community

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This section will be a big bulk of the work that I am doing, since currently this section of the article is woefully underdeveloped in comparison to the other ethnic minority groups in the US section of this article. Currently, I plan on having still just one section for the research, as the Latino community section under the US part is also under one section. But if I need to expand into multiple subsections, I will adjust for that.

This section will include points about how the dominant white LGBT culture is different from how South Asian cultures relate to homosexuality and the transference that happens, as well as how queer culture from other places (e.g. Taiwain, China, Phillipines) can also be transformative and influence American culture. The entire section does not have to only portray AAPI groups as homophobic entirely, but just like how the Black community section describes how their activists group often work in tandem with LGBT civil rights even despite cultural homophobia, the AAPI section can also include how cultural differences from Asia can be reimaginative as well.

• Source(s): Gopinath, Gayatri. Impossible Desires: Queer Diasporas and South Asian Public Cultures (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2005) (This is the source I will use to discuss what I said above, especially examples from Indian mythology involving homosexuality) • Liu, Petrus. Queer Marxism in Two Chinas (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2015) (This one integrates a new way of thinking of Marxism homosexuality in a more inclusive way than former versions of Marxism in China) • Manalansan, Martin, IV. Global Divas: Filipino Gay Men in the Diaspora (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2003) (Queer culture from Filipino gay men and how it describes a diversity in thinking and attitudes towards gay identity, especially in NY) • Rofel, Lisa. Desiring China: Experiments in Neoliberalism, Sexuality, and Public Culture (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2007) (Differing representation in queer people in China and how it interacts with globalization of identity)

More specific work can be done with how identity in Asian Americans specifically gets shaped by issues like the emasculation of Asian (specifically East Asian) gay men and how that affects their role in society, be it with their family or within the clinic. Another discussion point could be where AAPI LGBT people find community. An issue with this portion of the AAPI section is that currently my research is focused on two authors, which does not seem too sufficient to capture everything.

• Eng, David L. Racial Castration: Managing Masculinity in Asian America (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2001) (Emasculation of Asian American men and how it affects the way they view themselves, especially in stereotypes) • Han, Shinhee. “Gay identity disclosure to parents by Asian American gay men,” PhD diss., New York University School of Social Work, 2001 (The difference in how Asian American gay men come out to their parents versus other depictions of coming out) • Eng, David L. “Out Here and Over There: Queerness and Diaspora in Asian American Studies.” Social Text, no. 52/53 (1997): 31-52. (How the idea of "home" and finding a comfortable identity in the US for queer Asian Americans is difficult due to intersecting identities) • Eng, David L, and Han Shinhee. Racial Melancholia, Racial Dissociation: On the Social and Psychic Lives of Asian Americans. Durham: London: Duke University Press, 2019. (General good source- has two case studies in the clinical space of queer Asian American people living in the states and their differing attitudes towards their identity)

References

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  3. ^ Han, C. (2007). "They don't want to cruise your type: Gay men of color and the racial politics of exclusion". Social Identities (13): 51–67.
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  5. ^ Truong, Kevin (September 22, 2018). "After 'sexual racism' accusations, gay dating app Grindr gets 'Kindr'". NBC. Retrieved 25 October 2019.
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  20. ^ Greene, Beverly (2000). "African American Lesbians and Bisexual Women in Feminist-Psychodynamic Psychotherapies: Surviving and Thriving between a Rock and a Hard Place". Psychotherapy with African-American Women: Innovations in Psychodynamic Perspectives and Practices.
  21. ^ Bridges, SK; Selvidge, MMD; Matthews, CR (2003). "Lesbian women of color: Therapeutic issues and challenges". Journal of Multi-cultural Counseling and Development (31): 113–130.
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  26. ^ Bridges, Sara K.; Selvidge, Mary M. D.; Matthews, Connie R. (2003). "Lesbian Women of Color: Therapeutic Issues and Challenges". Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development. 31 (2): 113–130. doi:10.1002/j.2161-1912.2003.tb00537.x. ISSN 2161-1912.
  27. ^ Choi, K.H., Salazar, N., Lew, S., & Coates, T.J. (1995). AIDS risk, dual identity, and community response among gay Asian and Pacific Islander men in San Francisco. In G. M. Herek & B. Green (Eds.), AIDS, identity, and community: The HIV epidemic and lesbian and gay men. V. 2. (pp. 115-134). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
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  30. ^ Wong, L.,& Mock, M. (1993). Developmental and life cycle issues of Asian Americans: Asian American young adults. Unpublished manuscript.
  31. ^ Nagata, D.K.(1989). Japanese-American children and adolescents. In J. Gibbs, L. Huang, & Associates (Eds.), Children of color (pp. 42- 60). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
  32. ^ Liu, P. & Chan, C.S.(1996). Lesbian, Gay and Bisexual Asian Americans and their families. In J. Liard, & R.J. Green (Eds.). Lesbians and gavs in couples and families: A handbook for therapists (pp. 137-152). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
  33. ^ Leong, R. C. (Ed.) (1996). Asian American sexualities: Dimensions of the gay and lesbian experience. New York: Routledge.
  34. ^ Kahn, A.D.(Ed.). (1997). The many faces of gay: Activists who are changing the nation. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
  35. ^ Chan, C.S. (1989). Issues of identity development among Asian- American lesbians and gay men. Journal of Counseling and Development. 68,16-20.
  36. ^ Lee, E. (1997). Chinese American families. In E. Lee (Ed.). Working with Asian Americans: A guide for clinicians (pp. 46-781. New York: The Guilford Press.
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  38. ^ Horn, A.Y. (1992). Family matters: A historical study of the Asian Pacific lesbian network. Unpublished master’s thesis, University of California, Los Angeles, CA.
  39. ^ Szymanski, Dawn M.; Sung, Mi Ra (2013-07-01). "Asian Cultural Values, Internalized Heterosexism, and Sexual Orientation Disclosure Among Asian American Sexual Minority Persons". Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling. 7 (3): 257–273. doi:10.1080/15538605.2013.812930. ISSN 1553-8605.
  40. ^ Ren, Zhengjia; Hood, Ralph W (2018-9). "Internalized Homophobia Scale for Gay Chinese Men: Conceptualization, Factor Structure, Reliability, and Associations With Hypothesized Correlates". American Journal of Men's Health. 12 (5): 1297–1306. doi:10.1177/1557988318768603. ISSN 1557-9883. PMC 6142160. PMID 29671369. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  41. ^ Dang, A., & Hu, M. (2005). Asian Pacific American lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people: A community portrait. A report from New York’s Queer Asian Pacific Legacy Conference, 2004. New York, NY: National Gay and Lesbian Task Force Policy Institute.
  42. ^ Han, Chong-Suk; Proctor, Kristopher; Choi, Kyung-Hee (Winter 2014). "We Pretend Like Sexuality Doesn't Exist: Managing Homophobia in Gaysian America". The Journal of Men's Studies. 22: 53–63. {{cite journal}}: line feed character in |title= at position 41 (help)
  43. ^ MS, Anneliese A. Singh; PhD, Y. Barry Chung; MS, Jennifer K. Dean (2006-03-28). "Acculturation Level and Internalized Homophobia of Asian American Lesbian and Bisexual Women". Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling. 1 (2): 3–19. doi:10.1300/J462v01n02_02. ISSN 1553-8605.
  44. ^ Han, Shinhee (2001-01-01). "Gay identity disclosure to parents by Asian American gay men /". Dissertation Abstracts International. 62.
  45. ^ Savin-Williams, R.C.(1989 a). Coming out to parents and self-esteem among gay and lesbian youth. Journal of Homosexuality._17,1-35.
  46. ^ Hetrick, E. & Martin, A.D. (1987). Homosexuality identity: Commitment, adjustment, and significant others. Sociometrv. 36, 56-79.
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